Eyal et al have recently argued that researchers should consider conducting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) human challenge studies to hasten vaccine development. We have conducted (J. L.) and overseen (L. D.) human challenge studies and agree that they can be useful in developing anti-infective agents. We also agree that adults can autonomously choose to undergo risks with no prospect of direct benefit to themselves. However, we disagree that SARS-CoV-2 challenge studies are ethically appropriate at this time, for (...) 3 reasons: (1) current scientific knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 infection is insufficient to manage risks; (2) autonomous decision making, while necessary, does not override concerns about risk; and (3) undertaking challenge studies now would imperil confidence in the research enterprise, potentially undermining the global response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. (shrink)

Concentrados e Rações Para Cabras em Lactação -/- ___________________________________________________________________________ De um modo geral, há grande dificuldade nas criações zootécnicas nacionais para a formulação e uso racional de concentrados nas rações dos animais, neste caso, de caprinos, em especial, para cabras em lactação. O problema torna-se real e complexo em função das particularidades apresentadas pelos animais relativas ao seu trato digestivo, além de seus hábitos alimentares. Uma séria dificuldade relacionada com a tomada de decisão no momento da formulação da ração concentrada (...) reside na qualidade do volumoso utilizado. Esse volumoso possui uma qualidade bromatológica variável, na maioria das vezes, seja pelo manejo inadequado da forrageira ou do próprio ciclo vegetativo da planta utilizada. O solo também possui grande impacto nas características químicas da forrageira disponibilizada para os animais. Dada a variabilidade da qualidade da ração volumosa, o concentrado torna-se mal balanceado, sendo fornecido em quantidades inadequadas, favorecendo uma sub ou super alimentação, o que acarreta níveis de produção insatisfatórios e grande prejuízo para a indústria caprina, uma vez que afetará diretamente as características químicas e físicas do leite da cabra, mudando seus teores de sólidos totais etc. -/- OS NUTRIENTES E SUA IMPORT NCIA Muitos nutrientes são necessários na dieta da cabra para a realização do metabolismo normal, para a manutenção das funções corporais e para a produção que inclui acréscimo de tecido (animal em crescimento), para a reprodução e sua manutenção e, por fim, para a produção dos produtos como carne, leite e fibra. As classes específicas de nutrientes incluem carboidratos e lipídeos que fornecem energia; nitrogênio proteico ou não proteico que fornecem aminoácidos e energia; vitaminas; minerais e água. Embora seja ignorada por muitos autores, a água é um nutriente necessário para a digestão, metabolismo e produção. -/- Energia -/- A eficiência da utilização dos alimentos depende de um suprimento adequado de energia, uma vez que o processo de utilização dos alimentos requer gasto energético, sendo, portanto, de grande importância o suprimento energético para a produtividade dos caprinos. A deficiência energética retarda o crescimento e desenvolvimento de cabritos, aumenta a idade à puberdade, reduz a fertilidade e diminui a produção leiteira. Uma deficiência persistente acarreta redução na resistência a doenças infecciosas e parasitárias. A baixa resistência imunológica associada a deficiência energética ainda pode ser agravada mediante o déficit de outros princípios nutritivos como proteínas, vitaminas e minerais. O consumo inapropriado de energia resulta na inadequada ingestão de alimentos ou na baixa qualidade da dieta fornecida para o caprino. A baixa ingestão de energia também pode ser causada pelas altas quantidades de água presentes em algumas forrageiras in natura, por isso o ideal é o fornecimento de volumosos na sua matéria seca, onde será disponibilizado somente os nutrientes, segundo suas características bromatológicas. Segundo DA SILVA & FONTAIN, 2021 a base de qualquer ração é a energia, e se houver uma deficiência existente, os demais nutrientes e os aditivos serão subutilizados pelos animais. Os ruminantes possuem a capacidade de utilização energética através dos carboidratos complexos como celulose, hemicelulose, pectina etc., que estão presentes nas forragens, essa utilização acontece graças ao processo de fermentação que ocorre no rúmen. Entretanto, assim como ocorre em monogástricos, também possuem a capacidade de utilização de demais carboidratos como amido e açúcares. Os ruminantes exigem determinada quantidade de fibra, mas dependendo do animal, do nível de produção e dos ingredientes da ração, há necessidade de incluir na ração os denominados concentrados energéticos. Por exemplo as rações ricas em volumosos (alimentos fibrosos) não podem atender os requisitos energéticos em razão das limitações físicas do animal para ingerir uma quantidade suficiente de alimento, isto é, para atender suas exigências seria necessário grandes quantidades de ração volumosa ingerida, o que é impossível devido a capacidade do rúmen. Neste caso, para se reduzir o volume de ração ingerida, há necessidade de substituir parte dos alimentos fibrosos por concentrados energéticos de boa qualidade. Tais considerações são suficientes para aclarar a importância do aporte de energia no balanceamento de rações para cabras em lactação. -/- Proteínas -/- As proteínas exercem várias funções no organismo do animal e, desse modo, tornam- -se essenciais à alimentação. Elas são necessárias, por exemplo, para a manutenção do organismo, para reparos e formação dos tecidos que são continuamente desgastados, na manutenção dos processos fisiológicos, no crescimento de fetos e dos animais jovens e na síntese do leite. Os ruminantes, assim como outros animais, necessitam de vários componentes na dieta para desempenharem suas funções produtivas e reprodutivas. Esses componentes são chamados essenciais, do qual sem a sua presença os animais não poderiam sobreviver. Entre eles estão as fontes de nitrogênio proteico e não proteico que, após transformações fisiológicas e metabólicas, dão origem a proteínas que são digeridas, absorvidas e utilizadas pelos ruminantes (FERREIRA, 1983). As proteínas destacam-se, dentro das substâncias essenciais, pela amplitude de funções que desempenham no organismo. Estas participam desde a estruturação do corpo (músculos, cartilagens, unhas, pele e pelos), até mecanismos complexos de transporte e metabolismo. Portanto, dentre o supracitado, é essencial conhecer os principais concentrados proteicos e seus limites de utilização, visando o melhor aproveitamento destes, desde a esfera econômica até o impacto positivo sobre a produção de produtos caprinos. -/- Minerais -/- Existem pelo menos 15 minerais essenciais para a nutrição dos ruminantes, dentre os macronutrientes, isto é, os exigidos em maior quantidade na dieta, estão o cálcio, fósforo, sódio, cloro, magnésio, potássio e enxofre, e dentre os micronutrientes, ou seja, exigidos em menor quantidade, porém essenciais a sua presença, estão o ferro, iodo, zinco, cobre, manganês, cobalto, molibdênio e selênio. Em qualquer região, concentrações tóxicas de minerais como cobre, flúor, manganês, molibdênio ou selênio causam redução na produção e produtividade animal. As deficiências minerais ou desequilíbrio destes no solo e nas forrageiras cultivadas neste, têm sido responsáveis pelos baixos índices reprodutivos, ou seja, tais déficits ocasionam perdas nos processos reprodutivos normais, além de causar inadequada produtividade em diversas regiões do Brasil. Segundo dados apresentados por SOUSA, 1983 os caprinos sob pastagens, com elevados déficits de fósforo, cobalto ou cobre, podem apresentar perdas superiores relativas a produção cárnea e láctea em relação aos animais criados sob pastagens com déficits de energia e/ou proteína. Os macrominerais presentes na ração (volumosa ou concentrada) chegam ao rúmen e são dissolvidos, desempenhando uma série de funções importantes, além das específicas nas células e nos tecidos. Dentre elas incluem-se a mantença de um pH constante através da formação da solução tamponante, mantença de um potencial de redução e da pressão osmótica no rúmen. Os micronutrientes, por sua vez, possuem mais funções específicas na célula e no tecido, atuando como constituintes de coenzimas, catalizadores etc. (COELHO DA SILVA & LEÃO, 1979). Assim, torna-se indispensável conhecer as fontes dos minerais e a melhor maneira de utilizá-los durante o preparo de concentrados para cabras em lactação. -/- Vitaminas -/- Os caprinos necessitam fontes alimentares de vitaminas lipossolúveis (A, D, E e K), entretanto os microrganismos do rúmen, através do metabolismo e fermentação, produzem quantidades suficientes de vitaminas hidrossolúveis. Os animais em pastejo somente obtém suficientes quantidades de vitaminas ou precursores de vitaminas para satisfazer as necessidades, porém pode ser necessário a adição complementar de suplementos vitamínicos aos animais alimentados em confinamento ou com altas produções leiteiras. Os ruminantes exigem todas as vitaminas que são metabolicamente essenciais para os monogástricos. Essa indicação tem sido obtida através de estudos sobre as exigências vitamínicas em animais jovens, antes do desenvolvimento completo e funcionamento adequado do rúmen, ou com o emprego de inibidores da vitamina em estudo e observando-se a consequente manifestação do sintoma de deficiência. O suprimento de vitaminas do complexo B e da vitamina K para o ruminante é feito em decorrência das fermentações que ocorrem no aparelho digestivo. Entretanto, existem algumas dúvidas se a síntese de algumas vitaminas do complexo B é adequada para manter altos níveis de produção e uma alta taxa de crescimento. Como supracitado, existem inúmeras informações de que a maioria das vitaminas possam ser sintetizadas ou no trato gastrointestinal ou nos tecidos. Entretanto, as vitaminas A, D e E devem ser fornecidas ao animal (ARAÚJO & ZANETTI, 2019). As principais funções das vitaminas do complexo B estão relacionadas com o eficiente aproveitamento dos açúcares, gorduras e proteínas dos alimentos. A vitamina C possui papel imprescindível no metabolismo geral dos nutrientes. Quanto à vitamina K, sua função mais relatada é como fator anti-hemorrágico, agindo na coagulação do sangue (VELLOSO, 1983). Quanto à vitamina A, sabemos que não existe nos vegetais, entretanto o caroteno presente é um precursor desta, onde este sofre metabolismo e se transforma em vitamina A no organismo do animal, por isso, muitas vezes é relatado como pró-vitamina A. Os ruminantes são excelentes animais quando se fala na transformação de ß-carotenos em vitamina A. A coloração verde das plantas forrageiras é uma garantia da presença de pigmentos carotenoides nelas. Assim, durante a época das águas (chuvas), quando as forrageiras consumidas estão verdes, não há qualquer problema quanto ao suprimento de pró-vitamina A. Por sua vez, quando as pastagens estão amareladas e secas, pode aumentar a possibilidade do aparecimento de sintomas de deficiência de vitamina A, e esse problema pode ser agravado conforme aumenta-se o período de estiagem (VELLOSO, 1983). Deve-se dar especial atenção às cabras em lactação que, na maioria dos casos, recebem ração à base de fenos, que muitas vezes são mal conservados e apresentam pequeno conteúdo de ß-caroteno. As dietas típicas para caprinos contêm quantidades de caroteno suficientes para prevenir possíveis deficiências de vitamina A. O hábito alimentar dos caprinos sob pastejo, isto é, sua tendência de selecionar as partes mais verdes da planta coloca-os em vantagem em relação a outros ruminantes, entretanto, na ausência de partes verdes essa vantagem não possui importância. A deficiência de vitamina A em caprinos criados nos trópicos é rara, exceto nas condições supracitadas (DA SILVA et. al., 2021). A vitamina E apresenta uma deficiência ocasional em caprinos, embora essa vitamina, que é transferida através do leite, seja considerada essencial em função de suas propriedades antioxidantes (DA SILVA et. al., 2021). A vitamina D é relatada como fator anti-raquítico, dada sua propriedade em prevenir o raquitismo através de duas vias conhecidas, seja pelo aumento da absorção de cálcio dietético pelo intestino delgado ou pela mobilização deste, presente nos ossos. Além de evitar o raquitismo em animais jovens, a vitamina D também atua na integridade corporal dos adultos. Os caprinos expostos à luz solar por alguns minutos diariamente conseguem receber vitamina D em quantidades suficientes para suas necessidades fisiológicas, esse recebimento de vitamina D acontece através da conversão do 7-dehidrocolesterol da pele em vitamina D3, portanto a vitamina D3 é uma pró-vitamina. Assim, em animais mantidos em regime de pastejo, nas condições brasileiras, não há maior preocupação quanto ao suprimento de vitamina D3 (VELLOSO, 1983). Entretanto, os animais em regime de confinamento total, onde não possuem acesso à luz solar, devem receber atenção especial, uma vez que podem ocorrer deficiência desta vitamina, esta que pode ser evitada mediante o fornecimento da vitamina na mistura concentrada. -/- Água -/- Muitos autores da área de nutrição animal, seja em artigos ou livros, desconsideram a água como nutriente essencial para os animais, entretanto ela é imprescindível para inúmeras funções metabólicas. Além da água de bebida, os caprinos obtêm água através dos alimentos consumidos na matéria natural, da neve derretida e através do orvalho. A necessidade de água se deve a três motivos, primeiro pela excreção de água nas fezes e na urina ligada à utilização digestiva e metabólica dos alimentos; segundo pela fixação e exportação de água nas produções (carne, leite, pele e fibra); e, por fim, pelas perdas de vapor de água pelos pulmões e através da pele. O total de água requerida varia segundo o tamanho e condição fisiológica do animal, a temperatura ambiental e o nível de ingestão de matéria seca do animal. A ingestão de água é expressa em kg de água necessária por kg de matéria seca ingerida. Nas condições brasileiras, onde a temperatura fica acima dos 30 ºC, normalmente, o ideal de fornecimento é de 6-10 kg de água/kg de IMS. O consumo total é estimado em 3,5 kg de água/kg de leite produzido. Segundo DA SILVA & AIRES, 2018 as recomendações são de 145,6 g de água/kg de peso metabólico (kg0,75) para mantença e 1,43 kg/kg de leite produzido. Para aclarar os dados, suponhamos uma cabra em lactação com 40 kg de PV e produção de 5 kg de leite/dia, seu consumo será de 145,6 g x 400,75 = 2,32 kg de água para mantença + 1,43 x 5 = 7,15 kg de água, seu consumo total será 9,47 kg de água/dia. É necessário enfatizar que, à medida que a temperatura ambiental aumenta, os requisitos de água também aumentam. Em condições semidesérticas os caprinos adaptam-se, bebendo água apenas duas vezes por semana. A equação de necessidade de água, segundo DA SILVA & AIRES, 2018, é: ingestão total de água (L/dia) = 3,86 x IMS - 0,99. REQUISITOS NUTRICIONAIS -/- Para que possamos formular uma dieta balanceada e que os concentrados possam ser utilizados eficazmente e racionalmente, primeiramente é necessário conhecer as exigências nutricionais das cabras em lactação. Esses requerimentos são, na verdade, aproximações dos valores reais das exigências dos animais. Normalmente, os requisitos são tabulados, visando a facilidade no manejo de informações, entendimento e utilização dos dados na prática. Infelizmente, no Brasil não existem tabelas das exigências nutricionais dos caprinos e, com isso, é imperativo a utilização de dados obtidos em outros países e que possuem condições climáticas e animais diferentes, o que nem sempre corresponde à realidade brasileira. Os dados mais utilizados para estabelecimento das exigências são os do NRC nos Estados Unidos, AFRC na Inglaterra, CSIRO na Austrália, INRA na França e FEDNA na Espanha. A tabela 1 apresenta os requisitos nutricionais de ingestão de matéria seca de cabras leiteiras segundo a equação proposta pelo AFRC. É importante levar em consideração todos os fatores que afetam as exigências das cabras, tais como exigências de mantença, gestação, crescimento, atividade física, lactação, clima, raça etc. Os valores apresentados na tabela 2 devem ser incluídos aos valores de mantença. Os requerimentos completos dos caprinos podem ser tomados nas tabelas 3 a 19 do livro Formulação de Ração Para Caprinos. Como supracitado, os valores das exigências para produção de leite devem ser adicionados aos de mantença, por sua vez a tabela 3 apresenta os valores de produção que devem ser múltiplos dos requisitos de mantença. Existem formulações que levam em consideração a porcentagem de nutrientes no conteúdo total do concentrado. Diversos autores publicam quantidades de proteína, nutrientes digestíveis totais, cálcio e fósforo com base na matéria seca da ração. DA SILVA, 2021 sugere que para cabras em lactação com uma ou duas crias é ideal um concentrado com 14 a 16% de proteína bruta. Uma formulação para cabras em lactação, segundo DA SILVA, 2021, pode obedecer a ordem de 3 a 5% de IMS, 16 a 24% de proteína bruta, 65% de nutrientes digestíveis totais e minerais na ordem de 0,75% Ca e 0,3% P. O teor de nutrientes na mistura concentrada é importante para saber se a ração irá atender às exigências das cabras em lactação (tabela 8). O conhecimento dos níveis de nutrientes na mistura é essencial para elaborar uma ração balanceada que atenda aos requisitos de mantença e de produção. É importante, também, saber as observações quanto a relação entre energia/proteína e entre os minerais para que não haja um mau aproveitamento dos nutrientes e possíveis distúrbios metabólicos. ALIMENTOS CONCENTRADOS -/- Por definição, são aqueles que possuem conteúdo de fibra bruta inferior a 18%. Eles são divididos em concentrados proteicos e energéticos, quando possuem mais ou menos de 20% de proteína bruta, respectivamente. Um grande número de alimentos pode ser usado no balanceamento das misturas de concentrados na propriedade e deve permitir uma formulação equilibrada nutricionalmente, economicamente e de boa qualidade. As tabelas 9 e 10 apresentam a composição de alguns alimentos concentrados considerados mais comuns na formulação de dietas e de maior disponibilidade no Brasil. As recomendações para utilização de concentrados nas rações de cabras leiteiras podem variar em função dos demais ingredientes da ração total. De modo geral, quanto aos concentrados energéticos, não existem restrições às quantidades usadas na ração, desde que as exigências nutricionais sejam atendidas. A tabela 11 apresenta as restrições de utilização dos ingredientes na ração de caprinos. De tal forma pode ser pensado para os concentrados proteicos, entretanto, nesse caso, exige-se mais cuidado por parte do formulador, uma vez que deve-se levar em consideração a carga energética presente no ingrediente proteico. Deve-se enfatizar sempre que a utilização de ingredientes de origem animal é expressamente proibida na alimentação de ruminantes. Deve-se, ainda, referenciar quanto ao uso de fontes de nitrogênio não proteico (NNP) (ureia, biureto etc.) que podem ser usadas com vantagens nas dietas com alta carga energética. O critério de uso de NNP, em até ⅓ da proteína total da dieta, ainda pode ser utilizado de forma generalizada. RECOMENDAÇÕES PARA USO DAS MISTURAS DE CONCENTRADOS -/- Qualquer tipo de alimento concentrado pode ser usado no preparo de uma mistura de boa qualidade, entretanto os requerimentos das cabras devem ser atendidos. Sendo assim, o preço e a disponibilidade dos alimentos básicos são fatores importantes na escolha dos ingredientes. Conforme supracitado, a composição da mistura concentrada depende da qualidade do volumoso. Para que o produtor tenha garantia e controle de que as exigências estão sendo supridas, é recomendável o ajuste periódico das quantidades de concentrados que serão fornecidas. Esse ajuste é necessário em função da mudança da composição química das forrageiras com o avanço da maturidade fisiológica da planta. Essa composição normalmente existe em tabelas, entretanto as melhores aproximações são obtidas quando se faz a análise destas forrageiras em laboratórios especializados. É difícil fazer uma recomendação única para fornecimento de concentrado para cabras em lactação. Cada propriedade dispõe de recursos forrageiros peculiares, com variações na qualidade nutricional. Não obstante, os valores apresentados na tabela 12 podem servir de guia quando há impossibilidade de realização de um balanceamento específico para cada propriedade. É essencial a verificação dos níveis de outros nutrientes, tais como energia e minerais. Em geral, a preocupação é dada somente à proteína e, muitas vezes, a energia é negligenciada. O conteúdo de energia da ração (EM, EL ou NDT) muitas vezes se apresenta deficiente, o que possui relação direta com os índices de produção e produtividade insatisfatórios. Este é um dos pontos de limitação da produção leiteira, principalmente porque escapa à capacidade de observação do criador. Quando alimentadas com forrageiras de média ou baixa qualidade, é necessário completar os requerimentos de mantença das cabras e, dependendo da qualidade da forrageira disponível, recomenda-se de 200 a 500 g de concentrado/cabeça/dia. As fontes de NNP também podem ser utilizadas para cabras em lactação, desde que não ultrapasse ⅓ do nitrogênio total da dieta. Em termos práticos, a ureia deve constituir até 1% da matéria seca total da dieta ou, aproximadamente, 3% da mistura de concentrados. Uma adaptação gradativa é necessária para que os caprinos possam aproveitar eficazmente a ureia sem distúrbios. Essa adaptação é feita com níveis crescentes de ureia adicionados ao concentrado na base de 0,5% por semana até a limitação. Desta forma, na sexta semana, as cabras estarão recebendo concentrado contendo 3% do elemento. No caso de cabras de alta produção leiteira, é essencial dar atenção aos minerais, uma vez que elas não conseguem ingerir as quantidades exigidas para sua mantença e produção. Para mitigar o problema, recomenda-se adicionar ao concentrado ou à mistura concentrada um premix, isto é, uma mistura vitamínico-mineral completa ao nível de 3%. As rações comerciais também podem ser utilizadas, desde que se verifiquem os níveis de garantia, tanto de qualidade como de composição. É importante que se evite rações com altos níveis de proteína, onde, normalmente, não possuem boa relação energia/proteína. Essas rações, em geral, não são bem aproveitadas pelas cabras, onerando o custo de produção de leite. É importante sempre frisar que um máximo cuidado deve ser dado ao estado de conservação dos ingredientes. As condições de armazenamento devem ser as melhores possíveis, procurando-se locais secos e com boa ventilação. Alimentos rancificados, de uma forma geral, são rejeitados pelas cabras. No caso de utilização de alimentos com alto conteúdo de matéria graxa, que se rancificam facilmente, deve-se ter cuidados especiais, evitando-se preparar grandes quantidades de uma só vez. Outro ponto que merece destaque é a presença de bolores. Os alimentos mofados devem ser sistematicamente eliminados, pois além de causar danos à saúde do animal, podem também ocasionar problemas para a saúde humana. Intoxicações por aflatoxina são frequentemente relatadas em caprinos. Assim, o uso de ingredientes suscetíveis ao fungo (Aspergillus flavus) que produz aflatoxina, deve ser feito com ressalvas. É imprescindível salientar que essas toxinas também podem ser produzidas por outros fungos e podem estar presentes em uma série de alimentos em más condições de armazenamento. O local de armazenamento dos ingredientes ou da mistura concentrada deve possuir boa vedação para não permitir a entrada de insetos e/ou roedores. A proliferação de insetos, além de causar danos físicos aos alimentos, uma vez que se alimentam de alguns princípios nutritivos, produz um aquecimento em função dos processos metabólicos dos insetos, o que reduz as características do alimento e seu valor nutritivo. É essencial que o local seja à prova de roedores, pois além do grande desperdício de ração, causado pelo consumo e danos às embalagens, os roedores também são vetores de doenças que causam sérios prejuízos e perdas ao criatório. Na maioria dos casos, essas doenças escapam à capacidade de observação do criador. As cabras devem ser alimentadas segundo sua produção. Neste caso, é importante que a alimentação seja individual. Pode-se fornecer a ração durante a ordenha ou no intervalo do fornecimento da ração volumosa, porém sempre em horário previamente estabelecido. A mistura concentrada pode ser fornecida em cochos coletivos, mas é necessário a instalação de canzis para a contenção dos animais. É essencial que, antes do fornecimento, os cochos estejam limpos para permitir um melhor aproveitamento. Os concentrados muito farelados devem ser evitados durante a ordenha, uma vez que podem afetar a qualidade do leite pelo aumento da possibilidade de contaminação com poeira. As cabras de alta produção devem receber a ração concentrada dividida em duas ou três refeições no dia para permitir melhor aproveitamento. O fornecimento da mistura concentrada juntamente com a ração volumosa não é recomendável, mesmo que esta seja de baixa qualidade, porque de forma geral causam desperdício. No caso de cabras semi-confinadas, a prática da mistura de concentrados com os volumosos pode facilitar e agilizar o arraçoamento. Neste caso, também se faz recomendável a disposição de canzis nos comedouros para evitar a competição entre os animais. -/- RAÇÕES PARA CABRAS EM LACTAÇÃO -/- As rações de cabras em produção de leite devem ser de boa qualidade, produzidas em ambiente higienizado e com normas de segurança, além de, no caso de armazenamento, serem armazenadas em ambiente limpo, arejado e fora do alcance de insetos e roedores. Além das condições de fabricação e armazenagem, a ração, quando formulada, deverá obedecer os requisitos nutricionais das cabras para sua mantença e para a produção de leite. Sabemos que quanto maior a produção mais nutritiva deverá ser a ração. O fornecimento de ração volumosa também é essencial para o funcionamento normal do rúmen, além de fornecer uma carga nutricional. A relação entre volumoso e concentrado é importante, um não pode se sobressair em excesso sobre o outro, caso aconteça, haverá um desbalanceamento e consequente baixa na produção e produtividade. O limite de utilização dos ingredientes concentrados também é importante, caso haja uma incorporação maior de um dado ingrediente, poderá haver perdas significativas; por exemplo, se houver maior incorporação de ureia poderá haver intoxicação do animal. Na sequência, são apresentadas rações para cabras em lactação formuladas e disponíveis no livro sobre formulação de ração para caprinos do mesmo autor, exemplos 2 e seção rações prontas para caprinos números 2, 3, 4 e 21. A primeira ração formulada é para uma cabra da raça Saanen com 50 kg de PV e produção leiteira de 5 kg/dia com teor de gordura de 3,5%. A ração é composta por volumoso e concentrado, conforme tabela 13. Tomando os requerimentos da cabra em questão e a composição química da dieta, observamos que a dieta volumosa e concentrada supre todas as exigências nutricionais do animal (tabela 13.1). A seguir, são apresentadas misturas de volumosos e concentrados para cabras em lactação, conforme as recomendações dadas por DA SILVA, 2021 sobre os níveis nutricionais de rações para a categoria. Segundo o autor, a composição industrial de um concentrado deve ser de 16 a 24% de proteína bruta, 65% de nutrientes digestíveis totais, 0,75% de Ca e 0,3% de P, seguindo um CMS de 3 a 5% do peso vivo. Tais valores são genéricos, o ideal é consultar as tabelas de exigências das cabras. Os valores das misturas supracitadas, tanto de quantidade como de composição, são genéricos e podem variar em função de alguns fatores, os mais importantes são composição bromatológica dos ingredientes e das exigências nutricionais das cabras. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ARAÚJO, L. F.; ZANETTI, M. A. (Eds.). Nutrição Animal, 1ª ed. Barueri: Manole, 2019. COELHO DA SILVA, J. F. Concentrados energéticos para ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 37-42, 1983. COELHO DA SILVA, J. F.; LEÃO, M. I. Fundamentos de nutrição dos ruminantes. Piracicaba: Livroceres, 1979. 380 p. CRAMPTON, Earle W.; HARRIS, Lorin E. Nutrición animal aplicada: el uso de los alimentos en la formulación de raciones para el ganado. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1979. AIRES, P. R. R. Água na nutrição de caprinos e ovinos. In: Seminário da disciplina de Caprino-ovinocultura da professora Drª. Alcilene Maria Andrade Tavares Samay. Curso Técnico em Agropecuária. Belo Jardim: IFPE, 2018. DA SILVA, A. T. M. Rações para cabritos, caprinos a pasto, em mantença, reprodutores e cabras gestantes e em lactação. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. DA SILVA, C. L.; ALVES, A. A. A.; DA SILVA, S. R. P. Minerais e vitaminas na formulação de dietas para ruminantes. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. FONTAIN, E. C. da S. Energia e proteína na formulação de dietas para ruminantes. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. Formulação de Ração Para Caprinos. Belo Jardim, 2021. 97p. FERREIRA, J. J. Proteína e concentrados proteicos na alimentação de ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 43-48, 1983. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL et al. Nutrient requirements of small ruminants: sheep, goats, cervids, and new world camelids. 中国法制出版社, 2007. SAMPAIO, J. M. C. et al. Criação de cabras leiteiras. Brasília: EMBRATER, 1984. 243p. Nutrição e Suplementação Mineral de Bovinos de Corte. Curso de Técnico em Agropecuária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Pernambuco, Belo Jardim, PE. SOLAIMAN, Sandra G. (Ed.). Goat science and production. John Wiley & Sons, 2010. SOUSA, J. C. Os minerais na alimentação dos ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 49-57, 1983. VELLOSO, L. Importância das vitaminas para os bovinos. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 63-66, 1983. (shrink)

Innovative practice occurs when a clinician provides something new, untested, or nonstandard to a patient in the course of clinical care, rather than as part of a research study. Commentators have noted that patients engaged in innovative practice are at significant risk of suffering harm, exploitation, or autonomy violations. By creating a pathway for harmful or nonbeneficial interventions to spread within medical practice without being subjected to rigorous scientific evaluation, innovative practice poses similar risks to the wider community of patients (...) and society as a whole. Given these concerns, how should we control and oversee innovative practice, and in particular, how should we coordinate innovative practice and clinical research? In this article, I argue that an ethical approach to overseeing innovative practice must encourage the early transition to rigorous clinical research without delaying or deferring the development of beneficial innovations or violating the autonomy rights of clinicians and their patients. (shrink)

This Ideas and Opinions article revisits an argument from Judith Jarvis Thomson in her essay “A Defense of Abortion” that abortion can be an ethical choice even if we assume that fetuses have full moral personhood and moral rights. The authors examine the implications of laws that require a pregnant person to care for another with their body and what other impositions states may also require of citizens to care for others.

We arrived at the neighborhood in Antwerp where our accommodation, Adagio Aprthotel, was located. The presence of immigrants was the one of the first things that caught my attention. They are everywhere. Enroute to the shops past the train station after dropping off our bags, Amiel and I passed a synagogue, and at McDonald’s (yup, my first meal in Belgium was french fries!), seated at the next table were two Filipinos. Overhearing their chatter, I surmised that they have been living (...) in Antwerp for some time. While intently exploring the surrounding streets, it became obvious that there is a profusion of migrant communities in Antwerp offering a multifaceted panorama of cultural diversity. This iss underscored by the conspicuous presence of Orthodox Jews, Arabs, Africans, and Chinese, the latter ensconced in their own Chinatown. Our neighborhood afforded immersion within a milieu teeming with migrant-owned enterprises, from butcher shops and corner stores to quaint cafés and eateries, predominantly overseen by Middle Easterners and Jews. Our first communal meal was, in fact, at an Arabic restaurant just across our accommodations. (shrink)

Although researchers generally take great care to ensure that human subjects do not suffer very serious harms from their involvement in research, the situation is different for nonhuman animal subjects. Significant progress has been made in reducing unnecessary animal suffering in research, yet researchers still inflict severe pain and distress on tens of thousands of animals every year for scientific purposes. Some bioethicists, scientists, and animal welfare advocates argue for placing an upper limit on the suffering researchers may impose on (...) animal subjects, with rare exceptions for research that promises critical social benefits. In this article, I argue against such an upper limit on harm on the grounds that researchers often can compensate animal subjects for their suffering, even severe and long-lasting suffering. If animal subjects receive adequate compensation for the harms they suffer, then there is no general limit on how much suffering researchers may impose on them for scientific purposes. (shrink)

Efforts to bridge emotion theory with neurobiology can be facilitated by dynamic systems (DS) modeling. DS principles stipulate higher-order wholes emerging from lower-order constituents through bidirectional causal processes cognition relations. I then present a psychological model based on this reconceptualization, identifying trigger, self-amplification, and self-stabilization phases of emotion-appraisal states, leading to consolidating traits. The article goes on to describe neural structures and functions involved in appraisal and emotion, as well as DS mechanisms of integration by which they interact. These mechanisms (...) include nested feedback interactions, global effects of neuromodulation, vertical integration, action-monitoring, and synaptic plasticity, and they are modeled in terms of both functional integration and temporal synchronization. I end by elaborating the psychological model of emotion–appraisal states with reference to neural processes. (shrink)

One of the Belmont Report’s most important contributions was the clear and serviceable distinction it drew between standard medical practice and biomedical research. A less well-known achievement of the Report was its conceptualization of innovative practice, a type of medical practice that is often mistaken for research because it is new, untested, or experimental. Although the discussion of innovative practice in Belmont is brief and somewhat cryptic, this does not reflect the significant progress its authors made in understanding innovative practice (...) and the distinctive ethical issues it raises. This article explores the history and broader context of Belmont’s conception of innovative practice, its strengths and weaknesses, and its contemporary relevance for scholars working in bioethics and health policy. While this conception of innovative practice deserves our attention, it is inherently limited in some important ways. (shrink)

Clinical researchers should help respect the autonomy and promote the well-being of prospective study participants by helping them make voluntary, informed decisions about enrollment. However, participants often exhibit poor understanding of important information about clinical research. Bioethicists have given special attention to “misconceptions” about clinical research that can compromise participants’ decision-making, most notably the “therapeutic misconception.” These misconceptions typically involve false beliefs about a study’s purpose, or risks or potential benefits for participants. In this article, we describe a misconception involving (...) false beliefs about a study’s potential benefits for non-participants, or its expected social value. This social value misconception can compromise altruistically motivated participants’ decision-making, potentially threatening their autonomy and well-being. We show how the social value misconception raises ethical concerns for inherently low-value research, hyped research, and even ordinary research, and advocate for empirical and normative work to help understand and counteract this misconception’s potential negative impacts on participants. (shrink)

The case (Dawson et al. 2024) describes an Institutional Review Board (IRB) chair who seeks consultation about waiving the requirement that investigators obtain prospective, informed consent for collection of microbiome samples by swabbing the perianal region of severely burned patients shortly after their admission to an intensive care unit (ICU). We argue that it is ethically permissible to waive informed consent requirements for the perianal swab and that the IRB should approve a waiver as permitted by regulations.

The Procreation Asymmetry holds that we have strong moral reasons not to create miserable people for their own sakes, but no moral reasons to create happy people for their own sakes. To defend this conjunction against an argument that it leads to inconsistency, I show how recognizing ‘creation’ as a temporally extended process allows us to revise the conjuncts in a way that preserves their intuitive force. This defense of the Procreation Asymmetry is preferable to others because it does not (...) require us to take on controversial metaphysical or metaethical commitments – in other words, it has the theoretical virtue of portability. (shrink)

Many contemporary ethical debates turn on claims about the nature and extent of our alleged procreative moral rights: moral rights to procreate or not to procreate as we choose. In this article, I argue that there are no procreative moral rights, in that generally we do not have a distinctive moral right to procreate or not to procreate as we choose. However, interference with our procreative choices usually violates our nonprocreative moral rights, such as our moral rights to bodily autonomy (...) or to privacy. My argument presents hypothetical cases in which a state interferes with a person's procreative choices in order to promote aggregate social welfare, but this interference does not violate any of the person's nonprocreative moral rights. These cases not only undermine frequently made claims that widely recognized nonprocreative moral rights entail procreative moral rights, they also challenge the intuitively plausible claim that interference with our procreative choices as such violates our moral rights. What at first appear to be substantive moral rights are in fact a kind of illusion created by the frequent overlap of other rights, but lacking in substance beyond that overlap. While this argument against the existence of procreative moral rights has substantive implications for ongoing debates in reproductive ethics, I ultimately suggest that it is consistent with a progressive approach to reproductive justice. (shrink)

This Element examines the concept of moral responsibility as it is used in contemporary philosophical debates and explores the justifiability of the moral practices associated with it, including moral praise/blame, retributive punishment, and the reactive attitudes of resentment and indignation. After identifying and discussing several different varieties of responsibility-including causal responsibility, take-charge responsibility, role responsibility, liability responsibility, and the kinds of responsibility associated with attributability, answerability, and accountability-it distinguishes between basic and non-basic desert conceptions of moral responsibility and considers a (...) number of skeptical arguments against each. It then outlines an alternative forward-looking account of moral responsibility grounded in non-desert-invoking desiderata such as protection, reconciliation, and moral formation. It concludes by addressing concerns about the practical implications of skepticism about desert-based moral responsibility and explains how optimistic skeptics can preserve most of what we care about when it comes to our interpersonal relationships, morality, and meaning in life. (shrink)

Several philosophers have recently argued that policies aimed at reducing human fertility are a practical and morally justifiable way to mitigate the risk of dangerous climate change. There is a powerful objection to such “population engineering” proposals: even if drastic fertility reductions are needed to prevent dangerous climate change, implementing those reductions would wreak havoc on the global economy, which would seriously undermine international antipoverty efforts. In this article, we articulate this economic objection to population engineering and show how it (...) fails. We argue, first, that the economic objection paints an inaccurate picture of the complicated relationship between demographic change and economic growth, and second, that any untoward economic effects of fertility reduction can be mitigated with additional policies. Specifically, we argue that supplementing fertility reduction with policies that facilitate the emigration of younger people from developing nations to developed nations could allow for both global reductions in GHG emissions and continued economic stability. Further, we show that moral arguments against such unprecedented increases in immigration are unsuccessful. We conclude that population engineering is a practical and morally justifiable tool for addressing the twin evils of climate change and global poverty. (shrink)

They say that argumentative writing skills are best learned through writing argumentative essays. I say that while this is excellent practice for argumentative writing, an important exercise to practice structuring such essays and build critical thinking skills simultaneously is what I call the four-sentence paper. The exercise has the template They say..., I say..., one might object..., I reply... One might object that the assignment oversimplifies argumentative writing, stifles creativity, promotes an adversarial attitude, or that students can’t consider objections well (...) anyway. I reply that a simplified form of argumentative writing is fine for beginners, especially since the template is ubiquitous in philosophy; that any assignment template has room for creativity; that considering objections is consistent with good manners; and that despite some pitfalls of trying to defend a thesis and consider objections, students are capable of considering objections well with proper instruction and practice. (shrink)

The case describes researchers who are seeking ethics guidance on communicating with participants in a phase-1 COVD-19 vaccine trial about FDA-authorized COVID-19 vaccines (Wilfond, Duenas, and Johnson 2023). The researchers want help choosing among three options they have identified for encouraging participants to obtain one of the authorized vaccines. We argue that research ethics consultants should consider going beyond this question to address another ethics concern the researchers might have overlooked.

The recent literature on mental causation has not been kind to nonreductive, materialist functionalism (‘functionalism’, hereafter, except where that term is otherwise qualified). The exclusion problem2 has done much of the damage, but the epiphenomenalist threat has taken other forms. Functionalism also faces what I will call the ‘problem of metaphysically necessary effects’ (Block, 1990, pp. 157-60, Antony and Levine, 1997, pp. 91-92, Pereboom, 2002, p. 515, Millikan, 1999, p. 47, Jackson, 1998, pp. 660-61). Functionalist mental properties are individuated partly (...) by their relation to the very effects those properties’ instantiations are thought to cause. Consequently, functionalist causal generalizations would seem to have the following problematical structure: The state of being, among other things, a cause of e (under such-andsuch conditions) causes e (under those conditions).3 The connection asserted lacks the contingency one would expect of a causal generalization. Mental states of the kind in question are, by metaphysical necessity, causes of e; any state that does not cause e is thereby a different kind of state. Yet, a mental state’s being the sort of state it is must play some causal role if functionalism is to account for mental causation.4 In what follows, I first articulate more fully the problem of metaphysically necessary effects. I then criticize three functionalist attempts to solve the problem directly. Given the failure of functionalist efforts to meet the problem head-on, I consider less direct strategies: these involve formulating functionalism or its causal claims in such a way that they appear not to generate the problem of metaphysically necessary effects. I argue against these indirect solutions, in each case concluding either that the problem still arises or that avoiding it requires the adoption of an unorthodox form of functionalism (itself a surprising result). In the final.. (shrink)

Face-to-face learning engagement has been suspended due to the health crisis that affected the whole world. This led to the adaptation of modular distance learning to continue delivering quality education. As the transition continues, its effectiveness has been frequently assessed. The key purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between the level of implementation of modular distance learning and English Writing Proficiency among the senior high school students in Saint Joseph College Maasin City School year 2021-2022. The study (...) employed a descriptive correlational design with 39 purposively chosen respondents. The main tools used in gathering the data were questionnaires, learning modules, and rubrics. Findings revealed that the implementation of modular distance learning (MDL) has an overall very satisfactory rating based on the perception of the students. The student’s perception of the implementation of modular distance learning and their writing proficiency is significantly related. Moreover, it revealed that students had difficulties in finding supplementary learning materials and educational support from home. The researcher recommends a set of guidelines for the successful and effective implementation of modular distance learning as the output of the study. (shrink)

Antiquated Classical pictures of the universe have been formative in shaping the modern idea that, to the extent change is caused, it is fixed in advance. This idea has played a role in making it seem to many that what we are discovering through science supports the exclusion of free will from models for the relevant neural and bodily changes. I argue that giving up this unwarranted notion about causation opens us to the likelihood that how a person expresses free (...) will offers unique explanatory value. I then briefly discuss some further issues with either including or excluding expressions of free will from our explanations, as well as some implications for AI and everyday life. (shrink)

ABSTRACT This essay defends a qualified version of Quine's thesis of universal revisability against Chalmers's recent conditionalization-based criticisms of it. It is argued that an embodied view of cognitive processing undermines Chalmers's account of nonrevisable a priori justification, which presupposes that concepts prefigure the confirmation-relations into which they enter, so as to make such relations rationally accessible to anyone who possesses those concepts. On the view developed here, bodily interaction with the world and the accompanying subconscious processing can change subjects' (...) dispositions to apply their concepts, in ways that are not rationally accessible to them, even given a complete description of that interaction, and do not constitute a change in the content of the concepts involved. Thus a subject who treats a proposition as indefeasibly justified a priori might nevertheless significantly lower her credence in that proposition, in ways that are not accessible to the subject on the basis of her grasp of the content of the relevant concepts. This discussion has further implications concerning the role of the a priori in the philosophical enterprise. (shrink)

The reasoning view of rational normativity claims that structural rationality is normative for reasoning. Specifically, it claims that structural rationality gives us reasons to structure deliberation in ways that respect the requirements of rationality. This paper critically assesses the reasoning view. It argues that while the reasoning view might succeed in responding to arguments against the normativity of rationality, it is in tension with the motivations for thinking that rationality is normative in the first place. Moreover, proponents of the view (...) do not offer any independent reason for thinking that the view is true. As such, we have no reason to accept the reasoning view. (shrink)

If two theory formulations are merely different expressions of the same theory, then any problem of choosing between them cannot be due to the underdetermination of theories by data. So one might suspect that we need to be able to tell distinct theories from mere alternate formulations before we can say anything substantive about underdetermination, that we need to solve the problem of identical rivals before addressing the problem of underdetermination. Here I consider two possible solutions: Quine proposes that we (...) call two theories identical if they are equivalent under a reconstrual of predicates, but this would mishandle important cases. Another proposal is to defer to the particular judgements of actual scientists. Consideration of an historical episodethe alleged equivalence of wave and matrix mechanicsshows that this second proposal also fails. Nevertheless, I suggest, the original suspicion is wrong; there are ways to enquire into underdetermination without having solved the problem of identical rivals. (shrink)

Innovative practice involves medical interventions that deviate from standard practice in significant ways. For many patients, innovative practice offers the best chance of successful treatment. Because little is known about most innovative treatments, clinicians who engage in innovative practice might consider including extra procedures, such as scans or blood draws, to gather information about the innovation. Such information-gathering interventions can yield valuable information for modifying the innovation to benefit future patients and for designing scientific studies of the innovation. However, existing (...) guidelines do not say when or whether it is appropriate to add potentially risky information-gathering interventions for these purposes. As a result, clinicians may assume that information-gathering interventions are ethically inappropriate and should not be used in innovative practice. This assumption can lead to seriously negative consequences, such as increasing the likelihood that harmful or ineffective innovations will be adopted and creating new barriers to the development of genuinely beneficial treatments. We argue that health care institutions need to promote the responsible use of information-gathering interventions as an adjunct to innovative practice, and that these interventions are not clinical research and should not be subject to research oversight. (shrink)

This essay develops the thesis that the essence of psychoanalysis lies in emotional phenomenology.

There are two ways that we might respond to the underdetermination of theory by data. One response, which we can call the agnostic response, is to suspend judgment: "Where scientific standards cannot guide us, we should believe nothing". Another response, which we can call the fideist response, is to believe whatever we would like to believe: "If science cannot speak to the question, then we may believe anything without science ever contradicting us". C.S. Peirce recognized these options and suggested evading (...) the dilemma. It is a Logical Maxim, he suggests, that there could be no genuine underdetermination. This is no longer a viable option in the wake of developments in modern physics, so we must face the dilemma head on. The agnostic and fideist responses to underdetermination represent fundamentally different epistemic viewpoints. Nevertheless, the choice between them is not an unresolvable struggle between incommensurable worldviews. There are legitimate considerations tugging in each direction. Given the balance of these considerations, there should be a modest presumption of agnosticism. This may conflict with Peirce's Logical Maxim, but it preserves all that we can preserve of the Peircean motivation. (shrink)

Citizen Satisfaction Index System (CSIS) was used to assess the delivery of support to education initiatives in the municipality of Banga, Aklan, Philippines. The samples were determined using multiple application of stratified random sampling approach. In accordance with the Philippine Statistical Authority's Data on Census Population and Housing for 2015, barangays having a bigger share of the population contributed more respondents to the 150 targeted participants. Following the inclusion criteria, the probability respondents were chosen using the Kish Grid. Pre-numbered questionnaires (...) were distributed, with odd numbers targeting male responders and even numbers targeting females. The following criteria were used to evaluate the respondents' assessments: awareness, availment of the program/service, satisfaction, and need for action. Furthermore, interviews were conducted to better understand and investigate the respondents' thoughts, behavior, and perspectives. The reasons for their reaction were also obtained. The data was provided in percentage as well as frequency distributions. The study inferred that awareness on alternative learning system and/or special education program should be improved since it is the only program that attained low rating for awareness. Most of the residents were not able to avail education programs because they have no household member who attends school. Majority of the respondents who availed the services were satisfied. However, scholarship and other assistance programs to students may be enhanced to improve service delivery. It is highly recommended by the citizens to improve accessibility to scholarship programs and other forms of financial assistance to students. (shrink)

During the last two decades the role of quantitative genetics in evolutionary theory has expanded considerably. Quantitative genetic-based models addressing long term phenotypic evolution, evolution in multiple environments (phenotypic plasticity) and evolution of ontogenies (developmental trajectories) have been proposed. Yet, the mathematical foundations of quantitative genetics were laid with a very different set of problems in mind (mostly the prediction of short term responses to artificial selection), and at a time in which any details of the genetic machinery were virtually (...) unknown. In this paper we discuss what a model is in population biology, and what kind of model we need in order to address the complexities of phenotypic evolution. We review the assumptions of quantitative genetics and its most recent accomplishments, together with the limitations that such assumptions impose on the modelling of some aspects of phenotypic evolution. We also discuss three alternative appr oaches to the theoretical description of evolutionary trajectories (nonlinear dynamics, complexity theory and optimization theory), and their respective advantages and limitations. We conclude by calling for a new theoretical synthesis, including quantitative genetics and not necessarily limited to the other approaches here discussed. (shrink)

One of the important questions discussed by philosophers of technology has to do with the moral significance of artefacts in human life. While many philosophers agree that artefacts do have moral significance attached to them, opinions vary as to how it is to be construed. In this paper we deal with the approach of the influential Dutch philosopher of technology Peter Paul Verbeek. He criticizes traditional ethical theories for assuming that whatever relevancy artefacts have for morality is entirely dependent on (...) human beings, since artefacts are mere passive instruments of human agency. In contrast, he develops a view of moral agency that includes artefacts and that ascribes moral agency to human-technology hybrids rather than to humans as such. The goal of this paper is to elucidate Verbeek’s account of moral agency and evaluate it. We also deal with his views on post phenomenology and mediation underlying this account. Although the general gist of our paper is expository, we point out to several problems for Verbeek’s account. (shrink)

Background Analysis of aphasic narratives can be a challenge for clinicians. Previous studies have mainly employed measures that categorized speech samples at the word level. They included quantification of the use and misuse of different word classes, presence and absence of narrative contents and errors, paraphasias, and perseverations, as well as morphological structures and errors within a narrative. In other words, a great amount of research has been conducted in the aphasiology literature focusing on micro-linguistic structures of oral narratives. Aspects (...) of macro- linguistic structures, such as the analysis of content information by a speaker, consistency of using cohesive devices to present information within a narrative, and order of presenting information necessary to form a coherent discourse, have not been extensively investigated. The current investigation proposes a clinical analytic system to target three aspects of macro-linguistic structures in narratives among speakers with aphasia. Specifically, (1) the presence of search events (i.e., the mentioning of key events that allow the listener to understand; Capilouto, Wright, &Wagovich, 2006) within a narrative, (2) the sequence of the mentioned events, and (3) the informativeness (i.e., the fulfillment of lexical items that allow the user to understand what the event is detailing) of the event contents, were focused in the proposed framework. Method Ten controls transcripts from were selected from the AphasiaBank (MacWhinney, Fromm, Forbes, & Holland, 2011). Three narrative tasks, including sequential picture description of ‘Refused Umbrella’, procedural narrative of making a ‘Peanut Butter and Jelly Sandwich’, and telling of ‘Cinderella’ story, were used to establish normative data for the basis of analysis. Specifically, the Search Events (e) and Informative Words (i) used by at least 70% of the speakers were listed for each genre. The sequential order of mentioning the Search Events, i.e., common order of events in 90% of the speakers, (s.total) was determined. Twelve speakers with aphasia (nine fluent and three non-fluent) were recruited and administered the Western Aphasia Battery and Object and Action Naming Battery. Their performance in the above three discourse tasks were orthographically transcribed and analyzed using the following measures: e.total, e.matched with norm, e.missed, e.irrlevant, e.extra, s.total, i.pb&j, i.umbr, i.cind, and i.total. Three samples were randomly chosen to be re-analyzed for inter- and intra-rater reliability. Results Results of an independent t-test suggested significant differences between the fluent and non-fluent subjects in sequential order of Search Events for all genres (s.total) and i.total, suggesting sensitivity of this framework to differentiate between the two fluency groups. Results of Pearson product-moment correlations revealed significant relation between Informative Words and WAB spontaneous speech scores, AQ, as well as OAB scores, for both aphasic groups. The mean value of coefficients for intra-rater reliability (0.992), with significant correlations on e.match, e.miss, and e.extra, was higher than that of inter-rater reliability (0.897). Discussion Based on our preliminary results, this objective framework allowed clinical evaluation of impairment in macro-linguistic structures present in aphasic discourse. Further extension should involve more subjects encompassing a wider range of severity with different types of aphasia. (shrink)

Since March of 2020, the world has been brought to its knees by unscientific and unethical mandates. These mandates have destroyed the world economy and the lives of countless innocent individuals. The “cure” that has been offered by medical bureaucrats and politicians has been more deadly than the disease (COVID-19). The imposition of ludicrous lockdowns, mask-wearing, coerced vaccination, and vaccine passports have not only proved to be ineffective, but also much more harmful than SARS-CoV-2 and all its variants. COVID-19 has (...) a recovery rate of close to 99% for most of the world’s population, however, despite this, institutions and power-hungry individuals have trampled upon our civil liberties and ignored our inalienable human rights. It is precisely as Thomas Paine famously stated: “The greatest tyrannies are always perpetrated in the name of the noblest causes.” -/- Many lives have been gratuitously lost because of the administration of deadly medical treatments, and the rejection of effective treatments that follow genuine science. In the process, informed consent has been disparaged and desecrated. For over two years, we were instructed to “trust the science,” but the “science” advocated by medical bureaucrats and greedy politicians was the reason why the world was turned upside-down. In the face of these crimes against humanity, justice will only be brought by real courts and real judges, but this will require the awakening of a critical mass. This book serves as an instrument for this awakening. (shrink)

The use of artificial intelligence in philosophy opens new avenues for inquiry, particularly through dialogical methods inspired by the Socratic tradition. This paper exemplifies the engagement with ChatGPT-4o by OpenAI as a philosophical interlocutor, highlighting how this format facilitates a clear distinction between the philosopher's contributions and those generated by the AI. By allowing the philosopher to lead the dialogue, this technique liberates him from the constraints of drafting and formal writing, enabling a more spontaneous exploration of ideas. The conversation (...) begins with a foundational definition of intelligence and progresses toward a deeper and philosophically relevant understanding. This exchange not only showcases the potential of AI to enrich philosophical discourse but also emphasizes the significance of critical questioning in examining complex concepts such as intelligence and the implications of artificial cognition. (shrink)

Philippine folk dances can be dated back as early as the pre-colonial period which inherited by our forefathers and passed through several generations of Filipinos. These traditional dances are considered treasures of our homeland for they depict the humble beginnings of our native countrymen and serve as a symbol of national identity. The study utilized focused ethnography and was limited on the documentation of the ethnic dance of Ayta Ambala’s tribe, their cultural values along with its cultural heritage situated at (...) Barangay Tubo-Tubo, Dinalupihan, Bataan which were considered unpublished, especially their respective dance patterns or movements. There were ten (10) informants involved in the study. Five (5) were key informants (KIs) who represent the emic perspective while five (5) were general informants (GIs) who represent the etic perspective of the paper. Findings revealed that Dances of Ayta Ambala include: Courtship (Sayaw Magligaw), Ceremonial (Sayaw Talipe), and Occupational (Sayaw Pangangaho). The said dances reflect different activities that are commong among the tribe. It also includes the historical background, costume, time signature, props, structural formation, dance steps, and figures. Although the values are not directly presented, these are still manifesting through the themes of their dances. Included in the cultural values are bravery, respect, and gratitude which are also part of the embodiment of different dances of Ayta Ambala. As observed, the other two emerging themes are also connected to the cultural heritage of Ayta Ambala. This means, their dances mirror their surroundings, their daily activities, and their identity as tribes. The emerging themes on cultural heritage are religious beliefs, courtships, and livelihood. (shrink)

This chapter deals with the ways in which entrepreneurships driven by industrial design and the strategies for interconnecting design for innovation are articulated. In the first instance, current practices are recognized in order to analyze the different processes that entrepreneurial dynamics go through. This analysis is carried out from a systemic perspective, at three levels of abstraction: designer, entrepreneurship and ecosystem. The theoretical and conceptual framework will be structured based on the innovations driven by design, which occur around the designer, (...) his personal projects, and the possible interactions and singularities offered by living spaces. The objective of this work is to unravel the eventual relationships of the entrepreneurial designer in the ecosystem and to highlight the potential added by emerging connections, which allow for the projection of synergistic actions with other actors to create value(s). In this way, other possible views of the entrepreneurial process are provided, where the cultural and philosophical dimension that characterizes industrial designers allows them to achieve a higher quality of life, designing and producing collectively (in) their environment. (shrink)

Parental Obligations and Bioethics: The Duties of a Creator collects and supplements Bernard G. Prusak’s work on the ethics of procreation and parenthood, and applies his unique theoretical approach to related issues in bioethics and social philosophy. In this review, I’ll first summarize what I take to be the argumentative core of the book, and then offer a brief critical assessment.

Philosophers have rightly condemned lookism—that is, discrimination in favor of attractive people or against unattractive people—in education, the justice system, the workplace and elsewhere. Surprisingly, however, the almost universal preference for attractive romantic and sexual partners has rarely received serious ethical scrutiny. On its face, it’s unclear whether this is a form of discrimination we should reject or tolerate. I consider arguments for both views. On the one hand, a strong case can be made that preferring attractive partners is bad. (...) The idea is that choosing partners based on looks seems essentially similar to other objectionable forms of discrimination. (In particular, the preference for attractive partners is arguably both unfair and harmful to a significant degree.) One can try to resist this conclusion in several ways. I consider three possible replies. The first has to do with the possibility of controlling our partner preferences. The second pertains to attractiveness and “good genes”. The last attempts to link certain aspects of attractiveness to a prospective partner’s personality and values. I argue that the first two replies fail conclusively, while the third only amounts to a limited defense of a particular kind of attractiveness preference. So the idea that we should often avoid preferring attractive partners is compelling. (shrink)

Vendler’s :161–173, 1979) puzzle about imagination is that the sentences ‘Imagine swimming in that water’ and ‘Imagine yourself swimming in that water’ seem at once semantically different and semantically the same. They seem semantically different, since the first requires you to imagine ’from the inside’, while the second allows you to imagine ’from the outside.’ They seem semantically the same, since despite superficial dissimilarity, there is good reason to think that they are syntactically and lexically identical. This paper sets out (...) the puzzle and offers a novel solution. Our proposal is that, just as there is knowledge-wh, there is also imagining-wh and that the inside/outside distinction Vendler points to is properly understood as a distinction within imagining-wh. In particular, to imagine swimming from the inside is to imagine what it feels like to swim, while to imagine swimming from the outside is to imagine what it looks like to swim. We show that this proposal is well grounded in both the semantics and syntax of ‘imagine.’ We also argue it makes better sense than its rivals of the data Vendler found so puzzling. (shrink)

We discuss potential biorisks from large language models (LLMs). AI assistants based on LLMs such as ChatGPT have been shown to significantly reduce barriers to entry for actors wishing to synthesize dangerous, potentially novel pathogens and chemical weapons. The harms from deploying such bioagents could be further magnified by AI-assisted misinformation. We endorse several policy responses to these dangers, including prerelease evaluations of biomedical AIs by subject-matter experts, enhanced surveillance and lab screening procedures, restrictions on AI training data, and access (...) controls on biomedical AI. We conclude with a suggestion about future research directions in bioethics. (shrink)

The field of AI safety aims to prevent increasingly capable artificially intelligent systems from causing humans harm. Research on moral alignment is widely thought to offer a promising safety strategy: if we can equip AI systems with appropriate ethical rules, according to this line of thought, they'll be unlikely to disempower, destroy or otherwise seriously harm us. Deontological morality looks like a particularly attractive candidate for an alignment target, given its popularity, relative technical tractability and commitment to harm-avoidance principles. I (...) argue that the connection between moral alignment and safe behavior is more tenuous than many have hoped. In general, AI systems can possess either of these properties in the absence of the other, and we should favor safety when the two conflict. In particular, advanced AI systems governed by standard versions of deontology need not be especially safe. (shrink)

Susan Schneider (2019) has proposed two new tests for consciousness in AI (artificial intelligence) systems, the AI Consciousness Test and the Chip Test. On their face, the two tests seem to have the virtue of proving satisfactory to a wide range of consciousness theorists holding divergent theoretical positions, rather than narrowly relying on the truth of any particular theory of consciousness. Unfortunately, both tests are undermined in having an ‘audience problem’: Those theorists with the kind of architectural worries that motivate (...) the need for such tests should, on similar grounds, doubt that the tests establish the existence of genuine consciousness in the AI in question. Nonetheless, the proposed tests constitute progress, as they could find use by some theorists holding fitting views about consciousness and perhaps in conjunction with other tests for AI consciousness. (shrink)

In this paper, I develop and defend a new adverbial theory of perception. I first present a semantics for direct-object perceptual reports that treats their object positions as supplying adverbial modifiers, and I show how this semantics definitively solves the many-property problem for adverbialism. My solution is distinctive in that it articulates adverbialism from within a well-established formal semantic framework and ties adverbialism to a plausible semantics for perceptual reports in English. I then go on to present adverbialism as a (...) theory of the metaphysics of perception. The metaphysics I develop treats adverbial perception as a directed activity: it is an activity with success conditions. When perception is successful, the agent bears a relation to a concrete particular, but perception need not be successful; this allows perception to be fundamentally non-relational. The result is a novel formulation of adverbialism that eliminates the need for representational contents, but also treats successful and unsuccessful perceptual events as having a fundamental common factor. (shrink)

A study was carried out from October, 2020 to September, 2021to investigate the diversity of fishes and the conservation status of Chittaura Jheel (Bahraich), Uttar Pradesh. During the study period, 38 fish species belonging to 28 genera, 14 families and 7 orders have been identified. The order Cypriniformes was found the dominated order with 15 species(39.47%) followed by Siluriformes 10 species (26.31%), Perciformes 4 species (10.52%), Ophiocephaliformes 4 species (10.52%), Synbranchiformes2 species (5.26%), Osteoglossiformes 2 species (5.26%) and Clupiformes 1 species (...) (2.63 %), The present investigation showed that the wetland, Chittaura Jheel possesses rich fish biodiversity but proper conservation measures are required to maintain sustainability and richness of the fish species diversity of that wetland of U.P. According to IUCN, 30 were enlisted as Least Concern (LC), 2 species as near endangered (NE), 3 species as near threatened (NT), 2 listed as Endangered (EN) and 1 species was listed as Vulnerable (VU). There is a need of conservation of fish diversity of this natural wetland. The pressure is increasing day by day due to increasing population, leading to loss of fish diversity hence identifying the problem and making a better management plan is the way for conservation of the fish diversity of the Chittaura Jheel, a wetland of Bahraich district of Uttar Pradesh. (shrink)

According to a widespread view in metaphysics and philosophy of science, all explanations involve relations of ontic dependence between the items appearing in the explanandum and the items appearing in the explanans. I argue that a family of mathematical cases, which I call “viewing-as explanations”, are incompatible with the Dependence Thesis. These cases, I claim, feature genuine explanations that aren’t supported by ontic dependence relations. Hence the thesis isn’t true in general. The first part of the paper defends this claim (...) and discusses its significance. The second part of the paper considers whether viewing-as explanations occur in the empirical sciences, focusing on the case of so-called fictional models. It’s sometimes suggested that fictional models can be explanatory even though they fail to represent actual worldly dependence relations. Whether or not such models explain, I suggest, depends on whether we think scientific explanations necessarily give information relevant to intervention and control. Finally, I argue that counterfactual approaches to explanation also have trouble accommodating viewing-as cases. (shrink)

The verb 'imagine' admits of perspectival modification: we can imagine things from above, from a distant point of view, or from the point of view of a Russian. But in such cases, there need be no person, either real or imagined, who is above or distant from what is imagined, or who has the point of view of a Russian. We call this the puzzle of perspectival displacement. This paper sets out the puzzle, shows how it does not just concern (...) language, but also states of imagining themselves, and then presents a solution. The solution draws on the idea that many reports of imagining conceal a distinctive kind of question, and such concealed questions have an extra argument place for (what we will call) an experiencer from whose perspective things are imagined. This solution has a range of advantages over other proposals in the literature, and helps to advance two debates concerning perspectival engagement with fiction. (shrink)

Mathematicians distinguish between proofs that explain their results and those that merely prove. This paper explores the nature of explanatory proofs, their role in mathematical practice, and some of the reasons why philosophers should care about them. Among the questions addressed are the following: what kinds of proofs are generally explanatory (or not)? What makes a proof explanatory? Do all mathematical explanations involve proof in an essential way? Are there really such things as explanatory proofs, and if so, how do (...) they relate to the sorts of explanation encountered in philosophy of science and metaphysics? (shrink)