Main objective of this paper is to describe emergence of a Polish Universities of the Third Age model. These are a multidisciplinary non-formal education centers, which allow formation of positive responses to the challenges of an ageing population. Article indicates main organizational changes of these institutions conditioned by internal and external factors. Essay describes transformation, differentiation factors, and characteristics of these institutions for elderly based on a critical analysis of literature.

The organization of an international education activity has its specifics compared to a national one. It is very important to know the differences in the very organization as well as the opinions of the individual participants. We can find differences not only in the management of education but also in the leisure activities, the nourishment, and the accommodation. Based on experiences with the organization of international events and taking part in international projects in the field of educating older adults, we (...) put together a questionnaire to investigate some important questions related to the organization of an international event. We distributed this questionnaire at two international educational activities. We compiled the questions and answer clearly, which is going to be an asset particularly for the professional community. (shrink)

This article provides a philosophical overview of different approaches to age and ageing. It is often assumed that our age is determined by the amount of time we have been alive. Here, I challenge this belief. I argue that there are at least three plausible, yet unsatisfactory, accounts to age and ageing: the chronological account, the biological account, and the experiential account. I show that all of them fall short of fully determining what it means to age. Addressing these problems, (...) I suggest the Two‐tier principle of age: whenever the three accounts of age contradict, combine the two accounts that differ the least, and reject the third. However, while this principle does solve some difficulties, it is itself vulnerable to problems; therefore I propose we should jettison it. I conclude that there are no accounts to ageing that are satisfactory; they all come with a bullet to bite. (shrink)

Existentialism is a concern about the foundation of meaning, morals, and purpose. Existentialisms arise when some foundation for these elements of being is under assault. In the past, first-wave existentialism concerned the increasingly apparent inability of religion, and religious tradition, to provide such a foundation, as typified in the writings of Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, and Nietzsche. Second-wave existentialism, personified philosophically by Sartre, Camus, and de Beauvoir, developed in response to the inability of an overly optimistic Enlightenment vision of reason and the (...) common good to provide such a foundation. There is a third-wave existentialism, a new existentialism, developing in response to advances in the neurosciences that threaten the last vestiges of an immaterial soul or self. With the increasing explanatory and therapeutic power of neuroscience, the mind no longer stands apart from the world to serve as a foundation of meaning. This produces foundational anxiety. This collection of new essays explores the anxiety caused by this third-wave existentialism and some responses to it. It brings together some of the world’s leading philosophers, neuroscientists, cognitive scientists, and legal scholars to tackle our neuroexistentialist predicament and explore what the mind sciences can tell us about morality, love, emotion, autonomy, consciousness, selfhood, free will, moral responsibility, law, the nature of criminal punishment, meaning in life, and purpose. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to analyse the people behaviour in different age buildings and different buildings typology. In the city of Kruja (Albania) exists mostly three types of buildings: the historical ones (medieval), the socialist ones (which belongs to the former communist regime) and the modern buildings. Each of them has different social and physics characteristics, different energy exchange and different building materials. The influence of all these characteristics in the exchange of energy and how they reflect in (...) changing the lifestyle of Kruja’s people is going to be analysed. A questionnaire will be undertaken to understand the way of life of Kruja’s people and to draw conclusions. A comparative analysis between all these typology of buildings will be undertaken in order to understand better the behaviour of Kruja’s people lifestyle living in these buildings. Although the conditions are not good, people tend to get a high level of place attachment and loyalty to the building they are living. The biggest energy consumers are the historical buildings and socialist ones; although the bills of the electricity are smaller than the third category they consume alternative energies and have major problems with thermal bridges. The most unfriendly categories are the socialist buildings. They prefer not to socialize much in comparison with the other two categories. (shrink)

Latin commentators came across the « Third Man » in Aristotle’s Sophistici elenchi. The way they dealt with the argument is a fair illustration of how they were both faithful to the text and innovative in their understanding of its most challenging issues. Besides providing a detailed survey of all manuscript sources, the introductory essay shows that Latin interpretation originates from a mistake in Boethius’ translation which radically transformed the argument. The edition makes available for the first time a (...) considerable amount of new documentary evidence which made it possible to solve the riddle of the Latin « Third Man ». (shrink)

The existing research on the role of intellectuals in alleviating suffering has overlooked contributions by prominent Black intellectuals from the United States in the early 1990s. Two roundtable debates co-organised under the auspices of the Boston Review at Harvard and MIT in 1992 and 1993 in response to Eugene Rivers’ essay “On the Responsibility of Intellectuals in the Age of Crack” were central to these contributions, counting a star-studded line-up of Black intellectuals including bell hooks, Cornel West, and Glenn Loury. (...) Participants explore the role of Black intellectuals in the US, debating what they can and should do to combat oppression and domination. In this article, I recover the context of the debates, reconstruct their arguments, and make a case for their major historical and political significance. I comparatively interpret the two roundtables, identifying three major points of convergence. First, participants begin from a Gramscian conception of organic intellectuals, developing this further to defend the need for collective intellectual praxis. Second, the race-class-gender nexus plays a central role in structuring the very possibility of intellectuals affecting social change. Third, these intellectuals subscribe to a significantly pessimistic action paralysis, indicative of the relative powerlessness of intellectual debate in addressing structural oppression. (shrink)

A society is said to age when its number of older members increases in relation to its number of younger members. The societies in most of the world’s industrialized nations have been aging since at least 1800. In 1800 the demographic makeup of developed countries was similar to that of many Third World countries in the early 1990s with roughly half the population under the age of 16 and very few people living beyond age of 60. Since that time, (...) increases in life expectancy, combined with declines in fertility rates, have dramatically increased the proportion of older persons in developed nations. The rapid increase in the number of older persons relative to younger ones carries important societal implications. In the domain of healthcare, societal aging will increase costs and exert greater pressure to ration services. It will, thus, bring to the fore questions, regarding a just distribution of healthcare between young and old age groups. This paper considers some of the most influential arguments to date for age-based rationing of health care. I show that these arguments fall short, and that the theoretical assumptions underlying them do not withstand careful scrutiny. (shrink)

In situations of information overload, where cases of garbage-in-garbage-out are commonplace, it is necessary to sort out important and appropriate data for one’s specific purposes. A deluge of seemingly interrelated or interconnected data may lead us from one analytic moment to another without consideration for the credibility of our sources. Since people generally tend to be on one side of an issue rather than the other, information exploration and gathering can become a quantitative rather than qualitative exercise, as we are (...) commonly inclined to feed and reinforce our opinion and argument with one-sided information, to the neglect of necessary and vital points in the opposite argument. Unilateral information, which could at worst come from spurious and unreliable sources, appropriated to beef up a stand on a certain issue, can never lead to a meaningful understanding of reality. (shrink)

The policies of socioeconomic protection of older adults in most parts of the world are being redesigned in the scope of value-added targets, such as active ageing, successful ageing, or creative ageing. The main purpose here is, of course, enabling older adults self-sufficient and beneficial both for themselves and their social environment, instead of being simply the passive beneficiaries of the public support mechanisms. Turkey has a population which is still young but ageing very rapidly and will reach to the (...) same point as Europe today in a relatively much shorter time. However, the country still seems to be away from conducting systematic and holistic measures, except for a few ineffective strategy papers and legal regulations. Therefore, Turkey must immediately design a new policy agenda in conformity with its traditional and historical advantages. Revitalizing the intergenerational solidarity bonds, in this regard, may be the best cost-effective solution to complement formal measures in the provision of social protection and in the process of active ageing. However, this traditional protection net is under attack of increasingly transforming socioeconomic conditions. Consequently, as one of the most rapidly ageing countries in the world, Turkey should immediately stimulate studies and debates over a healthy, functional, and effective ageing period and caring issues. Otherwise, governments will be blindsided by the socioeconomic, psychological, cultural, and physiological problems related to the ageing process. In the light of these facts, the main purpose of this study is to discuss policy recommendations to create a self-sufficient ageing period for older adults in the context of Turkish case. (shrink)

Charles Taylor has written three big books on the self-understandings of modern age andmodern individuals. -/- Hegel -/- (1975) focused on one towering figure, and held that Hegel -/- ’ -/- saspirations to overcome modern dualisms are still ours, but Hegelian philosophicalspeculation is not the way to do it. -/- Sources of the Self -/- (1989) ran the intellectual historyfrom peak to peak, stressing the continuous presence of modern tensions and cross- pressures between Enlightenment and Romanticism. -/- A Secular Age (...) -/- (2007) aims to cover the valleys as well, trying to explain how certain -/- “ -/- secular -/- ” -/- understandings have come toexistence and have managed to spread themselves from the elites into the prevailing taken-for-granted background imaginaries.Taylor begins by distinguishing three senses of secularity. The first can be called -/- “ -/- political -/- ” -/- , focusing on the separation of state and church, while the second one is -/- “ -/- sociological -/- ” -/- , focusing on the statistics of religious belief and practice. The third one can perhaps be called -/- “ -/- existential -/- ” -/- and it seems to be harder to define. It concerns what Taylor calls broad background conditions of belief and spiritual searching: something like thegeneral assumptions implicit in one -/- ’ -/- s lived experience, social and cosmic imaginary, whichmake a difference to what form (if any) one -/- ’ -/- s religious aspirations take. Taylor focuses onthis third sense and asks what has changed in that respect between 1500 when lack of belief in God was unimaginable, and 2000, when belief is one option among many. (shrink)

Online technologies enable vast amounts of data to outlive their producers online, thereby giving rise to a new, digital form of afterlife presence. Although researchers have begun investigating the nature of such presence, academic literature has until now failed to acknowledge the role of commercial interests in shaping it. The goal of this paper is to analyse what those interests are and what ethical consequences they may have. This goal is pursued in three steps. First, we introduce the concept of (...) the Digital Afterlife Industry, and define it as an object of study. Second, we identify the politico-economic interests of the DAI. For this purpose, we develop an analytical approach based on an informational interpretation of Marxian economics. Third, we explain the practical manifestations of the interests using four real life cases. The findings expose the incentives of the DAI to alter what is referred to as the “informational bodies” of the dead, which in turn is to be seen as a violation of the principle of human dignity. To prevent such consequences, we argue that the ethical conventions that guide trade with remains of organic bodies may serve as a good model for future regulation of DAI. (shrink)

The aim of the present article is to discuss several consequences of the Open Science from a perspective of science communication and philosophy of communication. Apart from the purely communicative and philosophical issues, the paper deals with the questions that concern the science popularization process through social media. The article consists of three sections: the first one suggests a definition of science communication and social media, the second examines the transformation of science in the Age of the Internet and considers (...) the influence of social media on science communication, the third and final one presents some case studies and philosophical observations. The most important conclusion to be reached here is that the social media have changed science and science communication. Twitter and blogs as novelty tools of science communication can be useful and meaningful for both science and society. Furthermore, social media can be used to facilitate broader involvement of citizens in the discussion about science. (shrink)

This paper discusses some philosophical problems lurking behind the issues of human biotechnology, particularly prenatal screening. Firstly, prenatal screening technology disempowers existing disabled people. The second problem is that it systematically deprives us of the “fundamental sense of security.” This is a sense of security that allows us to believe that we will never be looked upon by anyone with such unspoken words as, “I wish you were never born” or “I wish you would disappear from the world.” Thirdly, we (...) argue that the loss of the fundamental sense of security is connected with the disappearance of “conviction of love” in the age of human biotechnology. And finally, all these issues are examined from the viewpoint of “painless civilization.” Our society is filled with a variety of “preventive reduction of pain,” of which prenatal screening is a good example. By preventively reducing pain and suffering, we lose the chance to transform the basic structure of our way of thinking and being; as a result, we are deprived of opportunities to know precious truths indispensable to our meaningful life. Hence, it is concluded that what is most needed is an academic research on “philosophy of life.”. (shrink)

In this paper, I examine whether John Stuart Mill’s account of free speech can survive three main challenges posed by social media. First, I consider the problem of social media failing to distinguish between emotive and factual language. Second, I look at the problem of algorithms creating moralism. I then turn to a potential objection to my first two challenges. The objection elucidates the benefits of social media’s emotional and algorithmic character, amplifying arguments and increasing public engagement. However, I take (...) issue with this objection on consequentialist terms. I finally return to the third challenge, where I focus on how anonymity removes the consequences to our words; I contend that this final failure is the ultimate reason why Mill’s account cannot persist in the modern age. In conclusion, I argue that Mill’s account cannot withstand the problems posed by social media. (shrink)

Higher education institutions are mining and analyzing student data to effect educational, political, and managerial outcomes. Done under the banner of “learning analytics,” this work can—and often does—surface sensitive data and information about, inter alia, a student’s demographics, academic performance, offline and online movements, physical fitness, mental wellbeing, and social network. With these data, institutions and third parties are able to describe student life, predict future behaviors, and intervene to address academic or other barriers to student success (however defined). (...) Learning analytics, consequently, raise serious issues concerning student privacy, autonomy, and the appropriate flow of student data. We argue that issues around privacy lead to valid questions about the degree to which students should trust their institution to use learning analytics data and other artifacts (algorithms, predictive scores) with their interests in mind. We argue that higher education institutions are paradigms of information fiduciaries. As such, colleges and universities have a special responsibility to their students. In this article, we use the information fiduciary concept to analyze cases when learning analytics violate an institution’s responsibility to its students. (shrink)

Stable adaptive strategy of Homo sapiens (SESH) is a superposition of three different adaptive data arrays: biological, socio-cultural and technological modules, based on three independent processes of generation and replication of an adaptive information – genetic, socio-cultural and symbolic transmissions (inheritance). Third component SESH focused equally to the adaptive transformation of the environment and carrier of SESH. With the advent of High Hume technology, risk has reached the existential significance level. The existential level of technical risk is, by definition, (...) an evolutionary risk as possible leads to the genesis of disappearance of humanity as a species. The emergence of bioethics has to consider as a form of modern (transdisciplinary) scientific concept and sociocultural adaptation for regulate human identity in the global-evolutionary transformation and performs the function of self-preservation. (shrink)

Uniwersytety trzeciego wieku s¸a} interdyscyplinarnymi ośrodkami edukacji pozaformalnej, które stanowi¸a} odpowiedź na wyzwania starzej¸a}cego siȩ społeczeństwa. Zasadne jest podjȩcie tematu zmian reguł organizacyjnych, według których działaj¸a} te podmioty. S¸a} one zwi¸a}zane z wewnȩtrznymi i zewnȩtrznymi czynnikami adaptacji do wymagań współczesnych społeczeństw i gospodarek opartych w coraz wiȩkszym stopniu nie tylko na nowych technologiach informatycznych i telekomunikacyjnych, ale też na ludzkiej kreatywności. Celem opracowania jest przybliżenie czytelnikom tych czynników oraz cech powstaj¸acych nowych modeli instytucji dla osób starszych w oparciu o krytyczn¸a (...) analizȩ literatury przedmiotu. ** Universities of the Third Age are a multi-disciplinary non-formal education centers, which allow formation of positive responses to the challenges of an ageing population. It is reasonable, however, to raise the subject of changes in their organizational rules. These changes are related to the internal and external factors of adaptation to the requirements of modern societies and economies increasingly based not only on new information and communication technologies, but also on the human creativity. The aim of this paper is to discuss these processes, factors as well as characteristics of emerging models of institutions for the elderly on the basis of a critical analysis of literature on the subject. (shrink)

Information and its cognate concepts are frequently used in increasingly varied areas of scientific and scholarly investigations, from computing and engineering to philosophy and the social sciences. As a consequence, a great deal of interesting and exciting research is taking place in a wide range of fields, which do not always communicate with each other. So the second workshop1 of the IEG (the interdepartmental research group in philosophy of information at the University of Oxford2), took the shape of a series (...) of seminars, hosted in Oxford by the Department of Engineering Science, during the academic year 2008–2009. The project aimed to bring together leading experts in the broadly construed area of information research, with the goal of offering a stimulating series of talks and discussions on “the nature and scope of information”. (shrink)

Work of elderly is a controversial problem. The introduction of protection of old age in form of pensions and retirement caused shaping in modern societies qualitatively new social category of persons in post-working age. Growth of human life-span with simultaneous lack of the principle changes of pensionable age inflicts grow in quantity of persons’ using welfare benefits. Growing costs of seniors livelihood lead to transformations in socio-economical structures as well as forcing them to engage in activities that will help increase (...) their social participation, including the lengthening of their professional activity. It seems that the nowadays processes of dematerialization of work combined with the shaping of knowledge-based economy and the movement of third-age universities largely enable the achievement of these objectives. Article aims to approximate the results of qualitative analysis of elderly economic activity in Bialystok conducted in the context of social capital research. Study describes main factors that restrict work opportunities for older people, as well as their hidden resources and potential workplaces. ** Wykonywanie pracy zarobkowej przez osoby starsze jest zagadnieniem kontrowersyjnym. Wprowadzenie zabezpieczenia starości w formie rent i emerytur sprawiło, że w społeczeństwach nowoczesnych ukształtowała siȩ jakościowo nowa kategoria społeczna składaj¸a}ca siȩ z osób w wieku poprodukcyjnym. Wzrost długości życia ludzkiego przy jednoczesnym braku zasadniczych zmian progów wieku emerytalnego sprawia, że ilość osób korzystaj¸a}cych ze świadczeń rośnie. Zwiȩkszaj¸a}ce siȩ koszty utrzymania seniorów prowadz¸a} do szeregu przemian w strukturach społeczno-ekonomicznych oraz wymuszaj¸a} podejmowanie działań, które pozwol¸a} na wzrost ich uczestnictwa społecznego, w tym na wydłużanie ich aktywności zawodowej. Wydaje siȩ, że zachodz¸a}ce współcześnie procesy dematerializacji pracy ł¸a}czone z kształtowaniem siȩ gospodarki opartej na wiedzy oraz ruch uniwersytetów trzeciego wieku w znacznej mierze umożliwiaj¸a realizacjȩ tych celów. Artykuł ma na celu przybliżenie wybranych wyników jakościowych analiz aktywności ekonomicznej ludzi starych w Białymstoku prowadzonych w kontekście badań nad kapitałem społecznym. Określone zostały podstawowe czynniki ograniczaj¸ace możliwości wykonywania pracy przez ludzi starych, jak również ich ukryte zasoby i potencjalne miejsca pracy. (shrink)

The contemporary combination of information infrastructure with the commonly experienced transformation of knowledge created, in relation to education especially for older adults, an entirely new area of activeness. In accordance with the social awareness, education became an accessible good regardless of age. In this context, the maximal extending of the potential group of education receivers means, on the one hand, meeting the real social expectations towards so-called educational services. On the other hand, it is another challenge which the contemporary education (...) faces. Unfortunately, the system of permanent education was not created in Poland since what is missing is both the strategy and some practical resolutions enabling old people the access to education with regards to their educational. Presently, the University of the Third Age is the only solution in the educational offer. In order to change the present status quo, what is needed is the re-definition of education and the modern perception of education and then perhaps, there will appear, the expected, by the senior citizens, module educational solutions providing them not only with the competencies but also the acknowledged certificate confirming their knowledge. (shrink)

"Kapitał społeczny ludzi starych na przykładzie mieszkańców miasta Białystok" to książka oparta na analizach teoretycznych i empirycznych, która przedstawia problem diagnozowania i używania kapitału społecznego ludzi starych w procesach rozwoju lokalnego i regionalnego. Kwestia ta jest istotna ze względu na zagrożenia i wyzwania związane z procesem szybkiego starzenia się społeczeństwa polskiego na początku XXI wieku. Opracowanie stanowi próbę sformułowania odpowiedzi na pytania: jaki jest stan kapitału społecznego ludzi starych mieszkających w Białymstoku, jakim ulega przemianom i jakie jest jego zróżnicowanie? Ludzie (...) starzy są tu postrzegani jako kategoria społeczna, czyli zbiór osób podobnych do siebie pod względem społecznie istotnych cech (takich jak wiek, posiadane role społeczne i świadomość korzystania ze świadczeń społecznych), którzy są świadomi tego podobieństwa i swojej odrębności od innych. Przyjmuje się ponadto, iż osoby takie przekroczyły 60. rok życia. Zakłada się też, że w zasobach ludzkich skumulowany jest kapitał ludzki, społeczny i kulturowy. Kapitał społeczny jest tu ujmowany szeroko jako potencjał współdziałania osadzony w powiązaniach międzyludzkich i normach społecznych, który może przynosić korzyści osobom, grupom i społeczeństwom. W części teoretycznej przedstawiono informacje o starości jako etapie w życiu jednostki, wyjaśniono pojęcie ludzi starych, omówiono społeczne teorie starzenia się, historyczne czynniki oddziaływające na położenie kategorii społecznej ludzi starych, zmiany ich miejsca w społeczeństwie polskim w trakcie transformacji ustrojowej i na początku XXI wieku, możliwe konsekwencje wzrostu długości życia w warunkach demokracji i kapitalizmu oraz charakterystykę problemu starzenia się ludności Białegostoku jako miasta pogranicza. Zaprezentowano też różnorodne koncepcje kapitału społecznego, sfery jego oddziaływania na rozwój społeczno-gospodarczy, jego stan w Polsce oraz wytyczne do strategicznego budowania jego zasobów. Przybliżono również wybrane informacje o aktywności ludzi starych w życiu publicznym, społecznym i gospodarczym jako kluczowych cechach ich kapitału społecznego. Porządkując różne stanowiska teoretyczne, wyniki badań i dane statystyczne, dążono do powiązania wielu rozproszonych źródeł w przekonaniu, iż jest to istotne w celu określenia i zagospodarowania zasobów kapitału społecznego seniorów, jak również niwelacji opóźnienia polskiej socjologii w zakresie badań nad ludźmi starymi. Pomimo, iż za podstawową perspektywę teoretyczną publikacji uznana została koncepcja kapitału P. Bourdieu, autor bierze również pod uwagę propozycje badawcze J.S. Colemana, R.D. Putnama, F. Fukuyamy, A. Giddensa, P. Sztompki i A. Sadowskiego. Drugi rozdział zawiera określenie ram metodologicznych badań przeprowadzonych na potrzeby tej publikacji. Omówiono przyjęte założenia badawcze oraz przybliżono sposób i przebieg realizacji badań. Przede wszystkim zdecydowano się na korzystanie z metody jakościowej i zastosowanie techniki wywiadu swobodnego ukierunkowanego. Uznano, iż podmiotowy kontakt z ludźmi starymi umożliwi dokładniejsze rozpoznanie kontekstu, w którym znajdują się zasoby ich kapitału społecznego. Jest to ważne, gdyż przenoszenie na rodzimy grunt opracowanych za granicą interpretacji działań ludzi starych i rozwiązań aktywizujących, może okazać się nieskuteczne lub wywołać negatywne efekty zewnętrzne. Ponadto w literaturze przedmiotu zwraca się uwagę na niedostatek badań gerontologicznych zgodnych z paradygmatem interpretatywnym. Badaniu poddano 26 respondentów w wieku od 60 do 89 lat żyjących w mieście Białystok związanych z jedną z dwóch różnych instytucji: Domem Pomocy Społecznej i Uniwersytetem Trzeciego Wieku. Poprzez porównywanie osób znajdujących się na dwóch biegunach aktywności społecznej możliwe było dostrzeżenie podobieństw i różnic w ich wyposażeniu kapitałowym, a zarazem w osiągniętych w ciągu życia pozycjach w strukturze klasowej i zasobach służących pomyślnej starości6. W trzecim rozdziale przedstawiona została część wyników analiz empirycznych. Przybliżono tu sposób, w jaki ludzie starzy myślą o podobnych sobie przodkach i osobach współczesnych, a także czynniki, w zależności od których zmienia się ich pozycja społeczna w mieście oraz problemy społeczne, jakie uznają za najważniejsze dla ludzi starych. Analizie poddano opinie o ich czasie wolnym, szansach i barierach aktywności ekonomicznej. Wyróżniono typy kapitału społecznego ludzi starych w zależności od instytucji, z którymi są związani oraz podejścia do postrzegania i wykorzystywania zróżnicowania wewnętrznego seniorów. Omówiono wizerunek seniorów w środkach masowego przekazu. Publikacja nie zawiera ścisłego zakończenia. W ostatnim rozdziale wskazano jedynie na główne wnioski płynące z badań oraz na potencjalne dalsze kierunki analiz. Uzupełnienie tego podejścia stanowią zamieszczone w aneksie zestawienia oddolnych technik budowania kapitału społecznego oraz podstawowych cech Miast Przyjaznych Starszemu Wiekowi. Z opracowania tego z pewnością będą mogli skorzystać nie tylko naukowcy zajmujący się tematyką ludzi starych, ale i pracownicy socjalni, politycy, pracodawcy, przedstawiciele mediów i organizacji pozarządowych oraz obywatele Białegostoku i innych miast. ** "Social Capital of Old People on the Example of Bialystok Residents" is a book based on theoretical and empirical study, which presents an issue of diagnosing and using of old people social capital in the local and regional development processes. This issue is significant because of the threats and challenges associated with process of rapid ageing of Polish society at the beginning of 21st century. Publication, in particular, is an attempt to give answers to the following questions: what is the state of old people social capital in Bialystok, what transformations it undergoes and how is it differentiated? In this study old people are viewed as a social category, which is a set of people similar to each other in terms of socially significant features (such as age, possessed social roles and awareness of received social benefits), who are aware of these similarities and differences between each other. Moreover, it is assumed, that such persons exceeded the 60 years of age. It is also assumed that human, social and cultural capital is accumulated in the human resources. Social capital is recognized here broadly as a potential for collaboration embedded in interpersonal relationships and social norms that may benefit individuals, groups and societies. The book consists of three chapters. The first, which is the theoretical part of work, includes information about: old age as a stage of individual life and explanation of the old people notion. It discusses social theories of ageing, historical factors affecting on the social position of old people category, changes in their place in Polish society during the system transformation and in the early 21st century. It describes the possible consequences of increased life expectancy for democracy and capitalism - including the concepts of society for all ages, silver economy. It also features ageing population issue, as well as social policy towards the elderly and old age in Bialystok as the borderland city. A variety of social capital concepts were presented; the spheres of its influence on socio-economic development, its status in Poland and guidelines for strategic building of its resources. Selected information on the activity of old people in public, social and economic life as key features of their social capital was brought closer. Putting various theoretical positions, results of research and statistical data in order was aimed to link many dispersed sources considering that it is relevant to identify and develop seniors' social capital resources, as well as leveling the delay of Polish sociology research on the elderly. Fundamental theoretical perspective of publication is the concept of capital according to P. Bourdieu. However, the proposals of J.S. Coleman, R.D. Putnam, F. Fukuyama, A. Giddens, P. Sztompka and A. Sadowski were also used. The second chapter contains a methodological framework for the purposes of study. Research assumptions, method and course of implementation of studies were discussed. The study is based on the qualitative method and the application of in-depth interview techniques. It was considered that the personal contact with old people will be more accurate than other research techniques to identify the context in which they social capital resources can be found. It is important because the transfer of developed abroad activating solutions and interpretations of old people actions may be ineffective or have negative external effects in the Polish context. Moreover, in the Polish science literature attention is paid to scarcity of gerontological research in accordance with the interpretive paradigm. Study involved 26 respondents aged 60 to 89 years living in Bialystok associated with one of two different institutions: nursing home for the elderly and University of the Third Age. By comparing the persons on two extremes of social activity it was possible to see similarities and differences in their capital equipment, and also in achievements of the life positions in the class structure and resources aimed at successful ageing. The third chapter presents the empirical analysis of the research results. This part outlines the way in which old people think about their ancestors and contemporary people. It also shows factors according to changes in their social position in the city, social issues which they consider most important for old people, their opinions about leisure time, opportunities and barriers of economic activity and types of old people social capital depending on the institution with which they are associated. Approach to the perception and use of internal disparities of seniors were also discussed. The analysis additionally contains the evaluation of senior citizens image in the polish mass media. This publication does not contain a strict ending. It only identifies the main conclusions of the research and potential directions of future analysis. Above all, older people could improve their position not by demanding increases in social benefits from which major parts are often taken away by their family members, but by highlighting their human, social and cultural capital. It is necessary to create favorable conditions for social and professional life of old people and their cooperation with members of local communities. Important role in this regard is played by institutions implementing three tasks: stimulating senior citizens' desire to satisfy previously unrealized needs; creating relationships between them so that they can solve their own problems and work for the others; and providing legal, social and vocational guidance. Stimulating cooperation between existing public, commercial and non-governmental sector organizations may serve to achieve these goals. The dissemination of bottom-up techniques of social capital building and checklist of essential features of Age-friendly Cities may also be important. -/- . (shrink)

This paper reflects on lessons learned from a validated model of international collaboration based on research and practice. During the European Year for Active Ageing, a partnership of seven organizations from the European Union plus Turkey implemented the Lifelong Learning Programme partnership “Connecting Generations‘ which involved universities, non-governmental organizations, third age Universities and municipalities in collaboration with local communities. Reckoning that Europe has dramatically changed in its demographic composition and is facing brand new challenges regarding intergenerational and intercultural solidarity, (...) each partner formulated and tested innovative and creative practices that could enhance better collaboration and mutual understanding between youth and senior citizens, toward a more inclusive Europe for all. Several innovative local practices have experimented, attentively systematized and peer-valuated among the partners. On the basis of a shared theoretical framework coherent with EU and Europe and Training 2020 Strategy, an action-research approach was adopted throughout the project in order to understand common features that have been replicated and scaled up since today. (shrink)

Monografia apresentada à banca examinadora da Escola Municipal Manuel Teodoro de Arruda, anexa do Colégio Frei Cassiano de Comacchio em Belo Jardim, para a obtenção do título de concluinte do curso de Normal Médio, oferecido pela instituição. A natureza do trabalho, em suma, consiste em apresentar perspectivas de trans formação social para a comunidade de jovens e adultos, o principal programa cunho do trabalho é a Educação de Jovens e Adultos a EJA, e como esse programa intervém na sociabilidade e (...) na mudança do meio social do educando, além de tratar a educação como a principal fonte e meio de mudança de vida dessas pessoas que voltam às escolas. Orientador(a): professora Maria Angelita Pinheiro BELO JARDIM 2017 DEDICATÓRIA Dedicamos este trabalho primeiramente a todos que acreditaram em sua realização, em especial à professora de práticas pedagógicas e também orientadora, Maria Angelita Pinheiro, pelo incentivo e esforço à nossa preparação ao dia de hoje. Bem como, dedicamos este à Alana Thais da Silva, que em todo o desenvolvimento deste, esteve ao nosso lado. AGRADECIMENTOS Agradecemos primeiramente a Deus, que pôde nos proporcionar saúde e sabedoria para a conclusão deste. Agradecemos também à todos que acreditaram na realização deste trabalho, como fruto da realização de um sonho, que é tornarmos normalistas. A nossos colegas de classe que puderam nos proporcionar alegria para continuarmos. Agradecemos em especial mesmo, à Alana Thais da Silva e a Dawson de Barros Monteiro, ambos por oferecer amor e carinho quando o cansaço chegava, e também pela colaboração nas pesquisas que adentravam noites e dias. Enfim, agradecemos a todos que puderam plantar uma semente nesse nosso terreno, para que no futuro pudéssemos colher bons frutos nessa etapa decisiva em nossas vidas. À todos nosso muito obrigado. EPÍGRAFE “Educação não transforma o mundo. Educação muda as pessoas. Pessoas transformam o mundo.” Paulo Freire RESUMO Este trabalho teve por objetivo abordar a Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) como transformação social na vida daquelas pessoas que não tiveram a oportunidade de estudar ou, por motivo maior, tiveram que abandonar os estudos na idade própria. Muitos vão à procura dos estudos por motivo de conquistar um emprego melhor, outros por motivos de se sociabilizar melhor, e por vários outros motivos. Também é possível afirmar que o retorno para a escola na terceira idade é possível, e que para os jovens, os estudos abrirão as portas para o mundo do trabalho, mostrando que o indivíduo alfabetizado tem valor na sociedade, e que a escola, como um ambiente de aprendizagem, tem o poder de transformar o indivíduo e torná-lo um cidadão crítico, democrático e participativo. Palavras Chaves: Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Aprendizagem. Transformação Social. ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to approach the education of young people and adults (EJA) as a social transformation in the lives of people who did not have the opportunity to study or, for greater reason, had to drop out of school at their own age. Many go in search of their studies for the sake of gaining a better job, others for the sake of socializing better, and for many other reasons. It is also possible to state that the return to school in the third age is possible, and that for the youngest, studies will open the door to the world of work, showing that the literate individual has value in society and that the school as a learning environment, has the power to transform the individual and make him / her a critical, democratic and participatory citizen. Keywords: Education for Youth and Adults. Learning. Social transformation LISTA DE ILUSTRAÇÕES FIGURA 1 – Gráfico sobre o percentual do Analfabetismo..............................................................27 FIGURA 2 – Gráfico sobre o Analfabetismo por região do Brasil....................................................28 SUMÁRIO INTRODUÇÃO.......................................................................................... ..................................... 10 CAPÍTULO 1 – CONTRIBUIÇÕES DA TRAJETÓRIA DA EDUCAÇÃO POPULAR NO BRASIL E PROCESSOS DE ALFABETIZAÇÃO........................................................................ 13 1.1 Históricos da Educação de Jovens e Adultos em seu Contexto Inicial............................ 13 1.1.1 Do Brasil Colônia ao Varguismo: Jesuítas, Pombal, Corte Imperial e Governo Vargas.............................................................................................. ................................. 13 1.2 A Educação de Jovens e Adultos Pós-Varguismo............................................................ 15 1.3 Acerca do Movimento Brasileiro de Alfabetização(Mobral)............................................ 15 1.3.1 Metodologia de Ensino no Mobral: Uma Abordagem Superficial.......................... 16 1.4 A Evolução da Educação de Jovens e Adultos: do Regime Militar ao seu Contexto Atual............................................................................................... .................................................. 17 CAPÍTULO 2 – REFLEXÕES ACERCA DA ALFABETIZAÇÃO............................................... 20 2.1 Análises Histórico-Antropológica Acerca da Escrita e a Alfabetização........................... 20 2.2 Alfabetização e Pragmatismo: Conceitos Acerca da Leitura e Escrita no Âmbito Educacional......................................................................................... ............................................. 21 2.3 O Analfabetismo como Antagonia ao Alfabetismo........................................................... 25 CAPÍTULO 3 – REFLEXÕES TEÓRICAS SOBRE A EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS............................................................................................. .......................................... 29 3.1 Pensamentos de Paulo Freire Sobre a Educação Popular................................................. 29 3.2 Acerca do Método Freiriano........................................................................................... .. 31 3.2.1 Etapas do Método.............................................................................................. ...... 31 3.2.2 O Método.............................................................................................. ................... 31 3.2.3 As Fases de Aplicação do Método........................................................................... 32 3.2.4 História............................................................................................ ........................ 33 3.3 O Perfil do Professor Alfabetizador.................................................................................. 33 3.4 Perfil do Estudante da Educação de Jovens e Adultos e os Motivos de Evasão............... 35 3.5 Pensando em Métodos............................................................................................. ......... 37 CONCLUSÃO........................................................................................... ...................................... 41 REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS...................................................................................... ...... 43 10 INTODUÇÃO Este trabalho tem por objetivo abordar a Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) como modelo, espelho ou meio de uma transformação social, na vida daquelas pessoas que não tiveram oportunidade de estudar, ou por motivos maiores, tiveram que abandonar os estudos na idade ideal, essa visão é explicada pelos motivos da evasão escolar. Foram pesquisados os motivos que levaram essas pessoas a desistirem de estudar e porque retornaram as salas de aula muito tempo depois, destacando principalmente como cunho primordial, os alunos das turmas da EJA (Educação de Jovens e Adultos), que, em suma, pode-se concluir que o principal motivo de evasão na idade adequada era as baixas condições que eram submetidos, e por isso, abandonavam a escola para trabalhar, por isso que a maioria dos estudantes da EJA, são trabalhadores e pessoas que já carregam e possuem uma experiência de vida. Educação de jovens e adultos (EJA) é uma modalidade da qual participam aqueles que não frequentaram a escola durante a infância ou na idade ideal. Os motivos apresentados pelos quais não conseguiram estudar são, na maioria das vezes, alheios a vontade de cada um, a exemplo foi-se citado: o fato de se ter que trabalhar para sobreviver, não ter acesso a escola no local onde mora e até mesmo a evasão escolar. Por isso é comum ainda haver escolas que alfabetizam jovens e adultos. Alfabetizar jovens e adultos é uma ocupação antiga que não se limita a uma tarefa meramente escolar, está intimamente ligada a sonhos, expectativas e a anseios de mudança. E com isso, a escolha do tema deste trabalho se deu com o convívio com jovens e adultos durante o estágio supervisionado na EJA. Geralmente, é depois da adolescência que o indivíduo reconhece que necessita do conhecimento escolar e passa a buscá-lo. Pois, é muito gratificante para uma pessoa leiga poder aprender a ler e a escrever, consciente da necessidade e importância de tal ato para sua vida, um mundo novo se abre, e o indivíduo é posto num contexto “como se fosse cega e de repente abrisse os olhos e enxergasse coisas que até então não via” . Alfabetizar tais pessoas é proporcionar para elas grandes mudanças, uma nova visão de mundo, a chance de ter uma vida melhor, pelo menos com mais oportunidades. Por isso remete-se, então, para além de uma alfabetização e sim de uma transformação social destes indivíduos. A EJA é um direito assegurado pela Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional (LDBEN)2, é assegurado gratuitamente aos que não tiveram acesso a escola na idade própria e segundo a LDBEN o poder público deverá estimular o acesso e permanência do jovem e do adulto na escola. Porém, esse estímulo é a cada dia deixado de lado, como afirma o professor doutor em filosofia e educação do Instituto Federal de Pernambuco campus Belo Jardim, Dawson de Barros Monteiro. “[...] as atuais políticas públicas educacionais, mostram um exemplo de problemas, pois aqui na perspectiva contemporânea, é deveras nítida a deficiência da incentivação pública a estes indivíduos.” (Monteiro 2016, PROEJA p. 185). Abordando acerca dos objetivos, destacamos a abordagem do surgimento da EJA ante o alto índice de pessoas analfabetas no Estado, que por inúmeros motivos tiveram que abandonar os estudos por um longo período de tempo, ou para muitos, que nunca sequer tinham ido à escola. É necessário também dar luz e enaltecer a primordialidade da socialização dos que ingressam em uma escola mesmo depois da idade certa; nessa linha de raciocínio é necessário abordar e enaltecer as concepções ideológicas da transformação social no espaço da EJA, bem como compreender a importância desta para a atual sociedade. Por fim, abordar, entender e compreender as questões antropológicas dos motivos de evasão escolar; enxergar a EJA e a transformação social como utopia do indivíduo que retorna ao espaço educacional. E com isso, vislumbrar que em toda a sociedade a questão do Analfabetismo é um problema público educacional e social. 12 1. CONTRIBUIÇÕES DA TRAJETÓRIA DA EDUCAÇÃO POPULAR NO BRASIL E PROCESSOS DE ALFABETIZAÇÃO A educação de Jovens e Adultos antecede até mesmo as datas documentadas: de forma indireta, adultos interessavam-se em aprender as primeiras letras do alfabeto, sendo considerado o alicerce para a aprendizagem, ou seja, codificar cada símbolo daquele para formular palavras; ou ao menos também, interessar-se à escrever o próprio nome. Este Capítulo abordará a trajetória da Educação de Jovens e Adultos EJA, no Brasil, e sua contribuição para a população brasileira e ao mesmo tempo os processos de alfabetização que são contribuições para que esta aconteça de maneira eficaz. 1.1 HISTÓRICOS DA EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS EM SEU CONTEXTO INICIAL 1.1.1 DO BRASIL COLÔNIA AO VARGUISMO: JESUÍTAS, POMBAL, CORTE IMPERIAL E GOVERNO VARGAS Alfabetizar jovens e adultos não é um ato de ensino-aprendizagem, é a construção de uma perspectiva de mudança: no início, época da colonização do Brasil, as poucas escolas existentes era para o privilégio das classes média e a burguesia da colônia, nessas famílias os filhos possuíam acompanhamento escolar na infância; não havia a necessidade de uma alfabetização pra jovens e adultos, esse bloco etário não tinha acesso a uma instrução escolar e quando a recebiam era de forma indireta, de acordo com Ghiraldelli Jr. a educação brasileira teve seu início com o fim dos regimes das capitanias hereditárias, ele cita que: “[...] A educação escolar no período colonial, ou seja, a educação regular e mais ou menos institucional de tal época, teve três fases: a do predomínio dos jesuítas; a das reformas do Marquês de Pombal, principalmente a partir da expulsão dos jesuítas do Brasil e de Portugal em 1759; e a do período em que Dom João VI, então rei de Portugal, trouxe a corte para o Brasil (1808-1821)”. (Ghiraldelli Jr. 2008, p. 24). O ensino dos jesuítas tinha como fim não apenas a transmissão de conhecimento científico escolar, mas a propagação da fé cristã. A história da EJA no Brasil no período colonial deu-se de forma assistemática, nesta época não se constatou iniciativas governamentais significativas. Os métodos jesuíticos permaneceram até o período pombalino com a expulsão dos jesuítas, neste período, Pombal organizava as escolas de acordo com os interesses do Estado, com a chegada da coroa portuguesa na colônia, a educação perdeu o seu foco que já não era amplo. Após a proclamação da Independência do Brasil foi outorgada a primeira constituição brasileira, e no artigo 179 dela constava que a “instrução primária era gratuita para todos os cidadãos”; mesmo a instrução sendo gratuita não favorecia as classes pobres, pois estes não tinham acesso à escola, ou seja, a escola era para todos, porém inacessível a quase todos. No decorrer dos séculos houve várias reformas, Soares cita que: “[...] No Brasil, o discurso em favor da Educação popular é antigo: precedeu mesmo a proclamação da República. Já em 1882, Ruy Barbosa, baseado em exaustivo diagnóstico da realidade brasileira da época, denunciava a vergonhosa precariedade do ensino para o povo do Brasil e apresentava propostas de multiplicação de escolas e de melhoria qualitativa do ensino” (SOARES, 2002, p. 8). A constituição de 1934, no governo ditatorial de Getúlio Vargas não teve êxito, sendo assim criase uma nova constituição escrita por Francisco Campos. Para a constituição de 1937 que Ghiraldelli Jr. Cita que: “[...] A constituição de 1937, fez o Estado abrir mão da responsabilidade para com a educação publica, uma vez que ela afirmava que o Estado desempenharia um papel de subsidiário, e não central, em relação ao ensino”. O ordenamento democrático alcançado em 1934, quando a letra da lei determinou a educação como direito de todos, e obrigação dos poderes públicos, foi substituído por um texto que desobrigou o Estado de manter e expandir o ensino” (GHIRALDELLI Jr., 2008, p. 78). Nessa perspectiva, o Estado passou a não ter mais o papel de bancar os educadores para levar o conhecimento para toda a nação, num plano ideológico mundial, vemos que a educação é um princípio fundamental para o crescimento do país e deixar esta ferramenta de lado, acarreta num colapso conhecido como “grande taxa de Analfabetismo”. A constituição de 1937, foi criada no intuito de estabelecer o favorecimento do Estado pois o mesmo tira sua responsabilidade; “gera nesse contexto histórico-social uma população sem educação, ou a educação para poucos, uma sociedade frágil e suscetível a aceitar tudo que lhe é imposto pelo poder coercitivo” afirma o professor doutor em filosofia do Instituto Federal de Pernambuco campus Belo Jardim, Dawson de Barros Monteiro: logo se entende que esta constituição não tinha o interesse que o conhecimento crítico se propagasse, mas buscava favorecer o ensino profissionalizante, pois dentro do contexto histórico o Brasil precisava mais capacitar os jovens e adultos para o trabalho nas indústrias. 1.2 A EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS PÓS-VARGUISMO Segundo Cunha (1999), o fim do Estado Novo trouxe ao país um processo de redemocratização e a necessidade de aumento da quantidade de eleitores. Nesse sentido, o primeiro projeto lançado pelo governo foi uma campanha que previa a alfabetização do educando em três meses, além da conclusão do curso primário num prazo bem menor que o convencional. A educação era considerada unilateral e tinha o professor como transmissor de conhecimento. O educador, que era voluntário ou mal remunerado, seria o único sujeito deste processo. A campanha extinta em 1963, não rendeu bons resultados, mas ajudou a ideia preconceituosa de que o adulto não precisaria mais aprender a ler e que já havia encontrado seu lugar no mundo. Esse desprezo pela classe trabalhadora, o proletariado, ainda persistiu na década de 1990, quando o então ministro da Educação do governo Collor de Mello, o professor, físico e político José Goldemberg, afirmou que a tentativa de alfabetização de adultos não diminuiria o índice de analfabetos; ao contrário, perturbaria a ordem social. Com os resultados insatisfatórios dessa campanha, surgiram críticas a esse projeto: seria necessária a qualificação dos professores e a adequação do programa, do material didático e dos métodos de ensino à clientela atendida. No final dos anos 1950, Paulo Freire propunha uma nova pedagogia, posteriormente trabalhada neste trabalho. Apesar de ser encarregado de desenvolver o Programa Nacional de Alfabetização de Adultos, com o golpe militar de 1964, Paulo Freire foi exilado e um programa assistencialista e conservador foi criado: o Movimento Brasileiro de Alfabetização (Mobral). 1.3 ACERCA DO MOVIMENTO BRASILEIRO DE ALFABETIZAÇÃO (Mobral) Na época do regime militar (1964-1985), surge um movimento de alfabetização de jovens e adultos, na tentativa de erradicar o analfabetismo, pelo menos é o que se tinha em teoria; chamado MOBRAL, esse método tinha como foco o ato de ler e escrever, essa metodologia assemelha-se a de Paulo Freire com codificações, cartazes com famílias silábicas, quadros, fichas e etc., porém, não utilizava o diálogo como ideologia educacional de Freire e não se preocupava com a formação crítica dos educandos. A principal ideologia objetiva do Mobral era apenas a alfabetização funcional que em seu conceito é o ensino alicerce da compreensão de textos simples, capacitando os educandos a decodificação mínima de letras para a interpretação de textos, sem a apropriação da leitura e da escrita de pessoas entre 15 e 30 anos. A respeito do Mobral Bello cita que: “[...] O projeto Mobral permite compreender bem esta fase ditatorial por que passou o Brasil. A proposta de educação era toda baseada em aos interesses políticos vigentes na época. Por ter de repassar o sentimento de bom comportamento para o povo e justificar os atos da ditadura, esta instituição estendeu seus braços a uma boa parte das populações carentes, através de seus diversos programas.” (BELLO, 1993, p. 56). 1.3.1 METODOLOGIA DE ENSINO NO MOBRAL: UMA ABORDAGEM SUPERFICIAL A metodologia utilizada pelo Programa de Alfabetização Funcional baseava-se em seis objetivos: 1. Desenvolver nos alunos as habilidades de leitura, escrita e contagem 2. Desenvolver um vocabulário que permita o enriquecimento de seus alunos; 3. Desenvolver o raciocínio, visando facilitar a resolução de seus problemas e os de sua comunidade; 4. Formar hábitos e atitudes positivas, em relação ao trabalho; 5. Desenvolver a criatividade, a fim de melhorar as condições de vida, aproveitando os recursos disponíveis; 6. Levar os alunos: • A conhecerem seus direitos e deveres e as melhores formas de participação comunitária; • A se empenharem na conservação da saúde e melhoria das condições de higiene pessoal, familiar e da comunidade; • A se certificarem da responsabilidade de cada um, na manutenção e melhoria dos serviços públicos de sua comunidade e na conservação dos bens e instituições; • A participarem do desenvolvimento da comunidade, tendo em vista o bem-estar das pessoas. Os técnicos do MOBRAL defendiam que o método utilizado baseava-se no aproveitamento das experiências significativas dos alunos. Desta forma, embora divergisse ideologicamente do método de Paulo Freire utilizava-se, semelhantemente a este, de palavras geradoras e de uma série de procedimentos para o processo de alfabetização: 1. Apresentação e exploração do cartaz gerador; 2. Estudo da palavra geradora, depreendida do cartaz; 3. Decomposição silábica da palavra geradora; 4. Estudo das famílias silábicas, com base nas palavras geradoras; 5. Formação e estudos de palavras novas; 6. Formação e estudos de frases e textos A principal e essencial diferença na utilização destes procedimentos em relação ao método Paulo Freire era o fato de no Mobral haver uma uniformização do material utilizado em todo o território nacional, não traduzindo assim a linguagem e as necessidades do povo de cada região, principal característica da metodologia freiriana. 1.4 A EVOLUÇÃO DA EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS: DO REGIME MILITAR AO SEU CONTEXTO ATUAL Em 1974, foi implantado o CES (Centro de Estudos Supletivos), que dava a oportunidade de uma certificação rápida, mas superficial, com um ensino tecnicista e auto instrucional. Esse ensino supletivo foi implantado em acordo com a Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação, LDBE 5592/71. Nesta lei um capítulo foi dedicado especificamente a Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Em 1974 o MEC lança o CES. A década de 1980 foi marcada pelo desenvolvimento de projetos e pesquisas na área da alfabetização de adultos. Em 1985, o Mobral foi cessado, dando lugar a Fundação EDUCAR que apoiava tecnicamente e financeiramente as iniciativas de alfabetização existentes. Nos anos 80, difundiram-se várias pesquisas acerca da língua escrita que de certa forma refletiam na EJA. Com a promulgação da constituição de 1988 o Estado passou a ampliar o seu dever ante a Educação de Jovens e Adultos. De acordo com o artigo 208 da constituição brasileira de 1988: “O dever do Estado com a Educação será efetivado mediante a garantia de: I – ensino fundamental obrigatório e gratuito, assegurado inclusive sua oferta gratuita para todos os que a ele não tiveram acesso na idade própria.” A importância da Educação de Jovens e Adultos passou a ser reconhecida internacionalmente mediante as conferências organizadas pela UNESCO nos anos 1990. A partir de então, surgiu no Brasil uma mobilização nacional no sentido de diagnosticar metas e ações da EJA. A LDBE de 1996 garante igualdade de acesso e permanência na escola e ensino de qualidade, além da valorização experiência extraescolar. Ainda nos anos 1990, emergiram iniciativas em favor da EJA, onde o governo incumbiu também a municípios a engajarem-se nesta política, ocorrem parcerias com ONG’s, municípios, universidades, grupos informais, populares, fóruns estaduais e nacionais e através de fóruns a história da EJA passou a ser registrada no intitulado “Boletim da Ação Educativa”. O antigo ensino supletivo passou a se chamar Educação de Jovens e Adultos, e ganhou um sentido mais amplo: preparar e inserir ou reinserir o estudante no mercado de trabalho. Os objetivos da educação no país são revistos, cabendo agora à escola a responsabilidade de formar o adulto trabalhador. Recentemente, novas iniciativas como a EJA e o Proeja, têm surgido a fim de garantir metodologias adequadas a discentes com esse perfil. Em 2000, o Conselho Nacional de Educação estabeleceu, no parecer nº 11, (das Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais para a Educação de Jovens e Adultos), as funções e as bases legais da EJA fundamentadas na LDBE, nos Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais e nas Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais O decreto nº 5478/05, institui o Programa Nacional de Integração da Educação Profissional à Educação Básica na Modalidade de Educação de Jovens e Adultos – Proeja, abrangendo a formação inicial e continuada de trabalhadores e a Educação Profissional Técnica de nível médio. Eventos onde são gerados debates e trocadas experiências, como os fóruns EJA, têm sido importantes e primordiais na estruturação da EJA e de seus objetivos. É notório que nesta fase da história da Educação brasileira, a EJA possui foco amplo. Para haver uma sociedade igualitária e uma Educação eficaz é necessário que todas as áreas da Educação sejam focadas e valorizadas, não é possível desvencilhar uma da outra. 2. REFLEXÕES ACERCA DA ALFABETIZAÇÃO A alfabetização é definida como o processo de aprendizagem onde se desenvolve a habilidade de ler e escrever de maneira adequada e a utilizar esta habilidade como um código de comunicação com o seu meio. É o processo onde os educadores procuram dar mais atenção durante o período de educação inicial escolar, através do desenvolvimento das atividades da alfabetização, que envolvem o aprendizado do alfabeto e dos números, a coordenação motora e a formação de palavras, sílabas e pequenas frases. Através destas tarefas, o indivíduo consegue adquirir a habilidade de leitura, de compreensão de textos e da linguagem de maneira geral, incluindo a operação de números, que são competências necessárias para avançar aos níveis escolares seguintes. A alfabetização consegue desenvolver também a capacidade de socialização do indivíduo, uma vez que possibilita novas trocas simbólicas com a sociedade, além de possibilitar o acesso a bens culturais e outras facilidades das instituições sociais. A incapacidade de adquirir a habilidade da leitura e da escrita é chamada de analfabetismo ou iliteracia. 2.1 ANÁLISE HISTÓRICO-ANTROPOLÓGICA ACERCA DA ESCRITA E A ALFABETIZAÇÃO A comunicação oral antecede a comunicação escrita. É oralmente que se expressam a maioria das pessoas desde os tempos mais remotos. A história nos mostra que até mesmo os povos humanos da pré-história utilizavam símbolos gráficos para fazer registros em cavernas, em grutas, em rochas e etc., ou seja, já havia a necessidade de expressão gráfica. Bajard diz que: “[...] A escrita surgiu na mesopotâmia por volta do ano 4000 a.C., entre os Sumérios. Era uma escrita representada por desenhos, figuras rupestres e etc. que indicavam ações cotidianas e corriqueiras desses povos como a caça ou a pesca; essa fase ficou conhecida como pictográfica, após ela veio a fase ideográfica, onde os símbolos já representavam também alguma ideia, tornou-se fonética, depois alfabética e a partir daí a escrita foi evoluindo-se, alfabetos foram surgindo de acordo com as particularidades de cada língua.”(BAJARD, 2001, p. 15). A fase alfabética determinou a necessidade da transformação de códigos alfabéticos escritos, dando início ao que hoje chamamos de alfabetização. Ferreiro cita que: “[...] A invenção da escrita foi um processo histórico de construção de um sistema de representação, não um processo de codificação. Uma vez construído, poder-se-ia pensar que o sistema de representação é aprendido pelos novos usuários, como um sistema de codificação. Entretanto, não é assim, no caso dos dois sistemas envolvidos no início da escolarização (o sistema de codificação seria dos números e o sistema de representação seria da linguagem). As dificuldades que as crianças enfrentam são dificuldades conceituais semelhantes as da construção do sistema, e por isso pode-se dizer em ambos os casos que a criança reinventa esses sistemas, no caso da Educação para Jovens e Adultos, esse processo também poderá acontecer mediante a participação ativa do estudante e o empenho do mestre que para ele leciona. Bem entendido, não se trata de que as crianças reinventem as letras nem os números, mas que para poderem se servir desses elementos como elementos de um sistema, deve compreender seu processo de construção e suas regras de produção, o que coloca o problema epistemológico fundamental: Qual é a natureza da relação entre o real e a sua representação?” (FERREIRO, 2001, p. 12). A alfabetização não é uma ação prioritária para a fase infantil da vida. Ferreiro cita que: “[...] é recente a tomada de consciência sobre a importância da alfabetização inicial como a única solução real para o problema da alfabetização remediativa (de adolescentes e adultos)”. (FERREIRO, 2001, p. 09). 2.2 ALFABETIZAÇÃO E PRAGMATISMO: CONCEITOS ACERCA DA LEITURA E ESCRITA NO ÂMBITO EDUCACIONAL Alfabetizar é um tema que está ligado ao ensino da leitura e da escrita de códigos alfabéticos, existem inúmeros significados para essa problemática atual. Larousse limita o significado de alfabetizar a ensinar a ler. “[...] Vários conceitos definem alfabetizar como o ato de ensinar a ler, aos poucos esses conceitos vem mudando, ainda que livros e dicionários definam-no assim. Hoje muitos educadores e alfabetizadores utilizam o termo “letramento”, letrar vai além de alfabetizar, se trata da compreensão da leitura e escrita, a criança, o jovem ou o adulto estão alfabetizados ao saberem ler e escrever e letrados ao compreenderem o que leram e escreveram, estão letrados quando dominam a leitura e a escrita e fazem o uso social de ambos.” (LAROUSSE, 2003, p. 21). Soares, acerca do assunto, cita ao ser questionada sobre tal definição: “Letramento é de certa forma o contrário de analfabetismo, aliás, houve um momento em que as palavras letramento e alfabetismo se alteravam para nomear o mesmo conceito. Ainda hoje há quem prefira a palavra letramento, eu mesmo acho a palavra alfabetismo mais vernácula que letramento, que é uma tentativa da palavra inglesa literary, mas curvo-me ao poder das tendências linguísticas, que estão dando preferência a letramento. Analfabetismo é definido como o estado de quem não sabe ler e escrever, seu contrário, alfabetismo ou letramento, é o estado de quem sabe ler e escrever, ou seja, letramento é o estado em que vive o indivíduo que não só sabe ler e escrever, mas que poderá exercer as práticas sociais de leitura e escrita que circulam na sociedade em que vivem.” (SOARES, 2007). . Os Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais (PCN’s) da Língua Portuguesa (Brasil, 2001, p. 21) fala explicitamente sobre este termo, mas a sua proposta vai de encontro as propostas do letramento, isso é perceptível ao observar o que é citado nos PCN’s a respeito de pesquisas e investigações referentes a alfabetização nas séries escolares. A alfabetização é um processo contínuo, inicia-se desde os primeiros anos de vida, com a linguagem e a partir daí tudo que a pessoa aprende serve como base para uma aprendizagem eficaz. A alfabetização, como a educação em geral, é um direito de todos, infelizmente para muitos ela não pode acontecer na infância, a preocupação de como fazê-la com qualidade e êxito impulsiona investigações de como alfabetizar para compreender a leitura e a escrita. Ferreiro cita que: “[...] É difícil falar de alfabetização evitando as posturas dominantes neste campo, por um lado, o discurso oficial e, por outro, o discurso meramente ideologizante, que chamarei “discurso da denúncia”. O discurso oficial centra-se nas estatísticas, o outro despreza essas cifras tratando de desvelar “a face oculta” da alfabetização, onde o discurso oficial fala de quantidade de escolas inauguradas, o discurso da denúncia enfatiza a má qualidade dessas construções ou desses locais improvisados que carecem do indispensável para a realização de ações propriamente educativas.” (FERREIRO, 2005, p. 09). A Alfabetização de Jovens e Adultos não é uma ação recente, teve início desde a colonização apesar de ter sido reconhecida oficialmente somente após o ano de 1945, muitos motivos interferem o processo de alfabetização na infância de alguns jovens e adultos, outros nem sequer iniciam esse processo, logo nesta fase e ao longo dos anos sentem a necessidade de alfabetizar-se. Segundo Moll: “[...] Nesse sentido, quando falamos “em adultos em processo de alfabetização” no contexto social brasileiro, nos referimos a homens e mulheres marcados por experiências de infância na qual não puderam permanecer na escola pela necessidade de trabalhar, por concepções que as afastavam da escola como de que “mulher não precisa aprender” ou “saber os rudimentos da escrita já é suficiente”, ou ainda, pela seletividade construída internamente na rede escolar que produz ainda hoje itinerários descontínuos de aprendizagens formais. Referimo-nos a homens e mulheres que viveram e vivem situações limite nas quais os tempos de infância foi, via de regra, tempo de trabalho e de sustento das famílias.” (MOLL, 2004, p. 11). Ler e escrever são uma arte, principalmente para muitos que não aprenderam a ler e escrever na infância e consequentemente na vida adulta sentem falta desses atos, nas últimas décadas a oferta de ensino aumentou bastante, porém o acesso ainda é limitado para muitos, nem todos os brasileiros tiveram ou tem a oportunidade de alfabetizar-se na infância diversos fatores contribuem ou contribuíram para isso, como a necessidade de trabalhar nessa fase da vida, a falta de acesso a escola, ou até mesmo a falta de interesse, ao chegar na juventude ou na fase adulta a pessoa percebe o quanto a educação básica lhe faz falta e começa a persistir em busca do conhecimento. No decorrer da história da educação a alfabetização de jovens e adultos teve diferentes focos e contou com significantes projetos de alfabetização como o MOBRAL e Método Paulo Freire que será visto neste trabalho. O processo de aquisição da leitura e da escrita não é uma preocupação apenas de professores e alfabetizadores, a alfabetização é a base para uma educação eficaz, portanto para o aluno estar bem nas séries posteriores ele precisa de uma alfabetização sólida. Vivemos atualmente na sociedade do conhecimento, não só do conhecimento do senso comum como sempre foi, mas do conhecimento científico que facilita aos indivíduos uma vivência social de acordo com as imposições do meio e para tal o conhecimento transferido no ambiente escolar é fundamental. Atualmente a EJA tem objetivos maiores além da alfabetização por parte dos alunos, da necessidade de estar capacitado para o mercado de trabalho, ser atuante na sociedade e também o interesse político de reduzir o máximo a estatística de analfabetismo no país, este fator favorecerá com a pretensão de um dia o Brasil se tornar uma grande potência mundial. As primeiras formas de alcançar melhores condições de trabalho e ampliar conhecimento é que faz com que muitos jovens e adultos que não se alfabetizaram na infância ingressem em uma turma de EJA oferecida pelas escolas ou por grupos comunitários que desenvolvem projetos de alfabetização, ser alfabetizado nestas fases da vida depende de muita motivação e força de vontade, não basta apenas querer, a alfabetização de jovens e adultos ocorre de maneira intencional e consciente, segundo Pinto: “Os conceitos de “necessitar saber” vem da origem do interior do ser, considerado em sua plena realidade, enquanto o de “saber” e “não saber” (como fatos empíricos) coloca-se na superfície do ser humano, é um acidente social, além de ser impossível definir com rigor absoluto os limites entre o “saber e o não saber” (daí que não há uma fronteira exata entre o alfabetizado e o analfabeto). Porque o “necessitar” é uma coisa que ou é satisfeita (se é exigência interior) ou, se não é, não permite ao indivíduo subsistir como tal entre (por exemplo: as necessidades biológicas). O “necessitar” ao qual se referem a leitura e a escrita é de caráter social (uma vez que tem por fundamento o trabalho).” (PINTO, 2007, p. 92). É válido ressaltar que o direito a educação de Jovens e Adultos é assegurado por lei e as instituições de ensino devem realizá-la de maneira que atenda tal clientela sem ignorar suas limitações. Alfabetizar jovens e adultos é muito mais que transferir-lhes noções de leitura e escrita, o jovem ou adulto ao ingressar em uma escola ele tem um objetivo delimitado e compreende a escola como um meio para alcançar tal objetivo, o professor alfabetizador se torna então um mediador entre o aluno e o conhecimento, por isso ele precisa estar bem informado, motivado e querendo realizar um trabalho de construção. Há algumas décadas era comum grupos de pessoas adultas se reunirem para aprender escrever o nome e conhecer as letras do alfabeto, tais pessoas ficavam extremamente maravilhadas, pois dentro do contexto delas tal aprendizado era suficientemente satisfatório. Atualmente grupos ainda se reúnem, mas as expectativas são outras, só o aprendizado do próprio nome não é suficiente, o mercado de trabalho exige mais, até mesmo o simples fato de precisar identificar o itinerário do ônibus requer leitura. Segundo Libâneo: “A escola de hoje precisa não apenas conviver com outras modalidades de educação não formal, informal e profissional, mas também articular-se e integrar-se a elas, a fim de formar cidadãos mais preparados e qualificados para um novo tempo”. (LIBÂNEO, 2003, p. 53). Para isso o ensino escolar deve contribuir para: • Formar indivíduos capazes de pensar e de aprender permanentemente; • Prover formação global para atender à necessidade de maior e melhor qualificação profissional; • Desenvolver conhecimentos, capacidades e qualidades para o exercício consciente da cidadania; • Formar cidadãos éticos e solidários. A motivação é a chave para o sucesso da educação de jovens e adultos, desmotivados eles não conseguirão enfrentar as barreiras cotidianas, tudo se tornará mais difícil, cabe aos professores e a escola em geral incentivá-los para que não desistam. 2.3 O ANALFABETISMO COMO ANTAGONIA AO ALFABETISMO O analfabetismo é a qualidade de analfabeto, uma palavra de origem latina (analphabētus) que se refere àquelas pessoas que não sabem ler nem escrever. Porém, o termo costuma ter um uso mais extenso e é usado para fazer alusão aos indivíduos que são ignorantes ou que carecem de instrução elementar em alguma disciplina. O analfabetismo surge perante a falta de aprendizagem. Por isso, nos países que contam com programas de escolarização obrigatória, o analfabetismo é minoritário, mesmo para além do facto de que a compreensão de leitura das pessoas possa ser deficiente. Analfabeto é a pessoa que não sabe ler nem escrever. Segundo definição da UNESCO, “uma pessoa funcionalmente analfabeta é aquela que não pode participar de todas as atividades nas quais a alfabetização é requerida para uma atuação eficaz em seu grupo e comunidade, e que lhe permitem, também, continuar usando a leitura, a escrita e o cálculo a serviço do seu próprio desenvolvimento e do desenvolvimento de sua comunidade”. O analfabetismo no país ainda continua sendo um obstáculo para o progresso e desenvolvimento da humanidade. O importante é ressaltar que não estamos falando de ignorância. Analfabeto Funcional: sabe ler e escrever textos e frases curtas, mas não consegue interpretá-los, também não sabem realizar operações de matemática. Existem três níveis de Analfabetismo funcional: Existem três níveis distintos de alfabetização funcional, a saber: • Nível 1 - também conhecido como alfabetização rudimentar, compreende aqueles que apenas conseguem ler e compreender títulos de textos e frases curtas; e apesar de saber contar, têm dificuldades com a compreensão de números grandes e em fazer as operações aritméticas básicas; • Nível 2 - também conhecido como alfabetização básica, compreende aqueles que conseguem ler textos curtos, mas só conseguem extrair informações espessas no texto e não conseguem tirar uma conclusão a respeito do mesmo; e também conseguem entender números grandes, conseguem realizar as operações aritméticas básicas, entretanto sentem dificuldades quando é exigida uma maior quantidade de cálculos, ou em operações matemáticas mais complexas. • Nível 3 - também conhecido como alfabetização plena, compreende aqueles que detêm pleno domínio da leitura, escrita, dos números e das operações matemáticas (das mais básicas às mais complexas). Pode-se afirmar que, nos dias de hoje, a sociedade está experimentando uma nova forma de analfabetismo, chamado de analfabetismo digital. Este tipo de carência está relacionado com a falta de conhecimento necessário para utilizar computadores pessoais, celulares e agendas eletrônicas e dominar os sistemas que operam estas máquinas como, por exemplo, navegar na rede mundial de computadores. O grave problema do analfabetismo no mundo continua sendo um dos grandes temas prioritários a solucionar desde que se realizou a Conferência Mundial da Educação para Todos, ocorrida em 1990, em Jomtiem, Tailândia. Esta conferência foi assistida por representantes do mundo todo e chegou-se à conclusão de que a alfabetização é um dos fatores chave para resolver um dos problemas mais urgentes da sociedade, que a realização plena do ser humano só se dá através da educação e promovê-la é fundamental para o desenvolvimento das nações. Assim sendo, a educação é uma ferramenta extremamente útil para combater a pobreza e a desigualdade, elevar os níveis de saúde e bem estar social, criar as bases para um desenvolvimento econômico sustentável e a manutenção de uma democracia duradoura. Por este motivo a educação foi incluída na lista dos oito Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio das Nações Unidas, que fixou para o ano de 2015 a data limite para alcançar 100% de educação primária para todas as crianças do planeta. Para o plano ideológico da história da Educação de Jovens e Adultos, pode-se afirmar que tais medidas, no Estado brasileiro, refletiram na queda da taxa de analfabetismo ao longo dos anos. Segundo o professor doutor em filosofia do Instituto Federal de Pernambuco campus Belo Jardim, Dawson de Barros Monteiro, o modelo teórico das iniciativas de alfabetização de jovens e adultos, mesmo tendo um cunho mais político no processo, este pôde remeter-se na queda do índice de habitantes analfabetos no Brasil, desde o Estado Novo ao governo Lula, esta ideologia teórica levou à pratica, uma nova visão de Brasil, uma perspectiva de habitantes mais preocupados com sua educação, ao menos ter o alicerce de poder gozar pelo menos do próprio saber a ler e a escrever, mesmo em um plano inicial. Mostra-se aí que as políticas educacionais mesmo sem o principal intuito de alfabetizar a população geraram programas que foram fomentados e mastigados pela população, que estes puderam ao menos voltar às salas de aula, a quem desistira quando jovem; ou mesmo entrar no âmbito educacional e conhecer de perto o ensino e a escola para aqueles que não puderam nem entrar nesta. A seguir o gráfico mostra como o índice de analfabetos decaiu a partir dos programas para a erradicação do analfabetismo primordialmente com a Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Figura 1. Gráfico com a queda da taxa de analfabetismo no Brasil no período de 1940 e 2010 É observado que a partir dos anos 1940, no governo Getúlio Vargas e o Estado Novo, o índice era de que em cada 100 pessoas quase 56 encontravam-se vítimas do analfabetismo no Brasil, número que ao passar dos anos vai declinando, chegando em 2010 com um índice em torno que, em cada 100 pessoas quase 10 encontravam-se analfabetas, isso é uma conquista tanto para o Estado que cresce no plano internacional, para a educação nacional que remete a ideia que os programas funcionam de forma ótima, e para o estudante que ingressa em uma sala da EJA. O próximo gráfico traz o índice por regiões brasileiras entre um plano de uma década, 2000 a 2010. Trazendo luz a queda no índice da taxa percentual. Figura 2. Gráfico com a taxa de analfabetismo por regiões do Brasil entre 2000 e 2010 Por fim, concluísse que com os programas educacionais de Educação de Jovens e Adultos, pôsse à erradicação e diminuição brusca do índice de percentual de analfabetos no país, uma vez que esses tendem ao cunho da erradicação dessas taxas que fazem com que a perspectiva do Brasil seja favorável ou desfavorável no plano internacional, já que a educação na contemporaneidade é fundamental para o crescimento do país. 3. REFEXÕES TEÓRICAS SOBRE A EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS Ao abordar a Educação de Jovens e Adultos como tema é fundamental conhecer e destacar o pensamento de alguns autores e educadores como Paulo Freire e outros que ao longo da vida profissional dedicaram-se a alfabetizar e que contribuem para a formação docente continuada. Este capítulo aborda tais reflexões e as particularidades do tema. 3.1 PENSAMENTO DE PAULO FREIRE SOBRE A EDUCAÇÃO POPULAR Educação popular é uma educação comprometida e participativa orientada pela perspectiva de realização de todos os direitos do povo. Quando se pensa em educação popular nos remetemos à imagem de Paulo Freire que foi o grande mentor, é uma educação que visa à formação do indivíduo com valores, conhecimento e consciência de cidadania, busca utilizar o que a pessoa já tem de conhecimento popular para transformar na matéria-prima do ensino. Esta educação popular é muito utilizada em assentamentos rurais, favelas, aldeias indígenas, pequenas comunidades, ONG’s dentre outras; por se tratar de uma educação que atende as necessidades em comum de um povo, uma educação em que tem os mesmos interesses em ampliar os seus conhecimentos e tornar cidadãos conscientes do seu papel na sociedade. Paulo Freire, o mais célebre educador brasileiro, tinha o pensamento de que a escola tinha que ensinar o aluno a “ler o mundo” para obter transformações, tendo em vista que se o aluno não saber a realidade do mundo em que vive não é possível lutar em busca de melhorias; para que haja transformação é essencial a conscientização, por isso Paulo Freire criou o seu método de ensino, pois não acreditava que uma pessoa adulta dor nordeste por exemplo que não conhecia “uva” pudesse aprender a ler e escrever apenas utilizando cartilhas com frases: EVA VIU UVA, pensou em aproximar os alunos a sua própria realidade, à sua rotina do dia a dia com as palavras geradoras. De acordo com a revista Nova Escola “Grandes Pensadores”: Freire dizia que ninguém ensina nada a ninguém, mas as pessoas também não aprendem sozinhas, os homens se educam entre si mediados pelo mundo. O pensamento de Paulo Freire é que o professor não é detentor do conhecimento e que não domina todas as áreas do conhecimento e é de fundamental importância a troca de experiências entre professor e aluno, o conhecimento de um completa o outro, todos nós somos dotados de inteligências e exercemos inteligências, porém nem todos a desenvolvem para a mesma área, muitas vezes um professor é excelente na sua profissão e não tem habilidades como pedreiro e o pedreiro constrói lindas casas e edifícios, mas não é alfabetizado e quando esse professor encontra este pedreiro podem trocar experiências distintas e ambos aprendem entre si. Para Freire um professor dedicado para a educação popular tem que acreditar em mudanças, não pode ensinar apenas a ler e escrever, é preciso haver uma mudança de paradigma, e transmitir esperanças, fazer com que o aluno se transforme em sujeito pensante, crítico e consciente do que lhe envolve no dia a dia, o professor tem que ter prazer, alegria e transmitir aos alunos. Paulo Freire diz que: “Há uma relação entre a alegria necessária à atividade educativa e a esperança. A esperança de que professor e alunos juntos podemos aprender, ensinar, inquietar-nos, produzir e juntos igualmente resistir aos obstáculos à nossa alegria. Na verdade, do ponto de vista da natureza humana a esperança não é algo que a ela se justaponha. A esperança faz parte da natureza humana.” (FREIRE, 2002, p. 80). Para Freire é importante que o professor tenha esperança, uma vez que os jovens e adultos se espelham nos professores, e com esperança pode se acreditar em uma mudança de direção para a vida e para o mundo, para a sociedade, cita uma história popular que um passarinho viu um incêndio na floresta e correu para chamar os amigos para apagar o fogo, mas ninguém quis ir, então resolveu ir sozinho apagar o fogo, viu um rio e foi pegando água e jogando no fogo, certamente esse pássaro sabia que sozinho não poderia apagar toso o fogo, mas teve esperança que tomando a iniciativa talvez os outros pudessem acreditar que também seria capaz. Podemos comparar Paulo Freire a este passarinho, pois ele apenas deu início a essa educação e a cada dia pessoas se juntam a suas ideologias a fim de transformar a educação no nosso país e começam a mudar este paradigma. 3.2 ACERCA DO MÉTODO FREIRIANO O Método Paulo Freire consiste numa proposta para a alfabetização de adultos desenvolvidos pelo educador Paulo Freire, que em sua implementação concorreu com programas como o de Frank Laubach. Freire afirmou ter desenvolvido o método enquanto era diretor do Departamento de Extensões Culturais da Universidade do Recife, quando formou um grupo para testar o método na cidade de Angicos, no Rio Grande do Norte. 3.2.1 ETAPAS DO MÉTODO 1. Etapa de investigação: busca conjunta entre professor e aluno das palavras e temas mais significativos da vida do aluno, dentro de seu universo vocabular e da comunidade onde ele vive. 2. Etapa de tematização: momento da tomada de consciência do mundo, através da análise dos significados sociais dos temas e palavras. 3. Etapa de problematização: etapa em que o professor desafia e inspira o aluno a superar a visão mágica e acrítica do mundo, para uma postura conscientizada. 3.2.2 O MÉTODO • As palavras geradoras: o processo proposto por Paulo Freire inicia-se pelo levantamento do universo vocabular dos alunos. Através de conversas informais, o educador observa os vocábulos mais usados pelos alunos e a comunidade e, assim, seleciona as palavras que servirão de base para as lições. A quantidade de palavras geradoras pode variar entre 18 a 23 palavras, aproximadamente. Depois de composto o universo das palavras geradoras, elas são apresentadas em cartazes com imagens. Então, nos círculos de cultura, inicia-se uma discussão para dar-lhes significado dentro da realidade daquela turma. • A silabação: uma vez identificadas, cada palavra geradora passa a ser estudada através da divisão silábica, semelhantemente ao método tradicional. Cada sílaba se desdobra em sua respectiva família silábica, com a mudança da vogal. Por exemplo: BA-BE-BI-BO-BU. • As palavras novas: o passo seguinte é a formação de palavras novas. Usando as famílias silábicas agora conhecidas, o grupo forma palavras novas. • A conscientização: um ponto fundamental do método é a discussão sobre os diversos temas surgidos a partir das palavras geradoras. Para Paulo Freire, alfabetizar não pode se restringir aos processos de codificação e decodificação. Dessa forma, o objetivo da alfabetização de adultos é promover a conscientização acerca dos problemas cotidianos, a compreensão do mundo e o conhecimento da realidade social. 3.2.3 AS FASES DE APLICAÇÃO DO MÉTODO Freire propõe a aplicação de seu método nas cinco fases seguintes: • 1ª fase: levantamento do universo vocabular do grupo. Nessa fase, ocorrem as interações de aproximação e conhecimento mútuo, bem como a anotação das palavras da linguagem dos membros do grupo, respeitando seu linguajar típico. • 2ª fase: escolha das palavras selecionadas, seguindo os critérios de riqueza fonética, dificuldades fonéticas - numa sequência gradativa das mais simples para as mais complexas, do comprometimento pragmático da palavra na realidade social, cultural, política do grupo e/ou sua comunidade. • 3ª fase: criação de situações existenciais características do grupo. Trata-se de situações inseridas na realidade local, que devem ser discutidas com o intuito de abrir perspectivas para a análise crítica consciente de problemas locais, regionais e nacionais. • 4ª fase: criação das fichas-roteiro neles havia indicações de possíveis subtemas ligadas as palavras geradoras e sugestões de encaminhamentos para análise dos temas selecionados que funcionam como roteiro para os debates, as quais fossem apenas sugestões esses roteiros eram de grande valia, principalmente no inicio do trabalho quando a alfabetizador era também iniciante. • 5ª fase: criação de fichas de palavras para a decomposição das famílias fonéticas correspondentes às palavras geradoras. 3.2.4 HISTÓRIA Freire aplicou publicamente seu método pela primeira vez no Centro de Cultura Dona Olegarinha, um círculo de cultura do Movimento de Cultura Popular no Recife. Foi aplicado inicialmente a cinco alunos, dos quais três aprenderam a ler e escrever em 30 horas e outros dois desistiram antes de concluir. Baseado na experiência de Angicos, em janeiro de 1963, onde em 45 dias, alfabetizaram-se 300 trabalhadores, João Goulart, presidente do Brasil na época, chamou Paulo Freire para organizar o Plano Nacional de Alfabetização. Este plano, iniciado em janeiro de 1964, tinha como objetivo alfabetizar 2 milhões de pessoas em 20 000 círculos de cultura, e já contava com a participação da comunidade - só no estado da Guanabara, se inscreveram 6 000 pessoas. Mas, com o Golpe de Estado no Brasil em 1964, em abril, toda essa mobilização social foi reprimida e Paulo Freire foi considerado subversivo, sendo preso e, depois, exilado. Assim, esse projeto foi abortado. Em seu lugar, surgiu o Movimento Brasileiro de Alfabetização, igualmente uma iniciativa para a alfabetização, porém distinta do método freiriano. 3.3 O PERFIL DO PROFESSOR ALFABETIZADOR Alfabetizar jovens e adultos é uma ação peculiar e nem sempre se dá da mesma forma com se alfabetiza uma criança na infância o professor alfabetizador deve partir dor princípios de açãoreflexão-ação e deve estar aliado à formação continuada. A formação continuada permite refletir suas ações e repensar a sua prática, elaborando planos e/ou projetos que possam aprimorar a sua prática educativa. Alfabetizar na EJA envolve também a afetividade, o gosto e a responsabilidade. É fundamental que o professor da EJA tenha a consciência da valorização do outro, é importante valorizar o conhecimento que este aluno possui, pois durante toda a vida o aluno adquire um vasto conhecimento do senso comum e valorize também as suas experiências de vida, entretanto o diálogo tem que estar presente nas aulas, o professor tem que usar uma linguagem simples e acessível. O professor é um incentivador um meio para alcançar a motivação dos alunos e nesta fase da vida motivação é um aspecto fundamental. A prática da ação-reflexão-ação permite ao professor lançar estratégias para o sucesso do processo de ensino-aprendizagem. Ao observar turmas da EJA é comum observar que os professores regentes em tais turmas são geralmente professores experientes que despertam a confiança em seus alunos e que acreditam na educação como foco de mudança. Segundo Leal: “O conhecimento na ação, ou o conhecimento tácito, seria aquele constituído na prática cotidiana do exercício profissional. Concebemos que esse é um saber que se constrói com base nos conhecimentos prévios de formação inicial, articulado com os saberes gerados na prática cotidiana, de forma assistemática e muitas vezes sem tomada de consciência acerca dos modos de construção. Para um projeto de formação numa base reflexiva, torna-se fundamental conhecer e valorizar esses conhecimentos que são constituídos pelos professores, seja através de uma reflexão teórica, seja através desses processos eminentemente assistemáticos.” (LEAL, 2005, p. 114). A aprendizagem não pode ser simplesmente transmitida, ela é um processo de construção onde professora busca oferecer meios que favoreçam tal construção, a do conhecimento: tudo o que já foi vivido pelo aluno serve como base, o professor deve utilizar também a vivência e o conhecimento prévio do aluno para ajudá-lo na construção do saber. Aquilo que é oferecido ao alfabetizando deve fazer sentido para ele, se o professor partir de um ponto desconhecido que foge à realidade do aluno ele poderá não alcançar a compreensão necessária ao letramento. A principal função do professor na EJA é mediar, interagir o aluno com o meio, usar metodologias que favoreçam o processo de construção de ensino-aprendizagem, o aluno da atualidade espera muito mais que aprender a assinar o nome, portanto exercício de mera memorização, atividades mecânicas não permitem o êxito na EJA. A interdisciplinaridade deve fazer parte também desse processo os temas transversais como, ética, valores e cidadania são temas que norteiam a construção do conhecimento nesta fase. A educação de Jovens e Adultos traz muitos desafios tanto para professores quanto para alunos e são esses desafios que constroem práticas eficazes de alfabetização. Kelly Camargo Pulice in Moll esclarece muito bem o papel do educador na EJA, ao citar: “O papel do educador é pensar formas de intervir e transformar a realidade, problematizando-a, dialogando com o educando. Em sala de aula o importante não é “depositar” conteúdos, mas despertar uma nova forma de relação com a experiência vivida. Portanto, antes de qualquer coisa, é preciso conhecer o aluno: conhecê-lo como indivíduo num contexto social, com seus problemas, seus medos, suas necessidades, valorizando seu saber, sua cultura, sua oralidade, seus desejos, seus sonhos, isto possibilita uma aprendizagem integradora, abrangente, não compartimentalizada, não fragmentada.” (MOLL, 2004, p. 11). 3.4 PERFIL DO ESTUDANTE DA EJA E OS MOTIVOS DE EVASÃO Os alunos da EJA são geralmente pessoas vindas de famílias de baixa renda, sendo que muitas vezes os pais também não são alfabetizados, isso faz com que muitas vezes se sentem discriminados pela sociedade; vivemos em uma sociedade que para toda a nossa rotina é necessário a leitura,para se tomar um ônibus é necessário conseguir identificá-lo, para fazer compras tem que conhecer os números, contudo esse aluno da EJA pode se sentir excluído da sociedade, quando pensamos em exclusão nos remetemos a pessoas com deficiência, mas a exclusão não se limita a deficiência intelectuais e mentais, para esses alunos que por alguns motivos não estudaram nos primeiros anos de vida este termo também cabe. O autor Bieler fala sobre a importância da inclusão. “[...] A perspectiva da educação inclusiva vai além da deficiência. Esta é apenas uma das áreas que seriam beneficiadas com ela (educação inclusiva) A qualidade da educação é que está em debate porque hoje não se considera (nos sistemas educacionais ) a diversidade dos alunos, os níveis de necessidade e as características individuais. A proposta da educação inclusiva melhoraria a qualidade do ensino para todos. Não se trata só de incluir deficientes nas sala de aula.” (BIELER, 2004, p. 11). O aluno da EJA possui necessidade educacional especial independente de ter ou não deficiência física. Uma vez que estes alunos vão para a escola após um longo dia de serviço, sua mente já está cansada, ao contrario de uma criança que não trabalha e nem tem preocupações com a família, como os adultos. A maioria destes alunos da EJA tem a necessidade de voltar a escola para se sentir incluído na sociedade, procuram melhores condições de vida , almeja um melhor cargo no trabalho, muitos buscam a leitura com o objetivo de ser mais participativos e críticos na sociedade e até por motivos religiosos como o sonho de aprender ler para conseguir ler a bíblia, entretanto boa parte destes alunos busca uma realização pessoal, principalmente os mais idosos que as vezes são motivos de chacotas por estarem estudando nesta fase da vida. Os alunos da EJA por se tratarem de adolescentes acima de 14 anos e adultos, já tem suas experiências de vida, muitas vezes até traumas podem ter sido criados por não ter conseguido estudar anteriormente por vários motivos, desta forma os alunos criam um bloqueio, por isto o professor deve estar seguro para tentar quebrar estes bloqueios. Às vezes estes alunos podem estar com sua autoestima muito baixa, aí entra o papel do professor para traçar práticas adequadas para incentivá-los a motivação. A autoestima é fundamental para este processo de alfabetização, pois quando há esperanças se tem forças para vencer os desafios na busca de um objetivo. As turmas da EJA funcionam geralmente a noite que é o horário disponível para pessoas que trabalham diariamente, deve haver muita força de vontade e incentivo para jovens e adultos concluírem o curso. O número de evasão na EJA é muito grande, os alunos se sentem desmotivados e cansados; a grande maioria trabalha o dia inteiro, pegam ônibus lotado, muitas mulheres não trabalham fora, porém trabalham em casa. É fundamental que os professores da EJA sejam dinâmicos, aproximem o conteúdo à realidade do aluno, procurem sempre inovar e não criem barreiras para afastar esses alunos. O professor da EJA tem que estar motivado para conseguir motivar os alunos, todavia que os alunos são reflexos dos professores. Quando se pensa em evasão na EJA é de suma importância conhecer o perfil destes alunos, para tentar entender por que se dá esta evasão. As causas evasão na EJA são muitas, podemos destacar o cansaço após um dia de serviço, a distância entre casa/escola que aumenta as possibilidades de assaltos, entre outros fatores que se dá por conta da violência urbana. Outro fator é o apoio da família que nem sempre existe, o apoio do governo, da escola, direção, professores muitas vezes não estimulam os alunos; e também o desinteresse interfere sobre esta questão. É notório que existem fatores que contribuem direta ou indiretamente na evasão escolar, isso é uma preocupação de muitos, tais como escola, gestão escolar, governo, entre outras instituições. O fracasso escolar também é uma das causas de evasão, na Proposta Curricular para o 1º segmento do ensino fundamental (1997) consta que: “No público que efetivamente frequenta os programas de educação de jovens e adultos, é cada vez mais reduzido o número daqueles que não tiveram nenhuma passagem anterior pela escola. É também cada vez mais dominante a presença de adolescentes e jovens recém saídos do ensino regular, por onde tiveram passagens acidentadas.” É fundamental que aluno e professor compreendam que erros podem ser transformados em aprendizagem, é possível aprender com eles, os erros não podem ser contribuintes para causar evasão. De acordo com Cortella (1999, p. 112): “[...] O erro não ocupa um lugar externo ao processo de conhecer, investigar é bem diferente de receber uma revelação límpida, transparente e perfeita. O erro é parte integrante do conhecer não porque “errar é humano”, mas porque nosso conhecimento sobre o mundo dá-se em uma relação viva e cambiante (sem o. 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The elderly face very challenging situations due to their mental and physical conditions. Like the other country in the world, Bangladesh Government has enacted laws to protect the elderly rights. However, the law does not seem to represent what the elderly actually needs. Therefore, 385 elderly people, aged between 60 and 90 years were surveyed to understand their expectations from family, society, and government. There were 57.1% men and 42.9% women. Most of the elderly (80%) were educated. Just over half (...) (53.5%) had ordinary mental and physical health, while a quarter (31.4%) had good status. More than half (53%) of the participants required 2000–5000 BDTK (Bangladeshi Taka) equivalent to $20-50 to cover monthly treatment expenditures. The majority (67.3%) felt government Old Age Allowance should be increased to BDT 5,000 ($50). Of 13.8% of individuals experienced harsh discourse from family because of the cost of therapy. However, 16.9% of people choose not to respond to this question. More than half (57.4%) of the respondents’ thought caregivers were insufficient. One-third felt that legislation should be changed to take care of parents (33.5%) and One-third felt that children should take care of more (33.5%). Some (3.6%) thought that children should act as they did in their childhood respectively. Almost half (44.2%) of respondents did not know that the elderly should receive a separate senior citizen card for preferential treatment, yet 51.9% thought this. Some (44.7%) felt the elderly should get priority in any queue and discounts in Bus/Uber/Rickshaw. Results also showed that expectation is more than the service provided. Further, a one-stop elderly care clinic is required to provide integrated care and support for the quality of life of the elderly. (shrink)

Most Third World feminists consider nationalism as detrimental to feminism. Against this general trend, I argue that “polycentric” nationalism has potentials for advocating feminist causes in the Third World. “Polycentric” nationalism, whose proper goal is the attainment and maintenance of national self-determination, is still relevant in this neocolonial age of capitalist globalization and may serve feminist purposes of promoting the well-being of the majority of Third World women who suffer disproportionately under this system.

Do adult children have a particular duty, or set of duties, to their aging parents? What might the normative source and content of filial obligation be? This chapter examines Kant’s duty of beneficence in The Doctrine of Virtue and the Groundwork, suggesting that at its core, performance of filial duty occurs in response to the needs of aging parents. The duty of beneficence accounts for inevitable vulnerabilities that befall human rational beings and reveals moral agents as situated in communities of (...) dependence and mutual aid. Other accounts of filial obligation, such as those based on a notion of gratitude, virtue, or friendship, generate various difficulties and fail to adequately address and emphasize four morally significant features of the adult child/ aging parent relationship. First, the relationship between adult children and their aging parents is one of dependency created by the increasing frailty and need of those parents. Second, the obligations that adult children have to aging parents take place in the context of a relationship not voluntarily assumed, but not coerced. Third, given a cultural tendency toward paternalistic care of elderly individuals, the content of filial obligation should safeguard against such treatment. Fourth, because dependency relations between adult children and aging parents can involve an immense degree of sacrifice on the part of the caretaker, an acknowledgment of duties should be accompanied by a concurrent acknowledgment of the necessary limitation of duties. Addressing these four issues is essential in offering a coherent account of the normative source, content, nature, and scope of adult children’s duty to care for their aging parents. This essay demonstrates that the Kantian duty of beneficence, when functioning as the philosophical foundation of filial obligation, allows for ample light to be shed upon and for proper analysis to take place of these four issues. (shrink)

Celem artykułu jest przybliżenie koncepcji solidarności pokoleń w kontekście wyzwań procesu starzenia się ludności na początku XXI wieku. Utrzymanie pozbawionych konfliktów relacji pokoleniowych jest kwestią wymagającą wspólnych interwencji podmiotów publicznych, komercyjnych i pozarządowych. Dlatego też w opracowaniu, po omówieniu znaczeń pojęcia pokolenie i typów relacji międzypokoleniowych, zostaną wskazane modele polityki relacji międzypokoleniowych. Opis uwzględnia działania na poziomie międzynarodowym, krajowym oraz regionalnym i lokalnym. W dalszej części analizie poddane zostaną główne założenia działań na rzecz solidarności pokoleniowej z wybranych dokumentów projektu cywilizacyjnego (...) "Polska 2030. Trzecia fala nowoczesności". Podsumowanie obejmie rekomendacje praktyczne i badawcze w zakresie polityki rodzinnej i rynku pracy. * The aim of this article is to introduce a concept of "solidarity of generations" in the context of challenges of population ageing at the beginning of the XXI century. Maintaining relationships without generational conflict is a matter requiring joint intervention of public, market and social sectors entities. After the discussion of generation meaning and types of relationships between generations, intergenerational policies models were identified. The description included activities at the international, national, regional and local levels. Later in the article activities assumptions for the solidarity of generations included in the selected documents of civilization project "Poland 2030. The Third Wave of Modernity" were critically analyzed of the main approaches. Conclusions provided recommendations for practical action and further research. (shrink)

The Affordable Care Act (ACA) may be the most important health law statute in American history, yet much of the most prominent legal scholarship examining it has focused on the merits of the court challenges it has faced rather than delving into the details of its priority-setting provisions. In addition to providing an overview of the ACA’s provisions concerning priority setting and their developing interpretations, this Article attempts to defend three substantive propositions. First, I argue that the ACA is neither (...) uniformly hostile nor uniformly friendly to efforts to set priorities in ways that promote cost and quality. Second, I argue that the ACA does not take a single, unified approach to priority setting; rather, its guidance varies depending on the aspect of the health care system at issue (Patient Centered Outcomes Research Institute, Medicare, essential health benefits) and the factors being excluded from priority setting (age, disability, life expectancy). Third, I argue that cost-effectiveness can be achieved within the ACA's constraints, but that doing so will require adopting new approaches to cost-effectiveness and priority setting. By limiting the use of standard cost-effectiveness analysis, the ACA makes the need for workable rivals to cost-effectiveness analysis a pressing practical concern rather than a mere theoretical worry. (shrink)

In the age of web 2.0, the university is constantly challenged to re-adapt its ‘old-fashioned’ pedagogies to the new possibilities opened up by digital technologies. This article proposes a rethinking of the relation between university and (digital) technologies by focusing not on how technologies function in the university, but on their constituting a meta-condition for the existence of the university pedagogy of inquiry. Following Ivan Illich’s idea that textual technologies played a crucial role in the inception of the university, we (...) will first show the structural similarities between university thinking and the text as a profanation of the book. Secondly, we describe university thinking as a type of critical thinking based on the materiality of the text-on-the-page, explaining why the text has been at the centre of university pedagogy since the beginning. In the third part, we show how Illich came to see the end of the culture of the text as a challenge for the university, by describing the new features of the text-as-code incompatible with the idea of reading as study. Finally, we challenge this pessimistic reading of Illich’s and end with a call for a profanatory pedagogy of digital technologies that could mirror the revolutionary thinking behind the mediaeval invention of the text. (shrink)

A community based cross-sectional study was carried out by a self-structured questionnaire on 168 participants aged between 18 and 60 years at two arsenic prone area of Bangladesh to determine the association between extent of depression and socio-demographic as well as illness characteristics in arsenicosis population. The mean age ± SD was 42 ± 10.15 years. Female respondents were almost twice (63.1%) than the males (36.9%) in this study. Most of the respondents (94.0%) were shallow tube well water user. Among (...) them most (80.0%) of the respondents were detected as arsenic contaminated water consumer over more than six months. Study estimated that almost half (44.3%) of the participants had suffered from mild to moderate depression in the moderate arsenicosis group. Less than quarter (20.8%) participants suffered severe depression in severe arsenicosis group. Quarter (26.7%) had mild arsenicosis with no depression. This difference was not significant. Gender had significant influence on proportion of level of depression. Females significantly suffered more from depressive symptoms than males. More than two third of the female respondents suffered from some kind of depressive symptoms; where less than one third of the males were suffered from depressive symptoms. Age has no significant relation with depression. Respondents who were 48 years and above age group had highest percentages of severe depressive symptoms (35.8%). This age group also suffered from highest percentage of mild to moderate depression (37.1%). Though most of the respondent (85.1) had no diabetes and hypertension. Respondents with physical illness suffered more from some sorts of depression than those without illness, but the result is not statistically significant. We understood that depression has health challenges in adult arsenicosis patients. Therefore, physicians should take account depression in their treatment management when deal with arsenicosis patients. (shrink)

If Jewish Bolsheviks could put an end to the imperial rule of the Romanovs, could they pose a threat to the vision of a Third Reigh? A question the German National Socialists are likely to have asked themselves before and on the eve of plotting the rise of the Nazi regime. After all, Europe had had a long-standing relationship with blaming the Jews for the world’s miseries. A relationship Germany was ready to refuel, as indicated by German Field Marshal (...) Walter von Reichenau, when he stated that ‘the most essential aim of war against the Jewish-bolshevistic system is a complete destruction of their means of power and the elimination of Asiatic influence from the European culture.’ But the German fears of Jewish interference with their great scheme for Europe’s future, must surely have been inspired by more than just the age-old conspiratorial allegation that Jews were the main forces behind world politics. As such, this essay will seek to inspect the apparent rise of antisemitic fears at the time, and put a case forward to show how religion played into all this. (shrink)

(The Kindle book can be ordered for $3.21 from Amazon) -/- Thinking is a fundamental activity of our species – those that give names to other creatures and call themselves humans. Textbooks tell us that there is about 1.2 kg of matter called the brain inside the human body. It sounds small but actually is proportionally the biggest among all animals on Earth. -/- I became more aware of thinking at around 5th grade upon hearing about an ancient paradox. It (...) can be summarized as follows. -/- ¤ -/- Once upon a time, there was a stupid king. In his kingdom lived a sage who was highly respected for his intelligence. The King did not appreciate this fact. Maybe the Sage made fun of the King’s intellect, but I am not so sure. Anyway, one day, the King summoned the Sage, intending to kill him. -/- The King said, “Wise man, I heard you earn a living by thinking and arguing. Now I give you two options to die.” -/- The Sage said, “Please tell me the choices, Your Majesty.” -/- The King continued, “You live by your tongue, so I will let you say one sentence before you die. If what you say is true, you will die by hanging. If what you say is false, you will die by beheading.” -/- Little did the King know that this was a stupid order. After a short while, the Sage confidently spoke his “last words”, which actually were what saved his life: -/- “Your Majesty, I am about to be beheaded!” -/- ¤ -/- As a “wild animal” going out into life from a young age, my brain spent a lot of time and energy looking for food. Now that I have become older, my body no longer needs so much sustenance. However, my mind craves a different type of nourishment: food for thought. -/- Food for thought can directly lead to food (on the table). My main job as a scientist exemplifies what I have just stated. Maybe we were wrong. Maybe it has been “thought for food” all along, like in such a sequence as TFFTTTFTFFTTFFFT... -/- In the hyper-chaotic infosphere today, we are surrounded by the noises of information, not only as wavy shores or waterfalls but also mega-tsunamis, through Twitter, Facebook, Tiktok, Instagram, Youtube, etc. More than ever, tranquility and calmness are necessary. Like what you have seen in wilderness video clips, predators such as lions, bears, and alligators act lightning-fast when catching prey. But when food is served, the natural world returns to its peaceful, soothing silence. -/- This short book is in its own tidy infosphere, where each little story is also brief and self-contained. Despite this small appearance, I hope the content inside carries the value of tranquility and life observation. The book is petite, but pretty sure not malnourished. A not-too-small detail is that the way the content was shaped and distilled reflects some innovations of mine and my research team: the mindsponge theory, a new theory of serendipity, the bayesvl R package, the BMF analytics, as well as other experiences from working in the field of science. After all, scientific works were my main source of food (before this book sells well – if it does). -/- Welcome to the priceless sober moments – with a chicken-burger price tag! -/- I hope this book will bring readers some moments of calmness, peaceful smiles, and maybe a couple of good laughs too. -/- ~~~ -/- *This update: December 12, 2023 (Third edition, with additions). (shrink)

The evolution of Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) is the result of the amount of research in the field of education and artificial intelligence in recent years. English is the third most common languages in the world and also is the internationally dominant in the telecommunications, science and trade, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomatic language as most of the areas of work now taught in English. Therefore, the demand for learning English has increased. In this paper, we describe the design (...) of an Intelligent Tutoring System for teaching English language grammar to help students learn English grammar easily and smoothly. The system provides all topics of English grammar and generates a series of questions automatically for each topic for the students to solve. The system adapts with all the individual differences of students and begins gradually with students from easier to harder level. The intelligent tutoring system was given to a group of students of all age groups to try it and to see the impact of the system on students. The results showed a good satisfaction of the students toward the system. (shrink)

During the early modern age, the teaching of philosophy pivots on the systematic manual which replaces the traditional ‘commentarium’ also in the schools run by the religious orders of the Catholic Church. When confronted with the rise and diffusion of the new philosophy and of the new science, the authors of philosophical manuals basically follow three different directions: beside the defenders of the Aristotelian-Scholastic tradition and the enthusiastic innovators, there emerges a third conspicuous orientation, which tries to take a (...) middle course and draws inspiration from the ‘philosophia eclectica’ understood as a path independent of the various philosophical schools. At the same time, the historic-philosophical perspective starts to be introduced into the systematic manual of philosophy, to the extent that it becomes an autonomous treatment with respect to the manual itself. (shrink)

In this book I show that science suffers from a damaging but rarely noticed methodological disease, which I call rationalistic neurosis. It is not just the natural sciences which suffer from this condition. The contagion has spread to the social sciences, to philosophy, to the humanities more generally, and to education. The whole academic enterprise, indeed, suffers from versions of the disease. It has extraordinarily damaging long-term consequences. For it has the effect of preventing us from developing traditions and institutions (...) of learning rationally devoted to helping us learn how to make progress towards a wiser, more civilized world. On our fragile earth, overcrowded, fraught with injustice, inequality and conflict, menaced by unprecedented and terrifying technological and industrial means for change and destruction, we urgently need to acquire a little more wisdom and civilization if we are to avoid repeating horrors of the kind suffered by so many during the 20th century (and already suffered by many in the first few years of the 21st century). We can ill afford to have in our hands instruments of learning botched and bungled from the standpoint of helping us learn how to live more wisely. It may seem scarcely credible that something as important as our institutions of learning can suffer from wholesale, structural defects. Why has this not been noticed before? Why have not armies of scientists and scholars appreciated the point and, long ago, put the matter right? The answer will emerge as my argument unfolds. I will show that one of the most damaging features of rationalistic neurosis is that it has built-in methodological and institutional mechanisms which effectively conceal that anything is wrong. But there is also an immediately obvious reason: specialization, and the resulting fragmentation of academia, has resulted in a situation in which hardly anyone takes responsibility for the overall ideals, the overall aims and methods, of academic inquiry. Academics, these days, are specialists, furiously trying to keep abreast of developments in their own specialist fields. They have no time, and no inducement, to lift their eyes from their particular disciplines, and look at the whole endeavour. Science has long been under attack, at least since the Romantic movement. Blake objected to “Single vision & Newton’s sleep” and declared that “Art is the Tree of Life... Science is the Tree of Death”. Keats lamented that science will “clip an Angel’s wings” and “unweave a rainbow”. Whereas the Enlightenment had valued science and reason as tools for the liberation of humanity, Romanticism found science and reason oppressive and destructive, and instead valued art, imagination, inspiration, individual genius, emotional and motivational honesty rather than careful attention to objective fact. Much subsequent opposition to science stems from, or echoes, the Romantic opposition of Blake, Wordsworth, Keats and many others. There is the movement Isaiah Berlin has described as the “Counter-Enlightenment” (Berlin, 1979, ch. 1). There is existentialism, with its denunciation of the tyranny of reason, its passionate affirmation of the value and centrality of irrationality in human life, from Dostoevsky, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche to Heidegger and Sartre (see, for example, Barrett, 1962). There is the attack on Enlightenment ideals concerning science and reason undertaken by the Frankfurt school, by postmodernists and others, from Horkheimer and Adorno to Lyotard, Foucault, Habermas, Derrida, MacIntyre and Rorty (see Gascardi, 1999). The soul-destroying consequences of valuing science and reason too highly is a persistent theme in literature: it is to be found in the works of writers such as D.H. Lawrence, Doris Lessing, Max Frisch, Y. Zamyatin. There is persistent opposition to modern science and technology, and to scientific rationality, often associated with the Romantic wing of the green movement, and given expression in such popular books as Marcuse’s One Dimensional Man, Roszak’s Where the Wasteland Ends, Berman’s The Reenchantment of the World and Appleyard’s Understanding the Present. There is the feminist critique of science and conceptions of science: see, for example, Fox Keller (1984) and Harding (1986). And there are the corrosive implications of the so-called “strong programme” in the sociology of knowledge, and of the work of social constructivist historians of science, which depict scientific knowledge as a belief system alongside many other such conflicting systems, having no more right to claim to constitute knowledge of the truth than these rivals, the scientific view of the world being no more than an elaborate myth, a social construct (see Barnes and Bloor, 1981; Bloor, 1991; Barnes, Bloor and Henry, 1996; Shapin and Schaffer, 1985; Shapin, 1994; Pickering, 1984; Latour, 1987). This latter literature has provoked a counter-attack by scientists, historians and philosophers of science seeking to defend science and traditional conceptions of scientific rationality: see Gross and Levitt (1994), Gross, Levitt and Lewis (1996), and Koertge (1998). This debate between critics and defenders of science came abruptly to public attention with the publication of Alan Sokal’s brilliant hoax article ‘Transgressing the boundaries’ in a special issue of the cultural studies journal Social Text in 1996 entitled Science Wars: see Sokal and Bricmont (1998). What does this book have to contribute, given the above avalanche of criticism of science? The criticisms of science developed in this book are diametrically opposed to the above, in so far as the above criticisms oppose scientific rationality, seek to diminish or restrict its influence, or hold that it is unattainable. My central point is that we suffer, not from too much scientific rationality, but from not enough. What is generally taken to constitute scientific rationality is actually nothing of the kind. It is rationalistic neurosis, a characteristic, influential and damaging kind of irrationality masquerading as rationality. Science is damaged by being trapped within a widely upheld but severely defective philosophy of science; free science from this defective philosophy, provide it with a more intellectually rigorous philosophy, and it will flourish in both intellectual and humanitarian terms. And more generally, as we shall see, academic inquiry as a whole is damaged by being trapped within an intellectually defective philosophy of inquiry; free it from this defective philosophy, from its rationalistic neurosis, and it will flourish in intellectual and human terms. It is not reason that is damaging, but defective pretensions to reason — rationalistic neurosis —masquerading as reason. Thus what I seek to do here is the exact opposite of what all those who oppose science and scientific rationality do. I shall argue that Reason, the authentic article, arrived at by generalizing the progress-achieving methods of science, can have profoundly liberating and enriching consequences for all worthwhile, problematic aspects of life, and thus deserves to enter into every aspect of life. The bare bones of the argument of this book can be stated quite simply like this. Science cannot proceed without making the substantial metaphysical assumption that the universe is physically comprehensible (to some extent at least). But this conflicts with the orthodox view that in science everything is assessed impartially with respect to evidence, nothing being permanently assumed independently of evidence. So the metaphysical assumption of comprehensibility is repressed. Science pretends that no such assumption is made. But this damages science. For the assumption is substantial, influential and highly problematic. It needs to be made explicit within science so that it can be critically scrutinized, so that alternatives can be developed and considered. Pretending the assumption is not being made undermines the intellectual rigour of science, its intellectual value and success. And it does not stop there. For science also makes value assumptions. Quite properly, science is concerned to discover that which is of value. New factual knowledge devoid of all value (whether intellectual or practical) does not contribute to science. But the orthodox view of science holds that values have no place within science. As in the case of metaphysics, here too, science pretends that values have no role to play within the intellectual domain of science. And this damages science. For values are, if anything, even more influential and problematic than metaphysics (in influencing the direction of research). Here too, values need to be made explicit within science so that they can be scrutinized, so that alternatives can be developed and assessed. Pretending that values play no role within the intellectual domain damages science; both the intellectual and the practical aspects of science are adversely affected. Science fails to pursue those avenues of research that lie in the best interests of humanity. And it goes further. Science is pursued in a social, cultural, economic and political context. It is a part of various social, economic and political projects which seek to achieve diverse human objectives. But the idea that science is an integral part of humanitarian or political enterprises with political ends clashes, once again, with the official view of science that the aim of science is to improve factual knowledge. The political objectives of science are repressed. And, once again, this damages science. For, of course, the political objectives of science, like all our political objectives, are profoundly problematic. These need to be made explicit so that they can be scrutinized, so that alternatives can be developed and considered. The pretence that science does not have this political dimension once again undermines the intellectual rigour of science, and its human value. It lays science open to becoming a part of economic, corporate and political enterprises that are not in the best interests of humanity. The upshot of the line of argument just indicated is that we need to bring about a revolution in the aims and methods of science, and of academic inquiry more generally. Natural science needs to change; its relationship with the rest of academic inquiry, with social inquiry and the humanities, needs to change; and most importantly and dramatically, academic inquiry as a whole needs to change. The basic task of the academic enterprise needs to become to help humanity learn how to tackle its problems of living in more cooperatively rational ways than at present. We need to put the intellectual tasks of articulating our problems of living, and proposing and critically assessing possible solutions, possible and actual actions, at the heart of academic inquiry. The basic task needs to be to help humanity learn a bit more wisdom – wisdom being the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others, wisdom including knowledge and technological know-how, but much else besides. Natural science, despite its flaws, has massively increased our knowledge and technological know-how. This in turn has led to a massive and sometimes terrifying increase in our power to act. Often this unprecedented power to act is used for human good, as in medicine or agriculture. But it is also used to cause harm, whether unintentionally (initially at least) as when industrialization and modern agriculture lead to global warming, destruction of natural habitats and rapid extinction of species, or intentionally, as when the technology of war is used by governments and terrorists to maim and kill. Before the advent of modern science, when we lacked the means to do too much damage to ourselves and the planet, lack of wisdom did not matter too much. Now, with our unprecedented powers to act, bequeathed to us by science, lack of wisdom has become a menace. This is the crisis behind all the other current global crises: science without wisdom. In these circumstances, to continue to pursue knowledge and technological know-how dissociated from a more fundamental quest for wisdom can only deepen the crisis. As a matter of urgency, we need to free science and academia of their neuroses; we need to bring about a revolution in the academic enterprise so that the basic aim becomes to promote wisdom by intellectual and educational means. At present science and the humanities betray both reason and humanity. The argument of this book, which I have just summarized, begins with a discussion of the philosophical and methodological problems that beset theoretical physics. At once, many of those who are concerned about moral, political and environmental issues that plague our world today, will feel impatient. What have the methodological problems of theoretical physics to do with third world poverty, war and the threat of war, pollution, extinction of species, the menace of conventional, chemical, biological and nuclear armaments? I can only plead with such a reader: patience. The root cause of the sickness of our times does indeed lie, I claim, with a methodological sickness of natural science or, even more specifically, of physical science. What makes the modern world so utterly different from all previous ages is our possession of modern science and technology. This is the instrument that has changed the conditions of human life almost beyond all recognition, and put unprecedented, and sometimes terrifying, powers into our hands. One should not dismiss out of hand the suggestion that a part of our problem may lie with this instrument, this engine, of rapid change. We see, here, too, the way in which intellectual specialization, referred to above, has effectively concealed from view the nature and extent of the problem that confronts us. The argument that I shall develop in what follows begins with physics, with problems concerning the aims and methods of physics. But it then leaps to social science, to philosophy, to the humanities, to education, to psychotherapy, and to politics: in the end there is scarcely an aspect of modern life that is not touched and, potentially, affected by the argument. How many academic experts are prepared to follow, to take seriously, an argument that ranges so recklessly across such a wide range of academic disciplines? How many non-academic non-experts? But just this is what the argument and message of this book requires. I hope that the reader will endure with patience the somewhat esoteric discussion concerning the aims and methods of physics pursued in chapter one. This may not seem to have anything much to do with the urgent problems of our times, but it does. This is in part how the intellectual disaster I seek to expose in this book conceals itself from view: it buries itself in the obscure, recondite field of the philosophy of physics. Those who devote their lives to the philosophy of physics are, by and large, too myopic to see how their specialized field of study has anything to do with the great and dreadful humanitarian problems and disasters of our age; and those who are above all concerned with these humanitarian disasters have no time at all for abstruse issues concerning the aims and methods of physics. And so the connection is never made. As it happens, the methodological neurosis of physics, with which we begin in chapter one, is actually a quite simple matter to grasp. It does not require any real knowledge of physics to understand. Indeed, physicists and philosophers of physics are much more likely to find the argument difficult to follow than are non-experts. We non-scientists can stand back and see the whole wood; scientists, trained to think in terms of the current orthodox conception of science, trapped in the thickets of research, will find this much harder to do. In an attempt to take this peculiar circumstance into account, I have arranged the exposition as follows. In chapter one I give a simple exposition of the case for declaring natural science to suffer from what I call "rationalistic neurosis"; this avoids all technicalities, and goes straight to the heart of the matter. In the appendix I tackle a host of more technical objections that may be made to the elementary argument of chapter one. So, those experts in the fields of the philosophy of physics and philosophy of science who find the argument of chapter one naïve and unconvincing, should consult the appendix before tossing the book away in disgust. I write in the hope that there will be a few who will not dismiss out of hand the suggestion that the question of how we are to go about learning how to live in wiser and more civilized ways might have something to learn from scientific learning, and will take the trouble to pursue the line of argument traced out in this book. I write in the hope that these few will grasp just how desperate our situation is, how urgent the need to change the status quo, and will do everything in their power to alert others to the need to heal the methodological sickness from which our institutions and traditions of learning at present suffer. To begin with, we need a campaigning organization, modelled perhaps on "Friends of the Earth", which might be called something like "Friends of Wisdom". (shrink)

Scholarly discourse on “disruptive technologies” has been strongly influenced by disruptive innovation theory. This theory is tailored for analyzing disruptions in markets and business. It is of limited use, however, in analyzing the broader social, moral and existential dynamics of technosocial disruption. Yet these broader dynamics should be of great scholarly concern, both in coming to terms with technological disruptions of the past and those of our current age. Technologies can disrupt social relations, institutions, epistemic paradigms, foundational concepts, values, and (...) even the nature of human cognition and experience – domains of disruption that are largely neglected in existing discourse on disruptive technologies. Accordingly, this paper seeks to reorient scholarly discussion around a broader notion of technosocial disruption. This broader notion raises three foundational questions. First, how can technosocial disruption be conceptualized in a way that clearly sets it apart from the disruptive innovation framework? Secondly, how does the notion of technosocial disruption relate to the concordant notions of “disruptor” and “disruptiveness”? Thirdly, can we advance criteria to assess the “degree of social disruptiveness” of different technologies? The paper clarifies these questions and proposes an answer to each of them. In doing so, it advances “technosocial disruption” as a key analysandum for future scholarship on the interactions between technology and society. (shrink)

A new translation and edition of Aristotle's Protrepticus (with critical comments on the fragments) -/- Welcome -/- The Protrepticus was an early work of Aristotle, written while he was still a member of Plato's Academy, but it soon became one of the most famous works in the whole history of philosophy. Unfortunately it was not directly copied in the middle ages and so did not survive in its own manuscript tradition. But substantial fragments of it have been preserved in several (...) works by Iamblichus of Chalcis, a third century A.D. neo-Pythagorean philosopher and educator. On the basis of a close study of Iamblichus' extensive use and excerption of Aristotle's Protrepticus, it is possible to reconstruct the backbone of the lost work, and then to flesh it out with the other surviving reports about the work from antiquity (for example in Alexander of Aphrodisias and other ancient commentators on Aristotle). It is also possible to identify several papyrus fragments of the work, and many references and literary allusions in later authors, especially Cicero, whose own lost dialogue Hortensius was a defense of philosophy modeleld on Aristotle's. (shrink)

First, we explain the conception of trustworthiness that we employ. We model trustworthiness as a relation among a trustor, a trustee, and a field of trust defined and delimited by its scope. In addition, both potential trustors and potential trustees are modeled as being more or less reliable in signaling either their willingness to trust or their willingness to prove trustworthy in various fields in relation to various other agents. Second, following Alfano (forthcoming) we argue that the social scale of (...) a potential trust relationship partly determines both explanatory and normative aspects of the relation. Most of the philosophical literature focuses on dyadic trust between a pair of agents (Baier 1986, Jones 1996, Jones 2012, McGeer 2008, Pettit 1995), but there are also small communities of trust (Alfano forthcoming) and trust in large institutions (Potter 2002, Govier 1997, Townley & Garfield 2013, Hardin 2002). The mechanisms that induce people to extend their trust vary depending on the size of the community in question, and the ways in which trustworthiness can be established and trusting warranted vary with these mechanisms. Mechanisms that work in dyads and small communities are often unavailable in the context of trusting an institution or branch of government. Establishing trust on this larger social scale therefore requires new or modified mechanisms. In the third section of the paper, we recommend three policies that – we argue – tend to make institutions more trustworthy and to reliably signal that trustworthiness to the public. First, they should ensure that their decision-making processes are as open and transparent as possible. Second, they should make efforts to engage stakeholders in dialogue with decision-makers such as managers, members of the C-Suite, and highly-placed policy-makers. Third, they should foster diversity – gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic background, disability, etc. – in their workforce at all levels, but especially in management and positions of power. We conclude by discussing the warrant for distrust in institutions that do not adopt these policies, which we contend is especially pertinent for people who belong to groups that have historically faced (and in many cases still do face) oppression. (shrink)

I motivate three claims: Firstly, attentional traits can be cognitive virtues and vices. Secondly, groups and collectives can possess attentional virtues and vices. Thirdly, attention has epistemic, moral, social, and political importance. An epistemology of attention is needed to better understand our social-epistemic landscape, including media, social media, search engines, political polarisation, and the aims of protest. I apply attentional normativity to undermine recent arguments for moral encroachment and to illuminate a distinctive epistemic value of occupying particular social positions. A (...) recurring theme is that disproportionate attention can distort, mislead, and misrepresent even when all the relevant claims are true and well supported by evidence. In the informational cacophony of the internet age, epistemology must foreground the cognitive virtues of attunement. (shrink)

In this paper, I ask three questions of the liberal. In each, I fill in philosophical detail around a certain sort of complaint raised in current public debates about their position. In the first, I probe the limits of the liberal's tolerance for civil disobedience; in the second, I ask how the liberal can adjudicate the most divisive moral disputes of the age; and, in the third, I suggest the liberal faces a problem when there is substantial disagreement about (...) the boundaries of the rational and the reasonable. (shrink)

Equal Justice explores the role of the idea of equality in liberal theories of justice. The title indicates the book’s two-part thesis: first, I claim that justice is the central moral category in the socio-political domain; second, I argue for a specific conceptual and normative connection between the ideas of justice and equality. This pertains to the age-old question concerning the normative significance of equality in a theory of justice. The book develops an independent, systematic, and comprehensive theory of equality (...) and egalitarianism. The principal question is about the importance of equality in a theory of justice. More precisely, we should pose questions in four contracting circles: 1. Is justice the supreme value guiding our setup of the basic structure of society, or are there other, equally important values, such as recognition, care, communal belonging? 2. If justice is the highest guiding principle, which competing ideals—especially equality and freedom—ought to have precedence in a policy oriented toward justice? What status does the ideal of equality have in that framework? 3. If equality is a basic ideal of just policy, how should it be practically realized? What sort of equality (equal opportunity, equality of welfare, resource equality) should be demanded? 4. What patterned distribution of which specific goods does the ideal of equality demand? Which principles of distribution can be justified according to our justice ideal? To conclude and summarize: 5. What is the essential core of an egalitarian theory of justice, as opposed to an inegalitarian theory? These five questions structure the work’s order of argumentation. Part A elaborates the conceptual foundations and basic moral principles of justice and equality. Chapter I sets out to install justice as the central moral category in the socio-political domain. At the beginning of the first chapter, the conceptual foundations of justice are clarified. While not eliminating the classical distinctions between different forms of justice, I argue that the distributive paradigm is of primary importance. The primacy of justice in the socio-political domain is developed out of a confrontation with alternative positions, those which maintain either that justice generally, or distributive justice in particular, are subsidiary virtues. At the end of Chapter I, the first of the questions mentioned above is answered in a way that establishes justice as the guiding normative concept for the foundation and evaluation of any social order. To clarify the role of equality in a theory of justice, Chapter II separates the idea of equality into four different principles. They are organized in a way that begins with the most general and uncontroversial principle of equality, and progresses towards increasingly detailed and contested principles. There are two theses that articulate and defend the significance of equality for justice: First there is a conceptual connection between justice and equality, in that principles of formal and proportional equality are necessary in order to explicate the concept of justice. These two principles establish an unbreakable bond between justice and equality. Justice can only be explained—or so I argue—by reference to these and other (normative) principles of equality. The second thesis posits a normative relationship between justice and equality, which is disclosed by three substantive principles of equality: moral equality, the presumption of equality, and the principle of responsibility. I argue that the normative core of an egalitarian theory of justice is expressed by the latter two principles, which are themselves based on the first principle, that of moral equality. When we view one another as persons, what form of equality or equal treatment is normatively demanded? I argue that the answer to this question is given by the procedural principle of the presumption of equality: regardless of their apparent differences, all persons deserve strictly equal treatment, unless certain kinds of differences have whatever particular relevance would justify, on generally acceptable grounds, unequal treatment or unequal distribution. The justification of the presumption of equality is central to this work and has considerable importance. If the presumption principle’s validity can be justified by enlisting the principle of general justification, then the primacy of equality, and the essential argument for an egalitarian theory of justice, is established. This would likewise provide a procedure for the construction of a material theory of justice. The second question is answered thereby at the end of Chapter II: Equality should have primacy over competing ideals within a justice-oriented policy. The presumption of equality establishes this primacy and, at the same time, offers an appropriate metric and guideline for the construction of a material theory of distributive justice. The presumption of equality in Part B offers an elegant procedure for the development of a theory of distributive justice. Chapter III clearly sets out the necessary prerequisites that a theory of distribution must satisfy in order to determine a liberal-egalitarian distributional framework. We need to specify in which situation the distribution takes place; which goods are and are not to be distributed; in which respect the presumptive equality is to be produced; and by and to whom, and for what period, the relevant goods are to be distributed. The distribution is based on resources understood as general-purpose means. It is necessary to divide goods into different categories, since the justification for unequal treatment in one domain will not carry over into another. This makes presumptive equality necessarily complex. To that end, four spheres of justice are distinguished: (1) the political sphere, which involves allocating rights through the distribution of civil liberties; (2) the democratic sphere, in which political power and the rights of political participation are regulated; (3) the economic sphere, in which income and property are distributed; (4) the social sphere, in which social positions and opportunities are distributed. This framework of distributive justice answers the third of our guiding questions, about the nature of equality, in terms of equality of resources. Chapters IV and V set out the egalitarian distributive criteria for each sphere. I argue that the generally accepted, fundamental rights of classical liberalism are more effectively reconstructed by reference to the equal resource distribution presumptively required in those spheres. Chapter IV shows that when it comes to the first two spheres, those involving basic rights and freedoms and entitlement political participation, there can be no justified exceptions to the equal distribution of the relevant goods. That section argues, contrary to what we commonly find in theories of freedom or popular sovereignty, that the value of freedom and self-determination as the political basis of autonomy is best realized through the presumption of equal distribution. Chapter V deals with the other two spheres, those of economic goods and social positions, and argues for justified exceptions to equal distribution. In the economic sphere we find one principal reason favouring unequal distribution of resources, and three restrictions and compensations limiting that inequality. The basic exception to equal economic distribution arises from the unequal consequences of personal responsibility. From a suitably egalitarian standpoint, the principle of responsibility is the normative principle that determines which reasons justify economic inequality. Here the basic idea is that unequal shares of social goods are fair if they result from the choices and deliberate actions of the relevant parties. That individuals have to bear the costs of their own choices is a condition of autonomy. However, benefits or disadvantages arising from arbitrary and unmerited differences in social circumstances or natural endowments is unfair. The unequal consequences of independent decision-making and action must therefore be limited by compensating first for preferences, secondly for disadvantages, and thirdly by redistributing wealth in aid of the worse-off. I situations of emergency, compensating for disadvantages has priority over all other claims, owing to the urgency of the situation. Social inequalities go beyond the permissible limit if it is possible to improve the long-term social or economic situation of the worse-off by redistributing wealth to them. These exceptions lead to a complex system of free economic action within a framework of compensatory tax and transfer mechanisms. Finally, in the social sphere, the distribution of social positions, offices and opportunities must be structured to ensure that equally talented and motivated citizens have roughly equal chances of obtaining those offices or positions, irrespective of their economic or social class backgrounds. This compromise is permissible for reasons of freedom and prudence, and it makes a certain measure of inequality acceptable. The fourth of our guiding questions is answered accordingly. There are five principles of justice for the basic structure of society, and five legal principles that govern the special distribution of goods in the respective spheres—all are ranked according to their most defensible grounds of priority, ensuring that everyone is accorded equal justice. Chapter VI recapitulates the initial question of equality’s value. The conception of equal justice developed in this work postulates five principles of equality and five principles of law; these constitute an egalitarian framework because they support and promote social justice. Equality has value with respect to them, but is not given any independent, intrinsic value. That is why I call the account developed here a form of constitutive egalitarianism: justice is realized through the realization of equality, itself accomplished by applying the five postulates of equality and five distributive principles of law. This is an egalitarianism on two levels. The first level is involves the claim that morality or justice is conceptually connected with equality. The second level gives equality a substantial weight in what is conceptually validated at the first level, namely the presumption of equality, and constructs an appropriate interpretation and conception of distributive justice through principles of distribution for the individual spheres. The weight and importance of equality is shown by the distributive criteria applied to those spheres. This answers our final guiding question about the nature of an egalitarian theory. (shrink)

Two stories have dominated the historiography of early modern philosophy: one in which a seventeenth century Age of Reason spawned the Enlightenment, and another in which a skeptical crisis cast a shadow over subsequent philosophy, resulting in ever narrower "limits to knowledge." I combine certain elements common to both into a third narrative, one that begins by taking seriously seventeenth-century conceptions of the topics and methods central to the rise of a "new" philosophy. In this revisionist story, differing approaches (...) to the central subject matter of early modern metaphysics--knowledge of substances through their essences and causal powers--arise as a result of disagreements about the powers of the human cognitive faculties. Methodological writings are seen as attempts to direct readers in the proper use of their cognitive faculties. The early modern rejection of the Aristotelian theory of cognition ranks equally in importance with rejection of Aristotelian doctrines about nature. Skepticism is more often than not a tool to be used in teaching the reader the proper use of the cognitive faculties, or indeed in convincing the reader of the existence or inexistence of certain cognitive faculties or powers. Instead of early modern "epistemology" or "theory of knowledge," one speaks, with seventeenth century writers, of theories of the cognitive faculties and their implications for the possibility of human knowledge. The early modern rejection of Aristotelian logic can then be seen as reflecting a negative assessment about the fit between syllogistic reasoning and logic as an art of reasoning or thinking which refines the use of the cognitive faculties. -/- Central to this new historiography is the story of the relation between the intellect and senses as cognitive faculties or powers. The development of philosophy from Descartes to Kant can be portrayed as a series of claims about the power of the intellect to know the essences of things, with resulting consequences for ontology and the foundations of natural philosophy. I illustrate this revised narrative by comparing three conceptions of the intellect in three philosophical settings, provided by several late scholastic Aristotelians, Descartes, and Locke. I have two aims: first, to exhibit the central role played by the conception of intellect or understanding in these authors, and, second, to locate their discussions of the cognitive faculties in relation to recent understandings of psychology, epistemology, logic, mind, and their relations. Early modern writings do not easily fit into the modern categories of epistemology and psychology; more generally, the early modern concern with the workings of mind does not coincide with recent conceptions of naturalism. These findings can help us to see problems with our current categories. (shrink)

Quentin Meillassoux’s call for realism is a call for a new interest in the Earth as un-correlated being in philosophy. Unlike Meillassoux, Martin Heidegger has not been criticized for being a correlationist. To the contrary, his concept of the Earth has to be understood as un-correlated being, as it is opposed to the world as correlated being. First, this interpreta­tion of Heidegger’s concept of the Earth solves various problems of interpretation that are present in the secondary literature. Second, Heidegger’s characterization (...) of the Earth in the end remains unthought in his work. Third, in the age of global warming Meillassoux’s call for realism can help to conceive planet Earth as the ontic-ontological origin of the Heideggerian strife between Earth and world. (shrink)

Assembly of minimal genomes revealed many genes encoding unknown functions. Three overlooked functional categories account for some of them. Cells are prone to make errors and age. As a first key function, discrimination between proper and changed entities is indispensable. Discrimination requires management of information, an authentic, yet abstract, cur- rency of reality. For example proteins age, sometimes very fast. The cell must identify, then get rid of old proteins without destroying young ones. Implementing discrimination in cells leads to the (...) second set of functions, usually ignored. Being abstract, information must nevertheless be embodied into material entities, with unavoidable idiosyncratic properties. This brings about novel unmet needs. Hence, the buildup of cells elicits specific but awkward material implementations, ‘kludges’ that become essential under particular settings, while difficult to identify. Finally, a third functional category char- acterizes the need for growth, with metabolic implementations allowing the cell to put together the growth of its cytoplasm, membranes, and genome, spanning different spatial dimensions. Solving this metabolic quandary, critical for engineering novel synthetic biology chassis, uncovered an unexpected role for CTP synthetase as the coordinator of nonhomothetic growth. Because a significant number of SynBio constructs aim at creating cell factories we expect that they will be attacked by viruses (it is not by chance that the function of the CRISPR system was identified in industrial settings). Substantiating the role of CTP, natural selection has dealt with this hurdle via synthesis of the antimetabolite 30-deoxy-30,40-didehydro- CTP, recruited for antiviral immunity in all domains of life. (shrink)

The study aimed to identify the creative environment of the technical colleges operating in Gaza Strip. The analytical descriptive method was used through a questionnaire which was randomly distributed to 289 employees of the technical colleges in Gaza Strip with a total number of (1168) employees and a response rate equal to (79.2%) of the sample study. The results confirmed the existence of a high degree of approval for the dimensions of the creative environment with a relative weight of (75.19%) (...) according to the perspective of the employees of the technical colleges in Gaza Strip. The results of the study showed a high level of creative environment (fluency, flexibility, originality, sensitivity to problems) in the technical colleges in Gaza Strip, where the field (fluency) ranked first and relative weight (76.86%), in the second place came the area (sense of problems) and relative weight (74.89%). The field of elasticity came in third place with a relative weight of (74.59%). Finally, the field of originality came in fourth and final rank with a relative weight of (74.41%). The results showed that there are differences between the technical colleges in the principles of the creative environment in all fields and the overall degree except for the field of flexibility. The most available colleges in these principles were the university college of applied sciences, and that was the least of the Faculty of Al-Aqsa Society. The results showed that there were differences according to the age variable in the areas of creative environment only in the sense of problems for age groups (less than 30 years) and (from 40 to 50 years). The researchers suggested a number of recommendations, the need to enhance the dimensions of the creative environment in technical colleges by working to improve the faculties of fluency, flexibility, originality and sensitivity to problems. The need to work on continuity and improve aspects of the creative environment of the colleges and the creation of new and innovative ways to support and develop and support these aspects combined. Necessity of technical colleges to continue to develop the creative environment (fluency, flexibility, originality, sensitivity to problems) for employees by engaging them in specialized training courses for creative thinking and problem solving. Developing work procedures with new innovative methods that will accomplish the various tasks quickly and accurately, and provide the effort, time and costs. The researchers urged more future studies that address the same variables of the current study in the field of creative environment and applied to other sectors. (shrink)

Medieval and early modern Jewish philosophers developed their thinking in conversation with various bodies of literature. The influence of ancient Greek – primarily Aristotle (and pseudo-Aristotle) – and Arabic sources was fundamental for the very constitution of medieval Jewish philosophical discourse. Toward the late Middle Ages Jewish philosophers also established a critical dialogue with Christian scholastics. Next to these philosophical corpora, Jewish philosophers drew significantly upon Rabbinic sources (Talmud and the numerous Midrashim) and the Hebrew Bible. In order to clarify (...) the unique as well as shared elements in the thought of medieval Jewish philosophers, we will begin this chapter with a brief study of some early Rabbinic sources on the purpose of the world, i.e., why it came to be and why it is sustained in existence. In the second part of this chapter, we will study Maimonides’ critique of the veracity and usefulness of the belief in (anthropocentric) teleology, and the critical reception of his views by later philosophers. The third part will address discussions of divine teleology in Kabbalistic literature. Our exposition will concentrate mostly on a specific early-eighteenth-century text that is one of the most lucid and rigorous presentations of Lurianic Kabbalah. The fourth and final section will elucidate Spinoza’s critique of teleology, its precise target and scope, and its debt to earlier sources discussed in this chapter. (shrink)

We evaluated the reliability, validity, and differential item functioning (DIF) of a shorter version of the Defining Issues Test-1 (DIT-1), the behavioral DIT (bDIT), measuring the development of moral reasoning. 353 college students (81 males, 271 females, 1 not reported; age M = 18.64 years, SD = 1.20 years) who were taking introductory psychology classes at a public University in a suburb area in the Southern United States participated in the present study. First, we examined the reliability of the bDIT (...) using Cronbach’s α and its concurrent validity with the original DIT-1 using disattenuated correlation. Second, we compared the test duration between the two measures. Third, we tested the DIF of each question between males and females. Findings reported that first, the bDIT showed acceptable reliability and good concurrent validity. Second, the test duration could be significantly shortened by employing the bDIT. Third, DIF results indicated that the bDIT items did not favour any gender. Practical implications of the present study based on the reported findings are discussed. (shrink)

The 2010s were a golden age of information privacy research, but its policy accomplishments tell a mixed story. Despite significant progress on the development of privacy theory and compelling demonstrations of the need for privacy in practice, real achievements in privacy law and policy have been, at best, uneven. In this chapter, I outline three broad shifts in the way scholars (and, to some degree, advocates and policy makers) are approaching privacy and social media. First, a change in emphasis from (...) individual to structural approaches. Second, increasing attention to the political economy of privacy—especially the business models of information companies, such as social media platforms. And third, a deeper understanding of privacy’s role in a healthy digital public sphere. (shrink)

continent. 1.1 : 3-13. / 0/ – Introduction I want to propose, as a trajectory into the philosophically weird, an absurd theoretical claim and pursue it, or perhaps more accurately, construct it as I point to it, collecting the ground work behind me like the Perpetual Train from China Mieville's Iron Council which puts down track as it moves reclaiming it along the way. The strange trajectory is the following: Kant's critical philosophy and much of continental philosophy which has followed, (...) has been a defense against horror and madness. Kant's prohibition on speculative metaphysics such as dogmatic metaphysics and transcendental realism, on thinking beyond the imposition of transcendental and moral constraints, has been challenged by numerous figures proceeding him. One of the more interesting critiques of Kant comes from the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land stating, “Kant’s critical philosophy is the most elaborate fit of panic in the history of the Earth.” And while Alain Badiou would certainly be opposed to the libidinal investments of Land's Deleuzo-Guattarian thought, he is likewise critical of Kant's normative thought-bureaucracies: Kant is the one author for whom I cannot feel any kinship. Everything in him exasperates me, above all his legalism—always asking Quid Juris? Or ‘Haven’t you crossed the limit?’—combined, as in today’s United States, with a religiosity that is all the more dismal in that it is both omnipresent and vague. The critical machinery he set up has enduringly poisoned philosophy, while giving great succour to the academy, which loves nothing more than to rap the knuckles of the overambitious [….] That is how I understand the truth of Monique David-Menard’s reflections on the properly psychotic origins of Kantianism. I am persuaded that the whole of the critical enterprise is set up to to shield against the tempting symptom represented by the seer Swedenborg, or against ‘diseases of the head’, as Kant puts it. An entire nexus of the limits of reason and philosophy are set up here, namely that the critical philosophy not only defends thought from madness, philosophy from madness, and philosophy from itself, but that philosophy following the advent of the critical enterprise philosophy becomes auto-vampiric; feeding on itself to support the academy. Following Francois Laruelle's non-philosophical indictment of philosophy, we could go one step further and say that philosophy operates on the material of what is philosophizable and not the material of the external world. [1] Beyond this, the Kantian scheme of nestling human thinking between our limited empirical powers and transcendental guarantees of categorical coherence, forms of thinking which stretch beyond either appear illegitimate, thereby liquefying both pre-critical metaphysics and the ravings of the mad in the same critical acid. In rejecting the Kantian apparatus we are left with two entities – an unsure relation of thought to reality where thought is susceptible to internal and external breakdown and a reality with an uncertain sense of stability. These two strands will be pursued, against the sane-seal of post-Kantian philosophy by engaging the work of weird fiction authors H.P. Lovecraft and Thomas Ligotti. The absolute inhumanism of the formers universe will be used to describe a Shoggothic Materialism while the dream worlds of the latter will articulate the mad speculation of a Ventriloquil Idealism. But first we must address the relation of philosophy to madness as well as philosophy to weird fiction. /1/ – Philosophy and Madness There is nothing that the madness of men invents which is not either nature made manifest or nature restored. Michel Foucault. Madness and Civilization. The moment I doubt whether an event that I recall actually took place, I bring the suspicion of madness upon myself: unless I am uncertain as to whether it was not a mere dream. Arthur Schopenhauer. The World as Will and Idea, Vol. 3. Madness is commonly thought of as moving through several well known cultural-historical shifts from madness as a demonic or otherwise theological force, to rationalization, to medicalization psychiatric and otherwise. Foucault's Madness and Civilization is well known for orientating madness as a form of exclusionary social control which operated by demarcating madness from reason. Yet Foucault points to the possibility of madness as the necessity of nature at least prior to the crushing weight of the church. Kant’s philosophy as a response to madness is grounded by his humanizing of madness itself. As Adrian Johnston points out in the early pages of Time Driven pre-Kantian madness meant humans were seized by demonic or angelic forces whereas Kantian madness became one of being too human. Madness becomes internalized, the external demonic forces become flaws of the individual mind. Foucault argues that, while madness is de-demonized it is also dehumanized during the Renaissance, as madmen become creatures neither diabolic nor totally human reduced to the zero degree of humanity. It is immediately clear why for Kant, speculative metaphysics must be curbed – with the problem of internal madness and without the external safeguards of transcendental conditions, there is nothing to formally separate the speculative capacities for metaphysical diagnosis from the mad ramblings of the insane mind – both equally fall outside the realm of practicality and quotidian experience. David-Menard's work is particularly useful in diagnosing the relation of thought and madness in Kant's texts. David-Menard argues that in Kant's relatively unknown “An Essay on the Maladies of the Mind” as well as his later discussion of the Seer of Swedenborg, that Kant formulates madness primarily in terms of sensory upheaval or other hallucinatory theaters. She writes: “madness is an organization of thought. It is made possible by the ambiguity of the normal relation between the imaginary and the perceived, whether this pertains to the order of sensation or to the relations between our ideas” Kant's fascination with the Seer forces Kant between the pincers of “aesthetic reconciliation” – namely melancholic withdrawal – and “a philosophical invention” – namely the critical project. Deleuze and Guattari's schizoanalysis is a combination and reversal of Kant's split, where an aesthetic over engagement with the world entails prolific conceptual invention. Their embrace of madness, however, is of course itself conceptual despite all their rhizomatic maneuvers. Though they move with the energy of madness, Deleuze and Guattari save the capacity of thought from the fangs of insanity by imbuing materiality itself with the capacity for thought. Or, as Ray Brassier puts it, “Deleuze insists, it is necessary to absolutize the immanence of this world in such a way as to dissolve the transcendent disjunction between things as we know them and as they are in themselves”. That is, whereas Kant relied on the faculty of judgment to divide representation from objectivity Deleuze attempts to flatten the whole economy beneath the juggernaut of ontological univocity. Speculation, as a particularly useful form of madness, might fall close to Deleuze and Guattari’s shaping of philosophy into a concept producing machine but is different in that it is potentially self destructive – less reliant on the stability of its own concepts and more adherent to exposing a particular horrifying swath of reality. Speculative madness is always a potential disaster in that it acknowledges little more than its own speculative power with the hope that the gibbering of at least a handful of hysterical brains will be useful. Pre-critical metaphysics amounts to madness, though this may be because the world itself is mad while new attempts at speculative metaphysics, at post-Kantian pre-critical metaphysics, are well aware of our own madness. Without the sobriety of the principle of sufficient reason we have a world of neon madness: “we would have to conceive what our life would be if all the movements of the earth, all the noises of the earth, all the smells, the tastes, all the light – of the earth and elsewhere, came to us in a moment, in an instant – like an atrocious screaming tumult of things”. Speculative thought may be participatory in the screaming tumult of the world or, worse yet, may produce its spectral double. Against theology or reason or simply commonsense, the speculative becomes heretical. Speculation, as the cognitive extension of the horrorific sublime should be met with melancholic detachment. Whereas Kant's theoretical invention, or productivity of thought, is self -sabotaging, since the advent of the critical project is a productivity of thought which then delimits the engine of thought at large either in dogmatic gestures or non-systematizable empirical wondrousness. The former is celebrated by the fiction of Thomas Ligotti whereas the latter is espoused by the tales of H.P. Lovecraft. /2/ – Weird Fiction and Philosophy. Supernatural horror, in all its eerie constructions, enables a reader to taste treats inconsistent with his personal welfare. Thomas Ligotti Songs of a Dead Dreamer. I choose weird stories because they suit my inclination best—one of my strongest and most persistent wishes being to achieve,momentarily, the illusion of some strange suspension or violation of the galling limitations of time, space, and natural law which forever imprison us and frustrate our curiosity about the infinite cosmic spaces beyond the radius of our sight and analysis H.P. Lovecraft. “Notes on Writing Weird Fiction” Lovecraft states that his creation of a story is to suspend natural law yet, at the same time, he indexes the tenuousness of such laws, suggesting the vast possibilities of the cosmic. The tension that Lovecraft sets up between his own fictions and the universe or nature is reproduced within his fictions in the common theme of the unreliable narrator; unreliable precisely because they are either mad or what they have witnessed questions the bounds of material reality. In “The Call of Cthulhu” Lovecraft writes: The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents. We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the deadly light into the peace and safety of a new dark age. Despite Lovecraft's invocations of illusion, he is not claiming that his fantastic creations such as the Old Ones are supernatural but, following Joshi, are only ever supernormal. One can immediately see that instead of nullifying realism Lovecraft in fact opens up the real to an unbearable degree. In various letters and non-fictional statements Lovecraft espoused strictly materialist tenets, ones which he borrowed from Hugh Elliot namely the uniformity of law, the denial of teleology and the denial of non-material existence. Lovecraft seeks to explore the possibilities of such a universe by piling horror upon horror until the fragile brain which attempts to grasp it fractures. This may be why philosophy has largely ignored weird fiction – while Deleuze and Guattari mark the turn towards weird fiction and Lovecraft in particular, with the precursors to speculative realism as well as contemporary related thinkers have begun to view Lovecraft as making philosophical contributions. Lovecraft's own relation to philosophy is largely critical while celebrating Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. This relationship of Lovecraft to philosophy and philosophy to Lovecraft is coupled with Lovecraft's habit of mercilessly destroying the philosopher and the figure of the academic more generally in his work, a destruction which is both an epistemological destruction and an ontological destruction. Thomas Ligotti's weird fiction which he has designated as a kind of “confrontational escapism” might be best described in the following quote from one of his shortstories, “The human phenomenon is but the sum of densely coiled layers of illusion each of which winds itself on the supreme insanity. That there are persons of any kind when all there can be is mindless mirrors laughing and screaming as they parade about in an endless dream”. Whereas Lovecraft's weirdness draws predominantly from the abyssal depths of the uncharted universe, Ligotti's existential horror focuses on the awful proliferation of meaningless surfaces that is, the banal and every day function of representation. In an interview, Ligotti states: We don't even know what the world is like except through our sense organs, which are provably inadequate. It's no less the case with our brains. Our whole lives are motored along by forces we cannot know and perceptions that are faulty. We sometimes hear people say that they're not feeling themselves. Well, who or what do they feel like then? This is not to say that Ligotti sees nothing beneath the surface but that there is only darkness or blackness behind it, whether that surface is on the cosmological level or the personal. By addressing the implicit and explicit philosophical issues in Ligotti's work we will see that his nightmarish take on reality is a form of malevolent idealism, an idealism which is grounded in a real, albeit dark and obscure materiality. If Ligotti's horrors ultimately circle around mad perceptions which degrade the subject, it takes aim at the vast majority of the focus of continental philosophy. While Lovecraft's acidic materialism clearly assaults any romantic concept of being from the outside, Ligotti attacks consciousness from the inside: Just a little doubt slipped into the mind, a little trickle of suspicion in the bloodstream, and all those eyes of ours, one by one, open up to the world and see its horror [...] Not even the solar brilliance of a summer day will harbor you from horror. For horror eats the light and digests it into darkness. Clearly, the weird fiction of Lovecraft and Ligotti amount to a anti-anthrocentric onslaught against the ramparts of correlationist continental philosophy. /3/ – Shoggothic Materialism or the Formless Formless protoplasm able to mock and reflect all forms and organs and processes—viscous agglutinations of bubbling cells—rubbery fifteen-foot spheroids infinitely plastic and ductile—slaves of suggestion, builders of cities—more and more sullen, more and more intelligent, more and more amphibious, more and more imitative—Great God! What madness made even those blasphemous Old Ones willing to use and to carve such things? H.P. Lovecraft. “At the Mountains of Madness” On the other hand, affirming that the universe resembles nothing and is only formless amounts to saying that the universe is something like a spider or spit. Georges Bataille. “Formless”. The Shoggoths feature most prominently in H.P. Lovecraft's shortstory “At the Mountains of Madness” where they are described in the following manner: It was a terrible, indescribable thing vaster than any subway train – a shapeless congeries of protoplasmic bubbles, faintly self -luminous, and with myriads of temporary eyes forming and un-forming as pustules of greenish light all over the tunnel-filling front that bore down upon us, crushing the frantic penguins and slithering over the glistening floor that it and its kind had swept so evilly free of all litter. The term is a litmus test for materialism itself as the Shoggoth is an amorphous creature. The Shoggoths were living digging machines bio engineered by the Elder Things, and their protoplasmic bodies being formed into various tools by their hypnotic powers. The Shoggoths eventually became self aware and rose up against their masters in an ultimately failed rebellion. After the Elder Ones retreated into the oceans leaving the Shoggoths to roam the frozen wastes of the Antarctic. The onto-genesis of the Shoggoths and their gross materiality, index the horrifyingly deep time of the earth a concept near and dear to Lovecraft's formulation of horror as well as the fear of intelligences far beyond, and far before, the ascent of humankind on earth and elsewhere. The sickly amorphous nature of the Shoggoths invade materialism at large, where while materiality is unmistakably real ie not discursive, psychological, or otherwise overly subjectivist, it questions the relation of materialism to life. As Eugene Thacker writes: The Shoggoths or Elder Things do not even share the same reality with the human beings who encounter them—and yet this encounter takes place, though in a strange no-place that is neither quite that of the phenomenal world of the human subject or the noumenal world of an external reality. Amorphous yet definitively material beings are a constant in Lovecraft's tales. In his tale “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadatth” Lovecraft describes Azathoth as, “that shocking final peril which gibbers unmentionably outside the ordered universe,” that, “last amorphous blight of nethermost confusion which blashphemes and bubbles at the centre of all infinity,” who, “gnaws hungrily in inconceivable, unlighted chambers beyond time”. Azathoth's name may have multiple origins but the most striking is the alchemy term azoth which is both a cohesive agent and a acidic creation pointing back to the generative and the decayed. The indistinction of generation and degradation materially mirrors the blur between the natural and the unnatural as well as life and non-life. Lovecraft speaks of the tension between the natural and the unnatural is his short story “The Unnameable.” He writes, “if the psychic emanations of human creatures be grotesque distortions, what coherent representation could express or portray so gibbous and infamous a nebulousity as the spectre of a malign, chaotic perversion, itself a morbid blasphemy against Nature?”. Lovecraft explores exactly the tension outlined at the beginning of this chapter, between life and thought. At the end of his short tale Lovecraft compounds the problem as the unnameable is described as “a gelatin—a slime—yet it had shapes, a thousand shapes of horror beyond all memory”. Deleuze suggests that becoming-animal is operative throughout Lovecraft's work, where narrators feel themselves reeling at their becoming non-human or of being the anomalous or of becoming atomized. Following Eugene Thacker however, it may be far more accurate to say that Lovecraft's tales exhibit not a becoming-animal but a becoming-creature. Where the monstrous breaks the purportedly fixed laws of nature, the creature is far more ontologically ambiguous. The nameless thing is an altogether different horizon for thought. The creature is either less than animal or more than animal – its becoming is too strange for animal categories and indexes the slow march of thought towards the bizarre. This strangeness is, as aways, some indefinite swirling in the category of immanence and becoming. Bataille begins “The Labyrinth” with the assertion that being, to continue to be, is becoming. More becoming means more being hence the assertion that Bataille's barking dog is more than the sponge. This would mean that the Shoggotth is altogether too much being, too much material in the materialism. Bataille suggests that there is an immanence between the eater and the eaten, across the species and never within them. That is, despite the chaotic storm of immanence there must remain some capacity to distinguish the gradients of becoming without reliance upon, or at least total dependence upon, the powers of intellection to parse the universe into recognizable bits, properly digestible factoids. That is, if we undo Deleuze's aforementioned valorization of sense which, for his variation of materialism, performed the work of the transcendental, but refuse to reinstate Kant's transcendental disjunction between thing and appearance, then it must be a quality of becoming-as-being itself which can account for the discernible nature of things by sense. In an interview with Peter Gratton, Jane Bennett formulates the problem thusly: What is this strange systematicity proper to a world of Becoming? What, for example, initiates this congealing that will undo itself? Is it possible to identify phases within this formativity, plateaus of differentiation? If so, do the phases/plateaus follow a temporal sequence? Or, does the process of formation inside Becoming require us to theorize a non-chronological kind of time? I think that your student’s question: “How can we account for something like iterable structures in an assemblage theory?” is exactly the right question. Philosophy has erred too far on the side of the subject in the subject-object relation and has furthermore, lost the very weirdness of the non-human. Beyond this, the madness of thought need not override. /4/ - Ventriloquial Idealism or the Externality of Thought My aim is the opposite of Lovecraft's. He had an appreciation for natural scenery on earth and wanted to reach beyond the visible in the universe. I have no appreciation for natural scenery and want the objective universe to be a reflection of a character. Thomas Ligotti. “Devotees of Decay and Desolation.” Unless life is a dream, nothing makes sense. For as a reality, it is a rank failure [….] Horror is more real than we are. Thomas Ligotti. “Professor Nobody's Little Lectures on Supernatural Horror”. Thomas Ligotti's tales are rife with mannequins, puppets, and other brainless entities which of replace the valorized subject of philosophy – that of the free thinking human being. His tales such as “The Dream of the Manikin” aim to destroy the rootedness of consciousness. James Trafford has connected the anti-egoism of Ligotti to Thomas Metzinger – where the self is at best an illusion and we plead desperately for someone else to acknowledge that we are real. Trafford has stated it thus, “Life is played out as an inescapable puppet show, an endless dream in which the puppets are generally unaware that they are trapped within a mesmeric dance of whose mechanisms they know nothing and over which they have no control”. An absolute materialism, for Ligotti, implies an alienation of the idea which leads to a ventriloquil idealism. As Ligotti notes in an interview, “the fiasco and nightmare of existence, the particular fiasco and nightmare of human existence, the sense that people are puppets of powers they cannot comprehend, etc.” And then further elaborates that,“[a]ssuming that anything has to exist, my perfect world would be one in which everyone has experienced the annulment of his or her ego. That is, our consciousness of ourselves as unique individuals would entirely disappear”. The externality of the idea leads to the unfortunate consequence of consciousness eating at itself through horror which, for Ligotti, is more real than reality and goes beyond horror-as-affect. Beyond this, taking together with the unreality of life and the ventriloquizing of subjectivity, Ligotti's thought becomes an idealism in which thought itself is alien and ultimately horrifying. The role of human thought and the relation of non-relation of horror to thought is not completely clear in Ligotti's The Conspiracy Against the Human Race. Ligotti argues in his The Conspiracy Against the Human Race,that the advent of thought is a mistake of nature and that horror is being in the sense that horror results from knowing too much. Yet, at the same time, Ligotti seems to suggest that thought separates us from nature whereas, for Lovecraft, thought is far less privileged – mind is just another manifestation of the vital principal, it is just another materialization of energy. In his brilliant “Prospects for Post-Copernican Dogmatism” Iain Grant rallies against the negative definition of dogmatism and the transcendental, and suggests that negatively defining both over-focuses on conditions of access and subjectivism at the expense of the real or nature. With Schelling, who is Grant's champion against the subjectivist bastions of both Fichte and Kant, Ligotti's idealism could be taken as a transcendental realism following from an ontological realism. Yet the transcendental status of Ligotti's thought move towards a treatment of the transcendental which may threaten to leave beyond its realist ground. Ligotti states: Belief in the supernatural is only superstition. That said, a sense of the supernatural, as Conrad evidenced in Heart of Darkness, must be admitted if one's inclination is to go to the limits of horror. It is the sense of what should not be- the sense of being ravaged by the impossible. Phenomenally speaking, the super-natural may be regarded as the metaphysical counterpart of insanity, a transcendental correlative of a mind that has been driven mad. Again, Ligotti equates madness with thought, qualifying both as supernatural while remaining less emphatic about the metaphysical dimensions of horror. The question becomes one of how exactly the hallucinatory realm of the ideal relates to the black churning matter of Lovecraft's chaos of elementary particles. In his tale “I Have a Special Plan for This World” Ligotti formulates thus: A: There is no grand scheme of things. B: If there were a grand scheme of things, the fact – the fact – that we are not equipped to perceive it, either by natural or supernatural means, is a nightmarish obscenity. C: The very notion of a grand scheme of things is a nightmarish obscenity. Here Ligotti is not discounting metaphysics but implying that if it does exist the fact that we are phenomenologically ill-equipped to perceive that it is nightmarish. For Ligotti, nightmare and horror occur within the circuit of consciousness whereas for Lovecraft the relation between reality and mind is less productive on the side of mind. It is easier to ascertain how the Kantian philosophy is a defense against the diseases of the head as Kant armors his critical enterprise from too much of the world and too much of the mind. The weird fiction of both Lovecraft and Ligotti demonstrates that there is too much of both feeding into one another in a way that corrodes the Kantian schema throughly, breaking it down into a dead but still ontologically potentiated nigredo. The haunting, terrifying fact of Ligotti's idealism is that the transcendental motion which brought thought to matter, while throughly material and naturalized, brings with it the horror that thought cannot be undone without ending the material that bears it either locally or completely. Thought comes from an elsewhere and an elsewhen being-in-thought. The unthinkable outside thought is as maddening as the unthought engine of thought itself within thought which doesn't exist except for the mind, the rotting décor of the brain. /5/ - Hyperstitional Transcendental Paranoia or Self -Expelled Thought Weird fiction has been given some direct treatment in philosophy in the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land. Nick Land along with others in the 1990s created the Cyber Culture Research Unit as well as the research group Hyperstition. The now defunct hyperstitional website, an outgrowth of the Cyber Culture Research Unit, defined hyperstition in the following fourfold: 1-Element of effective culture that makes itself real. 2-Fictional quantity functional as a time-traveling device. 3-Coincidence intensifier. 4-Call to the Old Ones. The distinctively Lovecraftian character of hyperstition is hard to miss as is its Deleuzo-Guattarian roots. In the opening pages of A Thousand Plateaus Deleuze and Guattari write, “We have been criticized for over-quoting literary authors. But when one writes, the only question is which other machine the literary machine can be plugged into”. The indisinction of literature and philosophy mirrors the mess of being and knowing as post-correlationist philosophy, where philosophy tries to make itself real where literature, especially the weird, aims itself at the brain-circuit of horror. The texts of both Lovecraft and Ligotti work through horror as epistemological plasticity meeting with proximity as well as the deep time of Lovecraft and the glacially slow time of paranoia in Ligotti. Against Deleuze, and following Brassier, we cannot allow the time of consciousness, the Bergsonian time of the duree, to override natural time, but instead acknowledge that it is an unfortunate fact of existence as a thinking being. Horror-time, the time of consciousness, with all its punctuated moments and drawn out terrors, cannot compare to the deep time of non-existence both in the unreachable past and the unknown future. The crystalline cogs of Kant's account of experience as the leading light for the possibility of metaphysics must be throughly obliterated. His gloss of experience in Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics could not be more sterile: Experience consists of intuitions, which belong to the sensibility, and of judgments, which are entirely a work of the understanding. But the judgments which the understanding makes entirely out of sensuous intuitions are far from being judgments of experience. For in the one case the judgment connects only the perceptions as they are given in sensuous intuition [....] Experience consists in the synthetic connection of appearances in consciousness, so far as this connection is necessary. Here it is difficult to dismiss the queasiness that Kant's legalism induces upon sight for both Badiou and David-Menard. Kant's thought becomes, as Foucault says when reflecting on Sade's text in relation to nature, “the savage abolition of itself”. For Badiou, Kant's philosophy simply closes off too much of the outside, freezing the world of thought in an all too limited formalism. Critical philosophy is simply the systematized quarantine on future thinking, on thinking which would threaten the formalism which artificially grants thought its own coherency in the face of madness. Even the becoming-mad of Deleuze, while escaping the rumbling ground, makes grounds for itself, mad grounds but grounds which are thinkable in their affect. The field of effects allows for Deleuze's aesthetic and radical empiricism, in which effects and/or occasions make up the material of the world to be thought as a chaosmosis of simulacra. Given a critique of an empiricism of aesthetics, of the image, it may be difficult to justify an attack on Kantian formalism with the madness of literature, which does not aim to make itself real but which we may attempt to make real. That is, how do Lovecraft's and Ligotti's materials, as materials for philosophy to work on, differ from either the operative formalisms of Kant or the implicitly formalized images of Deleuzian empiricism? It is simply that such texts do not aim to make themselves real, and make claims to the real which are more alien to us than familiar, which is why their horror is immediately more trustworthy. This is the madness which Blanchot discusses in The Infinite Conversation through Cervantes and his knight – the madness of book-life, of the perverse unity of literature and life a discussion which culminates in the discussion of one of the weird's masters, that of Kafka. The text is the knowing of madness, since madness, in its moment of becoming-more-mad, cannot be frozen in place but by the solidifications of externalizing production. This is why Foucault ends his famous study with works of art. Furthermore extilligence, the ability to export the products of our maligned brains, is the companion of the attempts to export, or discover the possibility of intelligences outside of our heads, in order for philosophy to survive the solar catastrophe. To borrow again from Deleuze, writing is inseparable from becoming. The mistake is to believe that madness is reabsorbed by extilligence, by great works, or that it could be exorcised by the expelling of thought into the inorganic or differently organic. Going out of our heads does not guarantee we will no longer mean we cannot still go out of our minds. This is simply because of the outside, of matter, or force, or energy, or thing-in-itself, or Schopenhauerian Will. In Lovecraft’s “The Music of Erich Zahn” an “impoverished student of metaphysics” becomes intrigued by strange viol music coming from above his room. After meeting the musician the student discovers that each night he plays frantic music at a window in order to keep some horridness at bay, some “impenetrable darkness with chaos and pandemonium”. The aesthetic defenses provided by the well trained brain can bear the hex of matter for so long, the specter of unalterability within it which too many minds obliterate, collapsing everything before the thought of thought as thinkable or at least noetically mutable on our own terms. Transcendental paranoia is the concurrent nightmare and promise of Paul Humphrey's work, of being literally out of our minds. It is the gothic counterpart of thinking non-conceptually but also of thinking never belonging to any instance of purportedly solid being. As Bataille stated, “At the boundary of that which escapes cohesion, he who reflects within cohesion realizes there is no longer any room for him” Thought is immaterial only to the degree that it is inhuman, it is a power that tries, always with failure, to ascertain its own genesis. Philosophy, if it can truly return to the great outdoors, if it can leave behind the dead loop of the human skull, must recognize not only the non-priority of human thought, but that thought never belongs to the brain that thinks it, thought comes from somewhere else. To return to the train image from the beginning “a locomotive rolling on the surface of the earth is the image of continuous metamorphosis” this is the problem of thought, and of thinking thought, of being no longer able to isolate thought, with only a thought-formed structure. [1] One of the central tenets of Francois Laruelle's non-philosophy is that philosophy has traditionally operated on material already presupposed as thinkable instead of trying to think the real in itself. Philosophy, according to Laruelle, remains fixated on transcendental synthesis which shatters immanence into an empirical datum and an a prori factum which are then fused by a third thing such as the ego. For a critical account of Laruelle's non-philosophy see Ray Brassier's Nihil Unbound. (shrink)