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  1. Motor memory – a memory of the future.David H. Ingvar - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):210-211.
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  • Motor simulation.Adam Morton - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):215-215.
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  • Representations of movement and representations in movement.Giuseppe Pellizzer & Apostolos P. Georgopoulos - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):216-217.
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  • To dream is not to (intend to) do.Jean Requin - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):218-219.
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  • The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery.Marc Jeannerod - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):187-202.
    This paper concerns how motor actions are neurally represented and coded. Action planning and motor preparation can be studied using a specific type of representational activity, motor imagery. A close functional equivalence between motor imagery and motor preparation is suggested by the positive effects of imagining movements on motor learning, the similarity between the neural structures involved, and the similar physiological correlates observed in both imaging and preparing. The content of motor representations can be inferred from motor images at a (...)
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  • Origins of origins of motor control.Esther Thelen - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):780-783.
    Examination of infant spontaneous and goal-directed arm movements supports Feldman and Levin's hypothesis of a functional hierarchy. Early infant movements are dominated by biomechanical and dynamic factors without external frames of reference. Development involves not only learning to generate these frames of reference, but also protecting the higher-level goal of the movement from internal and external perturbations.
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  • Spatial frames for motor control would be commensurate with spatial frames for vision and proprioception, but what about control of energy flows?Christopher C. Pagano & Geoffrey P. Bingham - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):773-773.
    The model identifies a spatial coordinate frame within which the sensorimotor apparatus produces movement. Its spatial nature simplifies its coupling with spatial reference frames used concurrently by vision and proprioception. While the positional reference frame addresses the performance of spatial tasks, it seems to have little to say about movements involving energy expenditure as the principle component of the task.
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  • Interdiscourse or supervenience relations: The primacy of the manifest image.J. Brakel - 1996 - Synthese 106 (2):253 - 297.
    Amidst the progress being made in the various (sub-)disciplines of the behavioural and brain sciences a somewhat neglected subject is the problem of how everything fits into one world and, derivatively, how the relation between different levels of discourse should be understood and to what extent different levels, domains, approaches, or disciplines are autonomous or dependent. In this paper I critically review the most recent proposals to specify the nature of interdiscourse relations, focusing on the concept of supervenience. Ideally supervenience (...)
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  • The mystery-mastery-imagery complex.H. T. A. Whiting & R. P. Ingvaldsen - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):228-229.
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  • Neurophysiology of preparation, movement and imagery.Jerome N. Sanes - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):221-223.
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  • Temporal representation in the control of movement.Daniel M. Corcos - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):206-206.
    Theories of the representation of specific kinetic and spatiotem-poral features of movement range from the explicit assertion that temporal aspects of movement are not represented to the idea that they are represented and that they have neurophysiological correlates. Jeannerod's thesis is that mental and visual images have common mechanisms and that there is a link between the image to move and the mechanisms involved with movement. The target article takes the position that certain parameters are coded in motor representations but (...)
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  • The λ model for motor control: More than meets the eye.Mindy F. Levin & Anatol G. Feldman - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):786-806.
    Understanding of the λ model has greatly increased in recent years as evidenced by most of the commentaries. Some commentators underscored the potential of the model to integrate aspects of different sensorimotor systems in the production of movement. Other commentators focused on not-yet-fully-developed parts of the model. A few persisted in misunderstanding some of its basic concepts, and on these grounds they reject it. In responding to commentaries we continue to elaborate on some fundamental points of the model, especially control (...)
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  • Interneurons as backseat drivers and the elusive control variable.T. Richard Nichols - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):772-773.
    It is proposed here that the spinal network of proprioceptive feedback from length and force receptors constitutes the mechanism underlying the coordination of activation thresholds for muscles acting about the same and neighboring joints. For the most part, these circuits come between motoneurons and supraspinal signals, invalidating the idea that the activation thresholds constitute control variables for the motor system.
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  • The unobservability of central commands: Why testing hypotheses is so difficult.Antony Hodgson - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):763-764.
    The experiments Feldman and Levin suggest do not definitively test their proposed solution to the problem of selecting muscle activations. Their test of the movement directions that elicit EMG activity can be interpreted without regard to the form of the central commands, and their fast elbow flexion test is based on a forward computation that obscures the insensitivity of the predicted trajectory to the details of the putative commands.
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  • Grip force adjustments during rapid hand movements suggest that detailed movement kinematics are predicted.J. Randall Flanagan, James R. Tresilian & Alan M. Wing - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):753-754.
    The λ model suggests that detailed kinematics arise from changes in control variables and need not be explicitly planned. However, we have shown that when moving a grasped object, grip force is precisely modulated in phase with acceleration-dependent inertial load. This suggests that the motor system can predict detailed kinematics. This prediction may be based on a forward model of the dynamics of the loaded limb.
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  • The origin and use of positional frames of reference in motor control.Anatol G. Feldman & Mindy F. Levin - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):723-744.
    A hypothesis about sensorimotor integration (the λ model) is described and applied to movement control and kinesthesia. The central idea is that the nervous system organizes positional frames of reference for the sensorimotor apparatus and produces active movements by shifting the frames in terms of spatial coordinates. Kinematic and electromyographic patterns are not programmed, but emerge from the dynamic interaction among the system s components, including external forces within the designated frame of reference. Motoneuronal threshold properties and proprioceptive inputs to (...)
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  • What is coded in parietal representations?Ray Jackendoff & Barbara Landau - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):211-212.
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  • Are motor images based on kinestheticvisual matching?Robert W. Mitchell - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):214-215.
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  • Motor images are action plans.Wolfgang Prinz - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):218-218.
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  • Cognitive and motor implications of mental imagery.Romeo Chua & Daniel J. Weeks - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):203-204.
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  • Biological variability and control of movements via δλ.Charles E. Wright & Rebecca A. States - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):786-786.
    Three issues related to Feldman and Levin's treatment of biological variability are discussed. We question the usefulness of the indirect component of δλ. We suggest that trade-offs between speed and accuracy in aimed movements support identification of δλ, rather than λ, as a control variable. We take issue with the authors' proposal for resolving redundancy in multi-joint movements, given recent data.
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  • Frames of reference interact and are task-dependent.Bruce A. Kay - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):765-765.
    The problem for the CNS in any particular movement task is to coordinate the various frames of reference appropriate to the task. Control variables are determined by this coordination. The coordination problem varies greatly from task to task, and so no single set of control variables is likely to account for a broad range of movement tasks.
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  • Separability of reference frame distinctions from motor and visual images.Gary W. Strong - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):224-225.
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  • Action and attention.A. H. C. Van der Heijden & Bruce Bridgeman - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):225-226.
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  • Is λ an appropriate control variable for locomotion?Thomas M. Hamm & Zong-Sheng Han - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):761-762.
    The lambda model predicts that the command received by each motor nucleus during locomotion is specific for the joint at which its muscle acts and is independent of external conditions. However, investigation of the commands received by motor nuclei during fictive locomotion and of the sensitivity of these commands to feedback from the limb during locomotion indicates that neither condition is satisfied.
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  • Tendon elasticity and positional control.R. McN Alexander - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):745-745.
    The spring-like behaviour of a joint following a sudden change of torque is partly a result of the elastic properties of tendons. A large fall in a muscle with a long tendon may be accompanied by tendon recoil causing joint movements as large as 20°.
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  • Is the multi-joint pointing movement model applicable to equilibrium control during upper trunk movements?Alexey Alexandrov, Alexander Frolov & Jean Massion - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):745-746.
    Two aspects of the target article, (1) the extension of the equilibrium point theory to multi-joint movements, and (2) the consequence that the EMG pattern is not directly controlled by the central nervous system (CNS), are discussed in light of the experiments on upper trunk bending in humans. The principle component kinematic analysis and the analysis of the EMG data, obtained under microgravity and additional loading conditions, support the application of Feldman and Levin's for multi-joint pointing movement to equilibrium control (...)
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  • On the limitations of imaging imagining.Christopher A. Buneo & Martha Flanders - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):202-203.
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  • Involvement of primary motor cortex in motor imagery and mental practice.Mark Hallett, Jordan Fieldman, Leonardo G. Cohen, Norihiro Sadato & Alvaro Pascual-Leone - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):210-210.
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  • How far should we extend the equilibrium point (lambda) hypothesis?Jack M. Winters - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):785-786.
    A key feature of the lambda model is the hypothesis of a local spring-like muscle-reflex system defined by a central control variable that has units of position. This is intriguing, especially for a study of postural stability in large-scale systems, but it has limited direct application to skilled everyday movements. If movement is considered as a goal-directed, neuro-optimization problem, however, theavailabilityof lambda-like peripheral models (vs. conventional musculoskeletal models) deserves exploration.
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  • What can we expect from models of motor control?Gerald E. Loeb - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):767-768.
    The lambda model of servocontrol seems superior to the alpha model in terms of dealing with the mechanical complexities of nonlinear and multiarticular muscles. Both, however, can be trivialized by noting that the “control variable” may simply be the sum of descending influences at propriospinal interneurons in the case of the lambda model or in the muscles themselves in the case of the alpha model. The notion that the brain explicitly computes output in terms of any such control variables may (...)
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  • Do control variables exist?Nicholas G. Hatsopoulos & William H. Warren - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):762-762.
    We argue that the concept of a control variable (CV) as described by Feldman and Levin needs to be revised because it does not account for the influence of sensory feedback from the periphery. We provide evidence from the realm of rhythmic movements that sensory feedback can permanently alter the frequency and phase of a centrally generated rhythm.
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  • Reciprocal and coactivation commands are not sufficient to describe muscle activation patterns.C. C. A. M. Gielen & B. van Bolhuis - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):754-755.
    Recent results have shown that the relative activation of muscles is different for isometric contractions and for movements. These results exclude an explanation of muscle activation patterns by a combination ofreciprocal and coactivation commands. These results also indicate that joint stiffness is not uniquely determined and that it may be different for isometric contractions and movements.
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  • The case of the missing CVs: Multi-joint primitives.Simon Giszter - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):755-756.
    The search for simplifying principles in motor control motivates the target article. One method that the CNS uses to simplify the task of controlling a limb's mechanical properties is absent from the article. Evidence from multi-joint, force-field measurements and from kinematics that points to the existence of multi-joint primitives as control variables is discussed.
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  • Visually guided action and the “need to know”.A. David Milner, David P. Carey & Monika Harvey - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):213-214.
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  • Kinaesthetic illusions as tools in understanding motor imagery.J. P. Roll, J. C. Gilhodes & R. Roll - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):220-221.
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  • How do we satisfy our goals?Paul G. Skokowski - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):224-224.
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  • Imagery needs preparation too.Stefan Vogt - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):226-227.
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  • On the relation between motor imagery and visual imagery.Roberta L. Klatzky - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):212-213.
    Jeannerod's target article describes support, through empirical and neurological findings, for the intriguing idea of motor imagery, a form of representation hypothesized to have levels of functional equivalence with motor preparation, while being consciously accessible. Jeannerod suggests that the subjectively accessible content of motor imagery allows it to be distinguished from motor preparation, which is unconscious. Motor imagery is distinguished from visual imagery in terms of content. Motor images are kinesthetic in nature; they are parametrized by variables such as force (...)
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  • Visual-spatial movement goals.Digby Elliott & Brian K. V. Maraj - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):207-207.
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  • Equifinality and phase-resetting: The role of control parameter manipulations.R. E. A. van Emmerik & R. C. Wagenaar - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):783-784.
    It is argued that the equilibrium point model can lead to new insights regarding transition and stability processes in movement coordination. The role of movement control parameters on equifinality and phase-resetting is discussed; not only control but also external control parameters can affect the global dynamical regime.
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  • Can the λ model benefit from understanding human adaptation in weightlessness(and vice versa)?P. Vernon McDonald - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):768-768.
    Parameters of the lambda model seem tightly linked to certain characteristics of human performance influenced by weightlessness. This commentary suggests that there is a valuable opportunity to probe the lambda model using the changed environment experienced during space flight. The likely benefits are a better model and a better understanding ofthe consequences of weightlessness for human performance.
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  • Equilibrium-point control? Yes! Deterministic mechanisms of control? No!Mark L. Latash - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):765-766.
    The equilibrium-point hypothesis (the λ-model) is superior to all other models of single-joint control and provides deep insights into the mechanisms of control of multi-joint movements. Attempts at associating control variables with neurophysiological variables look confusing rather than promising. Probabilistic mechanisms may play an important role in movement generation in redundant systems.
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  • Frameworks on shifting sands.R. Lngvaldsen & H. T. A. Whiting - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):764-765.
    Feldman and Levin present a model for movement control in which the system is said to seek equilibrium points, active movement being produced by shifting frames of reference in space. It is argued that whatever merit this model might have is limited to an understanding of “the how” and not “the why” we move. In this way the authors seem to be forced into a dualistic position leaving the upper level of the proposed control hierarchy “floating.”.
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  • Shifting frames of reference but the same old point of view.Gerald L. Gottlieb - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):758-758.
    Models of central control variables (CVs) that are expressed in positional reference frames and rely on proprioception as the dominant specifier of muscle activation patterns have not yet been shown to be adequate for the description of fast, voluntary movement, even of single joints. An alternative model with illustrative data is proposed.
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  • What does body configuration in microgravity tell us about the contribution of intra- and extrapersonal frames of reference for motor control?F. Lestienne, M. Ghafouri & F. Thullier - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):766-767.
    The authors report that the reorganization of body configuration during weightlessness is based on an intrapersonal frame of reference such as the configuration of the support surface and the position of the body's center of gravity. These results stress the importance of “knowledge” of the state of internal geometric structures, which cannot be directly signalled by specific receptors responsible for direct dialogue with the physical external world.
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  • Peripheral and central correlates of attempted voluntary movements.S. C. Gandevia - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):208-209.
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  • Control parameters, equilibria, and coordination dynamics.Dagmar Sternad & M. T. Turvey - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):780-780.
    Important similarities exist between the dynamical concepts implicit in Feldman & Levin's extended λ model and those basic to a dynamical systems approach. We argue that careful application of the key concepts of control and order parameters, equilibria, and stability, can relate known facts of neuromuscular processes to the observables of functional, task-specific behavior.
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  • A few reasons why psychologlsts can adhere to Feldman and Levin's model.Mireille Bonnard & Jean Pailhous - 1995 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (4):746-747.
    We emphasize the relevance to cognitive psychology of Feldman and Levin's theoretical position. Traditional views of motor control have failed to clearly separate “production control” at the level of motor command, based on task-independent CV (control variables), from intentional “product control” based on task-dependent parameters. Because F&L's approach concentrates on the first process (trajectory formation), it can distinguish the product control stage.
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  • Moving beyond imagination.Robert Dufour, Martin H. Fischer & David A. Rosenbaum - 1994 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (2):206-207.
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