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Patterns in the Mind: Language and Human Nature

New York: Basic Books (1994)

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  1. Wired for Society: Cognizing Pathways to Society and Culture.Laurence Kaufmann & Fabrice Clément - 2014 - Topoi 33 (2):459-475.
    While cognitive scientists increase their tentative incursions in the social domains traditionally reserved for social scientists, most sociologists and anthropologists keep decrying those attempts as reductionist or, at least, irrelevant. In this paper, we argue that collaboration between social and cognitive sciences is necessary to understand the impact of the social environment on the shaping of our mind. More specifically, we dwell on the cognitive strategies and early-developing deontic expectations, termed naïve sociology, which enable well-adapted individuals to constitute, maintain and (...)
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  • Universal Grammar and second language acquisition: The null hypothesis.Samuel David Epstein, Suzanne Flynn & Gita Martohardjono - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):746-758.
    The target article advanced the null, unified and widely misinterpreted generative hypothesis regarding second language (L2) acquisition. Postulating that UG (Universal Grammar) constrains L2 knowledge growth does not entail identical developmental trajectories for L2 and first language (LI) acquisition; nor does it preclude a role for the L1. In embracing this hypothesis, we maintain a distinction between competence and performance. Those who conflate the two repeat fundamental and by no means unprecedented misconstruals of the generative enterprise, and more specifically, of (...)
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  • Some incorrect implications of the fullaccess hypothesis.Frederick J. Newmeyer - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):736-737.
    If Epstein et al. are right that adult second language learners have full access to UG, then all of the following should be true: adults should be able to consciously transform their I-Language; adults should be able to transform pidgins into Creoles; adults should be as likely as children to restructure their grammars on the basis of “functional” pressure. All the foregoing are false, however, which seriously calls into question the correctness of their hypothesis.
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  • Metalinguistic ability and primary linguistic data.M. A. Sharwood Smith - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):740-741.
    The role of metalinguistic ability in L2 development is seriously underestimated. It may be seen both (1) as a means of initiating or boosting the flow of primary linguistic data and (2) as a generator of substitute knowledge (derived, but epistemologically distinct from domain-specific knowledge) that may compete with or compensate for perceived gaps in the learners current underlying competence. It cannot serve as a simple means of distinguishing the rival theoretical positions.
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  • Liability for Animals: An Historico-Structural Comparison. [REVIEW]Bernard S. Jackson - 2011 - International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue Internationale de Sémiotique Juridique 24 (3):259-289.
    This account of civil liability for animals in a range of ancient, mediaeval and modern legal systems (based on a series of studies conducted early in my career: (s.1)) uses semiotic analysis to supplement the insights of conventional legal history, thus balancing diachronic and synchronic approaches. It reinforces the conventional historical sensitivity to anachronism in two respects: (1) (logical) inference of underlying values from concrete rules (rather than attending to literary features of the text) manifests cognitive anachronism, an issue manifest (...)
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  • Second language acquisition: Theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research.Samuel David Epstein, Suzanne Flynn & Gita Martohardjono - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):677-714.
    To what extent, if any, does Universal Grammar (UG) constrain second language (L2) acquisition? This is not only an empirical question, but one which is currently investigable. In this context, L2 acquisition is emerging as an important new domain of psycholinguistic research. Three logical possibilities have been articulated regarding the role of UG in L2 acquisition: The first is the hypothesis that claims that no aspect of UG is available to the L2 learner. The second is the hypothesis that claims (...)
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  • The dependence of language on consciousness.Jordan Zlatev - 2008 - Journal of Consciousness Studies 15 (6):34-62.
    The first hurdle to overcome in approaching the complex topic of the relation between language and consciousness is terminology. So let me begin, in good philosophical style, by explaining the senses in which I use the three lexical terms in the title. Luckily I need not explain those of the three grammatical words the, of, and on: there is probably a minor library of semantic literature devoted to that. I need not, since I both know their meanings pre-theoretically, and know (...)
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  • Tercera Cultura: #TheLibro - Una brevísima introducción a las Ciencias Cognitivas y a la Tercera Cultura.Remis Ramos - 2015 - Santiago: Tercera Cultura.
    Tercera Cultura: #TheLibro es una introducción a las ciencias cognitivas -Psicología, Lingüística, Filosofía, Neurociencia, Antropología, Inteligencia Artificial- escrita en un lenguaje simple y claro, ilustrado con ejemplos de la cultura popular, dirigido a estudiantes y geeks de todas las edades.
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  • Unconscious Inference Theories of Cognitive Acheivement.Kirk Ludwig & Wade Munroe - 2019 - In Anders Nes & Timothy Hoo Wai Chan (eds.), Inference and Consciousness. London: Routledge. pp. 15-39.
    This chapter argues that the only tenable unconscious inferences theories of cognitive achievement are ones that employ a theory internal technical notion of representation, but that once we give cash-value definitions of the relevant notions of representation and inference, there is little left of the ordinary notion of representation. We suggest that the real value of talk of unconscious inferences lies in (a) their heuristic utility in helping us to make fruitful predictions, such as about illusions, and (b) their providing (...)
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  • Language growth after puberty?Carlos P. Otero - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):738-739.
    The range of hypotheses considered is surprising in that the most arguably plausible one is not included: the invariant principles of language are available for life, while the parameters of variation cannot be set after puberty. This hypothesis provides a better explanation than the author's for both the deep similarities and the vast differences between child “language growth” and adult language acquisition.
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  • “Full access” and the history of linguistics.Margaret Thomas - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):743-744.
    This commentary addresses two pervasive misconceptions which emerge in Epstein et al.'s target article: (1) that study of second language acquisition (SLA) began in the mid-twentieth century; (2) that SLA has only recently become able to contribute to linguistic theory. There is abundant historical counterevidence; I argue that (1) and (2) obscure the legitimacy of Epstein et al.'s “full access” hypothesis.
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  • L2 access to UG: Now you see it, now you don't.Michael Harrington - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):731-732.
    The confirmatory nature of the empirical evidence used to establish UG effects in L2 development is considered. Specific issues are also raised concerning the internal validity of Epstein et al.'s findings. It is concluded that the role of UG in adult L2 development will only be established when researchers better understand the interaction between the development of UG-constrained structural knowledge and the development of overall L2 proficiency.
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  • Poverty of the Stimulus Revisited.Robert C. Berwick, Paul Pietroski, Beracah Yankama & Noam Chomsky - 2011 - Cognitive Science 35 (7):1207-1242.
    A central goal of modern generative grammar has been to discover invariant properties of human languages that reflect “the innate schematism of mind that is applied to the data of experience” and that “might reasonably be attributed to the organism itself as its contribution to the task of the acquisition of knowledge” (Chomsky, 1971). Candidates for such invariances include the structure dependence of grammatical rules, and in particular, certain constraints on question formation. Various “poverty of stimulus” (POS) arguments suggest that (...)
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  • The faculty of language: what's special about it?Ray Jackendoff & Steven Pinker - 2005 - Cognition 95 (2):201-236.
    We examine the question of which aspects of language are uniquely human and uniquely linguistic in light of recent suggestions by Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch that the only such aspect is syntactic recursion, the rest of language being either specific to humans but not to language (e.g. words and concepts) or not specific to humans (e.g. speech perception). We find the hypothesis problematic. It ignores the many aspects of grammar that are not recursive, such as phonology, morphology, case, agreement, and (...)
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  • Interpreting Degree Semantics.Alexis Wellwood - 2020 - Frontiers in Psychology 10.
    Contemporary research in compositional, truth-conditional semantics often takes judgments of the relative unacceptability of certain phrasal combinations as evidence for lexical semantics. For example, observing that completely full sounds perfectly natural whereas completely tall does not has been used to motivate a distinction whereby the lexical entry for full but not for tall specifies a scalar endpoint. So far, such inferences seem unobjectionable. In general, however, applying this methodology can lead to dubious conclusions. For example, observing that slightly bent is (...)
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  • Towards characterizing what the L2 learner knows.Esther Torrego - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):744-744.
    This target article is mostly a presentation of experimental research devoted to the larger issue of the role of Universal Grammar in second language learning. Deliberately excluding the aspects of human cognition that makes second language (L2) so variant, Epstein et al. focus on what the learners may know and how they come to know it. This is the aspect of Epstein et al.'s work which is more limiting, and potentially more interesting.
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  • UG and SLA: The access question, and how to beg it.Kevin R. Gregg - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):726-727.
    Epstein, Flynn, and Martohardjono trivialize the question of access to universal grammar in second language acquisition by arguing against a straw-man version of the no-access position and by begging the question of how second language (L2) knowledge is represented in the mind/brain of an adult L2 learner. They compound their errors by employing a research methodology that fails to provide any relevant evidence.
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  • What we have to explain in foreign language learning.Robert Bley-Vroman - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):718-718.
    While child language development theory must explain invariant “success,” foreign language learning theory must explain variation and lack of success. The fundamental difference hypothesis (FDH) outlines such a theory. Epstein et al. ignore the explanatory burden, mischaracterize the FDH, and underestimate the resources of human cognition. The field of second language acquisition is not divided into camps by views on “access” to UG.
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  • UG and acquisition in pidginization and creolization.Michel DeGraff - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):723-724.
    I examine the target articles hypothesis in light of pidginization and creolization (P/C) phenomena. L1-to-L2transfer has been argued to be the “central process” in P/C via relexification. This seems incompatible with the view that UC sans Li plays the central role in L2A. I sketch a proposal that reconciles the hypothesis in the target article with, inter alia, the effects of transfer in P/C.
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  • Towards a New Analytical Framework for Legal Communication.Hanneke van Schooten - 2014 - International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue Internationale de Sémiotique Juridique 27 (3):425-461.
    This article develops a model first proposed in my book Jurisprudence and communication [67]. It takes as its starting point the generally conception that legal rules are valid norms, involving a normative content and expressing themselves in reality through observable conduct. This dualistic character of law is central. Law is both fiction and factual, ideal and real. But the viewpoint that a legal rule is a manifestation of validity in reality, through empirical acts, raises the question how rules as (valid) (...)
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  • Bringing patterns into focus: A response to Bunn. [REVIEW]Ray Jackendoff - 2000 - Minds and Machines 10 (1):129-135.
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  • Appreciating the poverty of the stimulus in second language acquisition.Rex A. Sprouse - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):742-743.
    The most compelling evidence for Epstein et al.'s central thesis that adult second language acquisition is constrained by the innate cognitive structures that constrain native language acquisition would be evidence of poverty of the stimulus. Although there are studies that point to such evidence, Epstein et al.'s primary form of argumentation, targetlike performance by second-language acquiring adults, is much less convincing.
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  • UG, the L1, and questions of evidence.Lydia White - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):745-746.
    Epstein, Flynn, and Martohardjono's presentation of the principal approaches to UG access in L2 acquisition is misleading; they have neglected the possibility that the L1 grammar forms the learner's initial representation of the L2, with subsequent modifications constrained by UG. Furthermore, their experimental data are open to several interpretations and are consistent with a number of different positions in the field.
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  • Partial transfer, not partial access.Anne Vainikka & Martha Young-Scholten - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):744-745.
    Our results support the idea that adults have access to the principles and parameters of Universal Grammar (UG), contrary to Epstein et al.'s misrepresentation of our work as involvingpartial access toUG. For both LI and L2 acquisition, functional projections appear to develop in a gradual fashion, but in L2 acquisition there ispartial transferin that the lowest projection (VP) is transferred from the speaker's LI.
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  • On gradience and optionality in non-native grammars.Antonella Sorace - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):741-742.
    Epstein et al.'s “full access to Universal Grammar” position is conceptually and empirically problematic. Its shortcomings are illustrated through a brief discussion of the following issues: (1) initial versus final states of grammatical knowledge in a second language, (2) knowledge of gradience of grainmaticality, (3) optionality and retention in non-native grammars, and (4) the empirical measurement of syntactic knowledge.
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  • Now for some facts, with a focus on development and an explicit role for the L1.Bonnie D. Schwartz - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):739-740.
    Curiously, two central areas are unaddressed by Epstein et al.: (i) L1A–L2A differences; (ii) L2 development. Here, findings relevant to (i) and (ii) – as well as their significance – are discussed. Together these form the basis for contesting Epstein et al.'s “Full Access” approach, but nonetheless analyses of the L2 data argue for UG-constrained L2A. Also discussed is the inadequacy of accounts (like Epstein et al.'s) without an explicit and prominent role for the L1.
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  • Syntactic representations and the L2 acquisition device.William O'Grady - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):737-738.
    Epstein et al.'s theory of SLA is heavily dependent on assumptions about both the nature of the acquisition device and the grammar that it produces. This commentary briefly explores the consequences of an alternative set of assumptions, focusing on the possibility that the acquisition device does not include UG and that syntactic representations do not contain functional projections.
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  • Language is learned.Brian MacWhinney - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):735-736.
    Epstein et al. attribute second language learning to the forces of transfer and language universals. They show that transfer is minimally involved in certain types of learning and therefore conclude that universals are involved. However, they forget to consider the important role of learning in second language acquisition.
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  • Why don't L2 learners end up with uniform and perfect linguistic competence?Ping Li - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):733-734.
    Children in a given linguistic environment all uniformly acquire their target language, but adult learners of L2 do not. UG accounts for children's uniform linguistic behavior, but it cannot serve a similar role in accounting for adult learners' linguistic behavior. I argue that Epstein etal.'s study does not answer the question of why L2 learners end up with nonuniform and imperfect linguistic competence in learning a second language.
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  • Universal Grammar and critical periods: A most amusing paradox.Philip Lieberman - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):735-735.
    Epstein et al. take as given that, (1) a hypothetical Universal Grammar (UG) exists that allows children effortlessly to acquire their first language; they then argue (2) that critical or sensitive periods do not block the UG from second language acquisition. Therefore, why can't we all effortlessly “acquire” Tibetan in six months or so? Data concerning the neural bases of language are also noted.
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  • To “grow” and what “to grow,” that is one question.Juana M. Liceras - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):734-734.
    L2 learners may access UG principles because these are realized in all natural languages. Since this is not the case for the parametrized aspects of language, parameter setting may be progressively replaced by restructuring mechanisms which are specifically related to the process of representational redescription because L2 learners are not sensitive to the [±] features which define parameters.
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  • In support of the early presence of functional categories in second language acquisition.Kazue Kanno - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):732-733.
    This commentary focuses on whether the full set of categories is available to beginning L2 learners. After critiquing Epstein et al.'s experimental evidence for the presence of functional categories, I outline the results of an experiment involving English speakers learning Japanese as a second language that does indeed point toward the early presence of fuuctional categories.
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  • Can UG and L1 be distinguished in L2 acquisition?Ken Hale - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):728-730.
    The contribution to L2-acquisition which comes from UG is conceptually distinct from that which comes from L1 (or from L1 and L2 jointly), but it is difficult to tease the two apart. The workings of deep, core principles (e.g., locality and subjacency) are so massively evident in L1 and L2 as to be of questionable use in the search for the contribution which is purely of UG.
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  • Competence and performance in language acquisition.Mark Hale - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):730-731.
    The implications of Epstein et al.'s critical evaluation of much of the existing literature on L2-acquisition extends far beyond the domain they discuss. I argue that similar methodological clarification is urgently needed in analyses of the role of UG in L1-acquisition, as well as in discussions in such seemingly “distant” areas as the study of language change.
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  • Does second language grow?Günther Grewendorf - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):727-728.
    The evidence that L2 learners have full access to UG is not convincing. The following will be shown: (1) The argument that L2 learners “expect” L2 to have particular properties rests on the conceptual confusion ofhaving the concept of language(in the sense of knowing the meaning of “language”) withhaving accessto UG. (2) The claim that L2 acquisition takes place under the constraints imposed by universal principles lacks empirical support. (3) The assumption that L2 learners assign new parameter values is based (...)
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  • On Categorial Membership.Michael Freund - 2014 - Erkenntnis 79 (5):1045-1068.
    We investigate the family of concepts that an agent comes to know through a set of defining features, and examine the role played by these features in the process of categorization. In a qualitative framework, categorial membership is evaluated through an order relation among the objects at hand, which translates the fact that an object may fall more than another under a given concept. For concepts defined by their features, this global membership order depends on the degree with which each (...)
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  • Adult language acquisition and Universal Grammar.Robert Freidin - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):725-726.
    The current conception of the relation between UG and the grammar of a language rules out the no-access hypothesis, but does not distinguish between the full-access and partial-access hypotheses. The former raises the issue of why language acquisition in child and adult should be so different. The evidence presented in Epstein et al.'s target article seems inconclusive regarding a choice between hypotheses.
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  • Methodological problems with Epstein, Flynn, and Martohardjono's research.Lynn Eubank - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):724-725.
    In this commentary, I examine the experiment reported by Epstein et al. in section 5. What I show here is that the experiment is so poorly executed that little, if anything, can be concluded from it regarding the role of UG in L2 acquisition.
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  • Beyond speech balloons and thought bubbles: The integration of text and image.Neil Cohn - 2013 - Semiotica 2013 (197):35-63.
    Name der Zeitschrift: Semiotica - Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies / Revue de l'Association Internationale de Sémiotique Jahrgang: 2013 Heft: 197 Seiten: 35-63.
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  • How adult second language learning differs from child first language development.Harald Clahsen & Pieter Muysken - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):721-723.
    We argue that the model developed in Epstein et al.'s target article does not explain differences between child first language (LI) acquisition and adult second language (L2) acquisition. We therefore sketch an alternative view, originally developed in Clahsen and Muysken (1989), in the light of new empirical findings and theoretical developments.
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  • Parameter-setting in second language acquisition – explanans and explanandum.Susanne E. Carroll - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):720-721.
    Much second language acquisition (SLA) research confuses the representational and the developmental problems of language acquisition, assuming that attributes of a property theory will explain the transitions between the stages of a psychogrammar, or that induction will explain the properties of the representational systems which encode language. I argue that Principles and Parameter-setting theory deals only with the representational problem, and that induction must play a role in explaining the developmental problem. The conclusion is that both Epstein et al. and (...)
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  • Overlooked skyhooks.Robert L. Campbell - 1998 - Metascience 7 (3):489-499.
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  • Access to Universal Grammar: The real issues.Hagit Borer - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):718-720.
    Issues concerning UG access for L2 acquisition as formulated by Epstein et al. are misleading as well as poorly discussed. UG accessibility can only be fully evaluated with respect to the steady state gram mar reached by the learner. The steady state for LI learners is self evidently the adult grammar in the speech community. For L2 learners, however, the steady state is not obvious. Yet, without its clear characterization, debates concerning stages of L2 acquisition and direct and indirect UG (...)
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  • Full access to the evidence for falsification.David Birdsong - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):717-717.
    The Epstein, Flynn, and Martohardjorno full access hypothesis could be enhanced by inclusion of criteria for falsification.
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  • A dim monocular view of Universal-Grammar access.Derek Bickerton - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):716-717.
    This target article's handling of theory and data and the range of evidence surveyed for its main contention fall short of normal BBS standards. However, the contention itself is reasonable and can be supported if one rejects the metaphor for linguistic competence and accepts that are no more than the way the brain does language.
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  • Transfer in L2 grammars.Rakesh M. Bhatt & Barbara Hancin-Bhatt - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):715-716.
    Although theFull-accesshypothesis accounts for a range of empirical generalizations of L2A, it underrepresents the role of language transfer in the construction of the L2 grammar. We suggest the possibility that linguistic principles which constrain the L2 grammar are available both directly from UG and via the L1, a logical hypothesis which Epstein et al. do not consider.
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  • Language from the Ground Up: A Study of Homesign Communication.Endre Begby - 2017 - Erkenntnis 82 (3):693-714.
    Philosophers are often beholden to a picture of language as a largely static, well-defined structure which is handed over from generation to generation by an arduous process of learning: language, on this view, is something that we are given, and that we can make use of, but which we play no significant role in creating ourselves. This picture is often maintained in conjunction with the idea that several distinctively human cognitive capacities could only develop via the language acquisition process, as (...)
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  • Universales Morales: la ciencia de la naturaleza humana y el enfoque de la Ética cognitiva.Enrique Fernando Bocardo Crespo - 2017 - Daimon: Revista Internacional de Filosofía 70:147-164.
    Recent trends in Cognitive Ethics have emphasized the conceptual debts with the development of the Science of Human Nature in the late 1600s and early 1700s. The paper deals mainly with two major theoretical approaches in the cognitive revolution, that is possible to offer an explanation of the cognitive mechanisms involved in moral decision processes in terms of abstract principles allegedly embedded in human nature; and that there might be substantive reasons to assume a moral faculty to account for the (...)
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  • Functional categories in L2 acquisition: Evidence of presence is not necessarily presence of evidence.John Archibald, Eithne Guilfoyle & Elizabeth Ritter - 1996 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (4):714-715.
    Epstein et al. fail to show that L2 learners have full access to UG because they do not explain the relationship between UG and functional categories (FCs). Nor do they provide an explanation of why learners with (supposed) full knowledge of FCs fail to use them in a native-like way.
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  • Proper nouns.Samuel Cumming - 2007 - Dissertation, Rutgers - New Brunswick
    This dissertation is an experiment: what happens if we treat proper names as anaphoric expressions on a par with pronouns? The first thing to notice is that a name's 'antecedent' can occur in a discourse prior to the one containing the name. An individual may be introduced and tagged with a name in one context, and then retrieved using the name in a later context. To allow for discourse crossing anaphora, in addition to the usual cross-sentential anaphora, a revision of (...)
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