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  1. From an animal's point of view: Motivation, fitness, and animal welfare.Marian Stamp Dawkins - 1990 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13 (1):1-9.
    To study animal welfare empirically we need an objective basis for deciding when an animal is suffering. Suffering includes a wide range ofunpleasant emotional states such as fear, boredom, pain, and hunger. Suffering has evolved as a mechanism for avoiding sources ofdanger and threats to fitness. Captive animals often suffer in situations in which they are prevented from doing something that they are highly motivated to do. The an animal is prepared to pay to attain or to escape a situation (...)
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  • Recognizing Suffering.Eric J. Cassell - 1991 - Hastings Center Report 21 (3):24-24.
    Medicine and ethics alike must learn properly to attend to suffering. We can never truly experience another's distress. We can, however, learn to recognize the particular purposes, values, and aesthetic responses that shape the sense of self whose integrity is threatened by pain, disease, and the mischances of life.
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