This article discusses how sequential sampling models can be integrated in a cognitive architecture. The new theory Retrieval by Accumulating Evidence in an Architecture (RACE/A) combines the level of detail typically provided by sequential sampling models with the level of task complexity typically provided by cognitive architectures. We will use RACE/A to model data from two variants of a picture–word interference task in a psychological refractory period design. These models will demonstrate how RACE/A enables interactions between sequential sampling and long-term (...) declarative learning, and between sequential sampling and task control. In a traditional sequential sampling model, the onset of the process within the task is unclear, as is the number of sampling processes. RACE/A provides a theoretical basis for estimating the onset of sequential sampling processes during task execution and allows for easy modeling of multiple sequential sampling processes within a task. (shrink)

Recently, reliable interindividual differences were found for the way how individuals process multiple tasks and how they organize their responses. Previous studies have shown mixed results with respect to the flexibility of these preferences. On the one hand, individuals tend to adjust their preferred task processing mode to varying degrees of risk of crosstalk between tasks. On the other, response strategies were observed to be highly stable under varying between-resource competition. In the present study, we investigated whether the stability of (...) response strategies also persists with increased risk of crosstalk or whether individuals adjust their choice of response strategy, similar to what has been found at the level of task processing modes. Besides, related differences in multitasking efficiency were assessed. For this purpose, 53 participants performed the Free Concurrent Dual-Tasking paradigm, which allows them to control their task scheduling and response organization. The participants completed the FCDT paradigm under two conditions including task pairs characterized by either low or high levels of risk of crosstalk. The free choice of task scheduling resulted in the previously found distinct response patterns, best described as blocking, switching or response grouping. Remarkably, we did not find any notable adjustments of strategies of response organization to the extent of crosstalk. However, we observed suspected performance decrements of a switching strategy in the condition of high risk of crosstalk. The results suggest that individual strategies of response organization are stable habits. Further, they illustrate disadvantages of switching vs. blocking strategies of response organization in case of high task similarity. (shrink)

Between‐trial effects in Stroop‐like interference tasks are linked to differences in the amount of cognitive control. Trials following an incongruent trial show less interference, an effect suggested to result from the increased control caused by the incongruent previous trial (known as the Gratton effect). In this study, we show that cognitive control not only results in a different amount of interference but also in a different locus of the interference. That is, the stage of the task that shows the most (...) interference changes as a function of the preceding trial. Using computational cognitive modeling, we explain these effects by a difference in the amount of processing of the irrelevant dimension of the stimulus. (shrink)

Human multitasking suffers from a central attentional bottleneck preventing parallel performance of central mental operations, leading to profound deferments in task performance. While previous research assumed that the deferment is caused by a mere waiting time, we show that the bottleneck requires executive functions accounting for a profound part of the deferment. Three participant groups with EF impairments showed worse multitasking performance than respective control groups. Three further groups with EF improvements showed improved multitasking. Finally, three groups performed a dual-task (...) and different measures of EF and showed significant correlations between multitasking performance and working memory capacity. Demands on EF during multitasking may cause more errors, mental fatigue and stress, with parts of the population being considerably more prone to this. (shrink)

Visual stimuli that are made invisible by a following mask can nonetheless affect motor responses. To localize the origin of these target priming effects we used the psychological refractory period paradigm. Participants classified tones as high or low, and responded to the position of a visual target that was preceded by a prime. The stimulus onset asynchrony between both tasks varied. In Experiment 1 the tone task was followed by the position task and SOA dependent target priming effects were observed. (...) When the visual position task preceded the tone task in Experiment 2, with short SOA the priming effect propagated entirely to the tone task yielding faster responses to tones on visually congruent trials and delayed responses to tones on visually incongruent trials. Together, results suggest that target priming effects arise from processing before and at the level of the central bottleneck such as sensory analysis and response selection. (shrink)

Attention has recently been proposed as the mechanism underlying the cognitive effects associated with bilingualism. However, similar to bilingualism, the term attention is complex, dynamic, and can vary from one activity to another. Throughout our daily lives, we use different types of attention that differ in complexity: sustained attention, selective attention, alternating attention, divided attention, and disengagement of attention. The present paper is a focused review summarizing the results from studies that explore the link between bilingualism and attention. For each (...) level of attention, a brief overview of relevant theoretical models will be discussed along with a spotlight on paradigms and tasks used to measure these forms of attention. The findings illustrate that different types and levels of attention are modified by the variety of bilingual experiences. Future studies wishing to examine the effects of bilingualism on attention are encouraged to embrace the complexity and diversity of both constructs rather than making global claims about bilingualism and attention. (shrink)

Decision-making is a complex action requiring efficient information processing. Specifically, in movement in which performance efficiency depends on reaction time, e.g., open-loop controlled movements, these processes may play a crucial role. Information processing includes three distinct stages, stimulus identification, response selection, and response programming. Mainly, response selection may play a substantial contribution to the reaction time and appropriate decision making. The duration of this stage depends on the number of possible choices an individual has to “screen” to make a proper (...) decision. Given that reaction time is crucial in many sports, the possibilities of reducing it through practice are very tempting. The information processing and its relationship to the manner an individual is practicing are discussed. Especially the variability of practice issues will be explored. In variable practice conditions, an individual has to react to one or more stimuli and has to produce one of the many variations of the same movement or different movements they learned. One has to identify a stimulus appropriately and has to select a response optimally, i.e., choosing from as few choices as possible to reduce the reaction time. On the other hand, in constant practice conditions, an individual can be exposed to one or many stimuli. Still, there is only one variation of the movement that can be executed in the presence of a learned stimulus. Based on the information processing theory and the results of the research focusing on variability of practice, I discuss how the practice conditions may affect reaction time and, as a result, the decision-making process. I conceptually frame the possible implications of practice conditions on decision making related to information processing. In this review, a possible mechanism and relationship between practice conditions and decision-making are presented. Future research directions are presented. (shrink)

Multitasking behavior and working memory training are important topics in psychological science. The present thesis systematically investigated the underlying cognitive constructs of multitasking behavior and the cognitive strategies related to transfer effects of working memory training, which were described in two empirical studies. In the first study, we examined the underlying cognitive constructs associated with the concept of multitasking behavior. Although prior investigations have revealed cognitive abilities to be important predictors of multitasking behavior, few studies have been conducted on the (...) relation between executive functions and multitasking behavior. In this regard, the current investigation explored the importance of EFs, working memory capacity, relational integration, and divided attention to multitasking behavior. A sample of 202 young adults completed a battery of EFs, three WMC tests, three relational integration tests, two divided attention tests, and a multitasking scenario. Our study provided several key findings. First, in direct replication attempts, we could replicate the multitasking behavior model and partially replicate the three-factor and nested factors EFs models. Second, the regression analyses revealed that updating, inhibition, relational integration, and divided attention had strong contributions in explaining multitasking behavior variance, whereas shifting and WMC did not show any explanatory power beyond these constructs. Finally, using structural equation modeling, we found that the general EF ability representing variance common to shifting, updating, and inhibition highly overlapped with multitasking behavior. Our results are of value not only to shed light on the relevant cognitive correlates of multitasking behavior but also to position multitasking behavior in an established framework of cognitive abilities. Additionally, by providing strong empirical evidence in favor of cognitive constructs of multitasking behavior, this study builds the necessary groundwork for steering future research to elucidate the etiology of underlying relations between these specific cognitive correlates and multitasking behavior. The second study inspected how transfer occurs on material-specific tasks, rather than other task types within the working memory training framework. Despite numerous attempts of using training interventions to increase WMC, the role of cognitive strategy in explaining the transfer effects is not yet experimentally investigated. We hypothesized that transfer would occur when a similar cognitive strategy is applied in solving both the trained and transfer tasks. According to this idea, we examined the strategic approach by directly using tasks that allow for specific strategies and tasks that do not. In particular, training with verbal and numerical materials should show transfer to figural material, and the other way around. Additionally, differences between visual and verbal cognitive strategies could lead to differential transfer effects on working memory tasks. Eighty young adults received training on two working memory operations: storage and processing, and relational integration with four different materials verbal/numerical/figural /figural, and another 17 served as active control group and 8 as passive group. Before and after 12 days of adaptive training, performance on the storage and processing, and on the relational integration tasks was assessed. Linear-mixed effects modeling revealed four important findings. First, following training, there were reliable improvements on the performance of trained storage and processing, and relational integration tasks, compared to the active control group. However, such training did not generalize to measures of the same working memory operation with different materials in most cases. Second, the only transfer effect was observed between numerical and figural material within relational integration tasks, thereby confirming our hypothesis. Third, no transfer was detected between storage and processing, and relational integration. Finally, there was no direct evidence supporting the influence of cognitive strategies on transfer effects. Together, the present findings provide strong evidence for growing theories of multitasking behavior and working memory training, emphasizing the importance of cognitive underpinnings of multitasking behavior and specifying the efficacy of working memory intervention only on material-specific tasks, which may be emerged from the acquisition of task-specific cognitive strategies. Although the current investigation did not yet provide clear evidence about the strategic approach, the combination of material-specific mechanisms with a general boost in the underlying cognitive strategies provides an important and interesting perspective for future work. (shrink)