Carey leaves unaddressed an important evolutionary puzzle: In the absence of a numeral list, how could a concept of natural number ever have arisen in the first place? Here we suggest that the initial development of natural number must have bootstrapped on a material culture scaffold of some sort, and illustrate how this might have occurred using strings of beads.

Extruded polystyrene (XPS) otherwise known as a thermoplastic polymer has a closed cell structure and is often stronger, with a higher mechanical performance. XPS is a pressed material and is sold in different thicknesses ranging from 2 cm to 10 cm, thus having a weight that varies from 28 to 45 kg/m3 due to the force and pressure exerted on it. In general, XPS material has very low thermal conductivity and is resistant to bending. This material obtains typical values of (...) thermal conductivity between 0.025 and 0.040 W/m∙K., which means that it is ideal for surfaces that have to withstand weight, continuous traffic, etc. It is also resistant to moisture absorption and has a homogeneous density. Other characteristics of the material are good acoustic properties, easy assembly, and high durability over time. It should always be kept in mind that the surface where the thermal insulation will be applied must be leveled, cleaned, and dried. Primer is applied, before placing the thermal insulation on the surface. Then, XPS boards are placed on the surface, adhering to the corresponding mortar. This paper will deal with different cases of application of XPS tiles in the city of Tirana. A closer look at the resistance of this material from the day of application until today will be analyzed. The results during the observations showed high thermal stability of the material and no mold surface. EPS Expanded Polystyrene, otherwise known by the Dow Chemical trademark name STYROFOAM, is a lightweight product made from expanded plastic beads. It was first discovered by Eduard Simon in 1839 in Germany. EPS in its composition has 95% air and only about 5% plastic. This material is used because of its excellent properties, including good thermal insulation, good protective properties, and extremely lightweight. EPS is inert in nature and therefore does not result in any chemical reaction. EPS is durable, strong, and lightweight and can be used as an insulated panel system for facades, walls, roofs, and floors, as floating material in marine construction, and as a lightweight filler in road and railway construction. Different examples from the city of Tirana, of buildings where XPS and EPS materials are applied, are going to be analyzed, drawing conclusions. (shrink)

Denis Walsh has written a striking new defense in this journal of the statisticalist (i.e., noncausalist) position regarding the forces of evolution. I defend the causalist view against his new objections. I argue that the heart of the issue lies in the nature of nonadditive causation. Detailed consideration of that turns out to defuse Walsh’s ‘description‐dependence’ critique of causalism. Nevertheless, the critique does suggest a basis for reconciliation between the two competing views. *Received December 2009; revised December 2009. †To contact (...) the author, please write to: Department of Philosophy, 599 Lucas Hall, One University Boulevard, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO 63121; e‐mail: [email protected]. (shrink)

Imagine two urns, each with a thousand beads - in one all the beads are blue while in the other only one of the thousand is blue. If one of these urns is pushed forward (based on the toss of a fair coin) and the single bead then randomly drawn from it is blue, we must infer that it is a thousand times more probable that the urn pushed forward is the purely blue one. The hypothesis that this was (...) instead the urn with only one blue bead would require that the occurrence of the evidence, the blue bead being drawn, was something improbable - and it is improbable that something improbable is what has occurred. Next consider an example of only one urn with no prior description. By the same reasoning as above, if all the first beads randomly drawn are blue, it is becoming more and more probable that the beads in the urn are generally blue. (Otherwise something improbable would be happening in another colour not appearing; and what’s improbable is improbable.) It is therefore probable also that the next bead drawn will be blue. This is induction. As Hume would have said, we could not know a priori, given this evidence, that the next bead will be blue. But, as he overlooked, we can know a priori, given this evidence, that it is probable that the next bead will be blue. In neither urn example has the belief regarding the beads been formed as a Humean habit of expectation after many observations of beads. (In the first case there is only one observation. The second could be modified to have all the beads drawn out at once.) Rather the belief is a product of a priori reasoning about probability. Next imagine that a coin has been tossed a thousand times and landed heads every time. There was a fair and a loaded coin. According to the same reasoning, it is overwhelmingly more probable that the coin used was the loaded one. For that the fair coin had so landed is most improbable. The hypothesis that there is no external world makes the orderliness in my current experience improbable - much like getting all heads with a fair coin. (Uncaused sensation would most probably be chaotic.) The most probable hypothesis is that of things like those we believe in causing this orderliness - as the coin’s being loaded would have caused all heads. The hypothesis that my experience has been made to take this pattern by a Cartesian malicious demon or by scientists controlling my brain in a vat can only falsely seem to make the character of the experience probable by sneaking in an inherently improbable ad hoc specification that this sort of pattern of experience was that which they were aiming at producing - like an ad hoc specification that the fair coin was one that by chance landed heads all thousand times. We may thus reject such hypotheses as improbable. So this is the problem of induction solved and scepticism answered through a priori reasoning. (shrink)

The euthanasia literature typically discusses the difference between “active” and “passive” means of ending a patient’s life. Physician-assisted suicide differs from both active and passive forms of euthanasia insofar as the physician does not administer the means of suicide to the patient. Instead, she merely prescribes and dispenses them to the patient and lets the patient “do the rest” – if and when the patient chooses. One supposed advantage of this process is that it maximizes the patient’s autonomy with respect (...) to both her decision to die and the dying process itself. Still, despite this supposed advantage, Oregon is the only state to have legalized physician-assisted suicide. After summarizing the most important Supreme Court opinions on euthanasia (namely, Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dep’t of Health; Vacco v. Quill; Washington v. Glucksberg; and Gonzales v. Oregon), this paper argues that while there are no strong ethical reasons against legalizing physician-assisted suicide, there are some very strong policy reasons for keeping it criminal in the other forty-nine states. (shrink)

In some ways that have been largely ignored, ethnic-group names might be similar to names of other kinds. If they are, for instance, analogous to proper names, then a correct semantic account of the latter could throw some light on how the meaning of ethnic-group names should be construed. Of course, proper names, together with definite descriptions, belong to the class of singular terms, and an influential view on the semantics of such terms was developed, at the turn of the (...) nineteenth century, from discussion of a puzzle about some differences in the cognitive value of certain statements of identity. Clearly, that a = a (e.g., that Mark Twain was Mark Twain) is trivial, and its truth could be known a priori, just by thinking. On the other hand, that a = b (e.g., that Mark Twain was Samuel Clemens) is of course informative and knowable only by empirical investigation. To solve this puzzle, Frege famously proposed that those variations in the cognitive value of statements of identity “can arise only if the difference between the signs corresponds to a difference in the mode of presentation of that which is designated.” On his view, although in the above statements of identity, the singular terms, ‘a,’ and, ‘b,’ may designate the same thing, they do so with different senses, or under different modes of presentation of that object. When the puzzling statements involving ‘a’ and ‘b’ are true, they may then be said to have exactly the same reference. But since those singular terms pick out the object of reference differently (i.e., under different senses or modes of presentation), therefore the cognitive value of these statements also varies significantly. On this account, then, the reference of a non-vacuous proper name is secured by the name’s sense, or mode of presentation, which constitutes its semantic content. And given that Fregeans (here under the influence of Russell) cash out that sense as consisting in whatever concept (or cluster of concepts) could be uniquely associated with that name, they might hold, for example, that the property of being the author of Huckleberry Finn, and that of being an American who lived his early life in Hannibal, Missouri, and later became a famous writer, amount to the senses of ‘Mark Twain,’ and ‘Samuel Clemens,’ respectively.. (shrink)

Crăciunul este un festival anual de comemorare a nașterii lui Isus Hristos, datat în general la 25 decembrie ca o sărbătoare religioasă şi culturală celebrată de miliarde de oameni din întreaga lume. Sărbătoare centrală a anului liturgic creștin, Crăciunul închide sezonul Advent și inițiază cele douăsprezece zile ale Crăciunului, care se încheie după noapte a doisprezecea. Crăciunul este o sărbătoare legală în multe națiuni ale lumii, este sărbătorită cultural de un număr mare de oameni foști sau non-creștini, și este o (...) parte integrantă a sezonului vacanţei de iarnă. Obiceiurile festive, asociate în diferite țări cu Crăciunul, au un amestec și origini de păgânism, pre-creștinism, creştinism, și teme laice. Tradiţiile populare moderne cu ocazia sărbătorii includ oferirea de cadouri, muzică de Crăciun și colinde, schimburi de felicitări de Craciun, sărbători bisericești, mese speciale, precum și afișarea diverselor decoraţiuni de Crăciun, inclusiv pomi de Crăciun, lumini de Crăciun, scene cu Nașterea lui Iisus, ghirlande, coroniţe, vâsc, și ilex. În plus, mai multe personaje strâns legate și de multe ori interschimbabile, cunoscute sub numele de Moș Crăciun, Santa Claus, Moș Nicolae, și Christkind, sunt asociate cu aducerea cadourilor copiilor în timpul sezonului de Crăciun, și au propriul lor set de tradiții și învăţături. Santa Claus (considerat acelaşi cu Moş Crăciun deşi cele două personaje au origini diferite) este o figură mitologică populară asociată adesea cu darurile de Crăciun. Santa Claus se consideră ca fiind rezultatul unei combinaţii între Sf. Nicolae din Mira şi elemente din mitologia nordică păgână şi cea creştină, apariţia sa modernă fiind plasată pe la mijlocul sec. XIX. Deoarece oferirea de cadouri și multe alte aspecte ale festivalului Crăciunului implică activităţi economice sporite atât în rândul creștinilor cât și al ne-creștinilor, sărbătoarea a devenit un eveniment important și o perioadă cheie de vânzări pentru comercianții cu amănuntul și întreprinderi. Impactul economic al Crăciunului este un factor care a crescut în mod constant în ultimele secole, în multe regiuni ale lumii. -/- CUPRINS: -/- Crăciunul - Naşterea lui Iisus Hristos - Istoria - - Relația cu festivitățile concurente - - Alegerea datei de 25 decembrie - - Evul Mediu - - Secolul 20 - Tradiții - - Decorațiuni - - Muzica și colinde - - Bucătăria tradițională - - Felicitări - - Timbre comemorative - - Oferirea de cadouri - Data - - Utilizarea calendarului iulian - - Datele Crăciunului - Economie - Controverse Perioada Crăciunului - Buna Vestire - - Manuscrisul 4Q246 - - Tradiţii orientale - - Sărbătoarea - Bethleem - Postul Crăciunului - - Tradiții - - - Culori liturgice - - - Muzica - - - Postul - - - Tradiții populare - - Patru duminici și lumânări - Calendarul de Advent - Botezul Domnului (Boboteaza, Epifania sau Teofania) Personaje de Crăciun - Sfântul Nicolae - - Relicvele Sf. Nicolae - - Mituri şi legende - - Ziua Sf. Nicolae - Moș Crăciun - - Aspect - - Activități - - Fuziunea cu Santa Claus - - - Aparițiile în public - Santa Claus - Moş Gerilă Tradiţii de Crăciun - Variații geografice - - Africa - Obiceiuri de Crăciun - Sărbătorile de iarnă - - Istoria - - - Saturnaliile romane - - - Adopția creștină - - - Secularizare si comercializare - Sărbători legate de Crăciun - Oceania - - Australia - America de Nord - - Canada - - - Alberta - - - British Columbia - - - Manitoba - - - New Brunswick - - - Ontario - - - Quebec - - Statele Unite - - - California - - - Connecticut - - - Florida - - - Illinois - - - Indiana - - - Kentucky - - - Maryland - - - Massachusetts - - - Michigan - - - Minnesota - - - Missouri - - - New Jersey - - - New York - - - Ohio - - - Oregon - - - Pennsylvania - - - Tennessee - - - Texas - - - Virginia - - - Wisconsin - Urări de sărbători în diverse limbi - - Urări de sărbători în diferite limbi şi ocazii - Bebinca - - Tipuri de bibingka - - Cea mai lungă bibingka Decorațiuni de Crăciun - Pomul de Crăciun - Plante - În aer liber - Alte decorațiuni - Perioada - Pomul de Crăciun - Flori de Crăciun - - America De Nord - - - Poinsetia - - - Cactusul de Craciun - - - Spânzul - - Noua Zeelandă - - Europa - - - Ilex - - - Iedera - - - Vâsc Afaceri de Crăciun - Perioada pregătitoare înaintea Crăciunului - Conturile de Crăciun - Începutul perioadei sărbătorilor - - Vânzările de Crăciun - - Statele Unite - În timpul sărbătorilor de iarnă - - Târgurile de Crăciun - - Indicele prețurilor de Crăciun - La final de sărbători - - Statele Unite - Ziua de Crăciun - - Legea comercială a Zilei de Crăciun din 2004 - Proteste - - Nu cumpăra nimic de Crăciun - - Ziua fără nicio cumpărătură Crăciunul în artă - Filmele de Crăciun - - Categorii - Muzica de Crăciun - - Cantec de Craciun - Romane despre Crăciun - Pluguşorul Diverse - Ajută pomul de Crăciun să reziste mai mult - - Ingrediente: - - Preparare - - Sfaturi Anul Nou - Povestea Anului Nou şi a Revelionului - Sărbătorirea Anului Nou şi Revelionul în diferite ţări . 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This paper was written for a workshop on ethics and epistemology at Missouri. I use an example from unpublished work with Ishani Maitra to develop a new kind of argument for expressivism. (I don’t endorse the argument, but I think it is interesting.) Roughly, the argument is that knowledge is a norm governing assertions, but moral claims do not have to be known to be properly made, so to make a moral claim is not to make an assertion. Some (...) suggestions are made for how a non-expressivist might avoid the argument. (shrink)

Ramayan Through Kundalini Yoga Shodasi is an ideal read for Sanskrit-literate readers who are open to eclectic yogarthas and connotative meanings -------- So you thought Vyasa was before Valmiki, Mahabharat was before Ramayan, Rama a Vishnu avatar, and tantrism distinct from vedism? Think again. In Shodasi: Secrets of the Ramayana, Telugu poet Seshendra Sharma re-reads the Ramayan to come up with a number of new conclusions. Much of the book sets out to prove that Ramayan was written before the Mahabharat. (...) Sharma discusses how Indra is cited more often than Vishnu, thus placing the context of the Ramayan closer to Vedic than Puranic thought. He quotes from the Mahabharat to show how it follows descriptions of hills, rivers from the Ramayan. The Mahabharat has some prose, and therefore, it must have been composed after Ramayan, which is entirely in poetry. These are only some of the numerous reasons that Sharma offers to suggest a new sequence of our itihasas. Sharma’s book is also an experimental reading of the Ramayan through the interpretive lens of what he calls Kundalini yoga. Hanuman’s flight to Sri Lanka gets a new interpretation. “Charana Charite Pathi” is interpreted as the path of Kundalini, and the first verse of the Sundara Kanda “Tatho Ravana Nithayah” is interpreted by Sharma to refer to Hanuman traversing the sushumna nadi of the Kundalini. Trijata’s dream becomes the Gayatri mantra through an imaginative recasting of words as numbers. Gaja (elephant) means eight, danta (teeth) means thirty-two, and maha-gaja-chaturdantam somehow also adds up to 32 syllables, which is the number of syllables in the Gayatri mantra. That Trijata’s dream is halfway through the Ramayan also becomes significant for Sharma, he calls it the ‘central bead’ in the Ramayan garland of 24,000 beads. Identifying 32-syllables as the Gayatri follows a convention, for mantras are referenced by the number of syllables; however, it is the “secret” yogartha—or mystical, anagogical translations—derived by Sharma that becomes problematic, unless he is considered an authority in his own right. conclude that the name Sundarakand is unrelated to any descriptions of beauty of any of the main characters in the Ramayan. However, Soundarya and Tripura-Sundari are well-known conventions in the tantric tradition and hence, Sharma concludes that Sundarakand derives its name from Shakti’s beauty, and “Sundara-Hanuman” means “Hanuman who is a devotee of Devi” (117). A coda in this book is about the benedictory verse in Kalidasa’s Sakuntalam which has traditionally been understood to refer to Ishwara. Sharma re-interprets this verse highlighting the “eight forms” of the last line as the eight forms of Devi that please Ishwara. This book is suitable for a reader who is Sanskrit-literate and open to eclectic yogarthas and connotative meanings. Sharma cites substantially from the Ramayan in roman but without diacritics, this is difficult to follow; and he does not always include translation. Sharma often cites commentators without citing names and sources. It is not clear why the book is called Shodasi—readers may note, this book is not about the Srividya tradition. Even if the reader is unconvinced by Sharma’s reasoning or methodology, the free flow of references may prove absorbing for a reader interested in the subject. This could also be an eclectic reference for a scholar researching tantric elements in the Ramayan. - Mani Rao The Sunday Standard Magazine The New Indian Express 29th November 2015 . (shrink)

(June 2013) “The mind-body problem in cognitive neuroscience”, Philosophia Scientiae 17/2, Gabriel Vacariu and Mihai Vacariu (eds.): 1. William Bechtel (Philosophy, Center for Chronobiology, and Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science University of California, San Diego) “The endogenously active brain: the need for an alternative cognitive architecture” 2. Rolls T. Edmund (Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK) “On the relation between the mind and the brain: a neuroscience perspective” 3. Cees van Leeuwen (University of Leuven, Belgium; Riken Brain Science Institute, (...) Japan) “Brain and mind” 4. Kari Theurer (Trinity College) and John Bickle (Philosophy, Mississippi State University) “What’s old is new again: Kemeny-Oppenheim reduction at work in current molecular neuroscience” 5. Bernard Andrieu (Staps Université de Lorraine) “Sentir son cerveau? Les dispositifs neuro-expérientiels en 1er personne” 6. Corey Maley and Gualtiero Piccinini (Philosophy, University of Missouri – St. Louis) “Get the latest upgrade: Functionalism 6.3.1” 7. Paula Droege (Philosophy, Pennsylvania State University) “Memory and consciousness” 8. Gabriel Vacariu and Mihai Vacariu (Philosophy, University of Bucharest) “Troubles with cognitive neuroscience”. (shrink)