This book covers the field of and points to the intersections between politics, art and philosophy. Its hero, the late Sir Roger Scruton had a longstanding interest in all fields, acquiring professional knowledge in both the practice and theory of politics, art and philosophy. The claim of the book is, therefore, that contrary to a superficial prejudice, it is possible to address the philosophical issues of art and politics in the same oeuvre, as the example of this Cambridge-educated analytical philosopher (...) proves. Accordingly, the book has a bold thesis on the general, theoretical level, mapping the connections between politics, art and philosophy. However, it also has a pioneering commitment on the level of the particular, offering the first full-length study into the philosophical legacy of Roger Scruton, probably the most important British conservative philosopher of the late 20th and the first decades of the 21st century. It also allows reader to look into the philosopher’s fascination with Central European art and culture. Finally, it also provides a daring analysis of the late Scruton’s metaphysical inspirations, connecting the arts, and especially music, with religion and the bonds of love. (shrink)

Humans experience a profound and indescribable emotion when they unearth artifacts from ancient times. Scientific disciplines like paleontology and archaeology reflect our curiosity and desire to understand the natural world’s past and evolutionary history. Physics also invests significant effort in exploring the origin and evolution of the universe. In social life, the study field of humanities also has journals about art history, such as the Art History or Journal of Art History. Through our shared thoughts and efforts to restore humanities (...) for the cause of ecological and biological conservation, we have discovered a picture of a kingfisher taken nearly a century ago by A. F. Skutch in The Condor. Obtaining such a vivid, genuine, and emotionally evocative image was no easy task. This image has the power to stir the thoughts and awaken the conscience of the viewer, emphasizing the importance of a vibrant environment. (shrink)

Pacific Conservation Biology has officially published the manuscript. The article can be accessed using the following DOI:10.1071/PC23044.

In light of new historical evidence regarding ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson’s correspondence with art historian Erwin Panofsky, this article provides an in-depth analysis of the presence of entheogenic mushroom images in Christian art within the context of the controversy between Wasson and philologist John Marco Allegro over the identification of a Garden of Eden fresco in the 12th century Chapel of Plaincourault in France. It reveals a compelling financial motive for Wasson’s refusal to acknowledge that this fresco represents Amanita muscaria, (...) as well as for Wasson’s reluctance to pursue his hypothesis regarding the entheogenic origins of religion into Christian art and artifacts. While Wasson’s view – that the presence of psychoactive mushrooms in the Near and Middle East ended around 1000 BCE – prevailed and stymied research on entheogens in Christianity for decades, a new generation of 21st century researchers has documented growing evidence of A. muscaria and psilocybin-containing mushrooms in Christian art, consistent with ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini’s typology of mushroom trees. This article presents original photographs, taken during fieldwork at churches and cathedrals throughout Europe and the Middle East, that confirm the presence of entheogenic mushrooms in Christian art: in frescoes, illuminated manuscripts, mosaics, sculptures, and stained glass windows. Based on this iconic evidence, the article proposes a psychedelic gospels theory and addresses critiques of this theory by art historians, ardent advocates, medieval historians, and conservative Catholics. It calls for the establishment of an Interdisciplinary Committee on the Psychedelic Gospels to independently evaluate the growing body of evidence of entheogenic mushrooms in Christian art in order to resolve a controversial question regarding the possible role of entheogens in the history and origins of Christianity. (shrink)

Originally applied on domestic and lab animals, assisted reproduction technologies (ARTs) have also found application in conservation breeding programs, where they can make the genetic management of populations more efficient, and increase the number of individuals per generation. However, their application in wildlife conservation opens up new ethical scenarios that have not yet been fully explored. This study presents a frame for the ethical analysis of the application of ART procedures in conservation based on the Ethical Matrix (...) (EM), and discusses a specific case study—ovum pick-up (OPU) procedures performed in the current conservation efforts for the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni)—providing a template for the assessment of ART procedures in projects involving other endangered species. (shrink)

Artistic productions, as well as other material products, are reflections of human societies. They are often the support of specific mental and symbolic conceptions and contribute to shaping an immaterial vision of Man and his environment. The Bangou chiefdom located in West Cameroon was no exception to this rule and during the pre-colonial period, it produced notable artworks. However, today it is extremely rare to find testimonies of this past. With the help of primary and secondary sources, we have tried (...) to understand the reasons for this disappearance. Our research shows that it was the Germans who were the first to have damaged the artworks in Bangou at the very beginning of the 20th century. Then, after a beginning of reconstruction, the French government in 1957 burned down the chiefdom which was a major place of conservation of these works. The same phenomenon of destruction will be repeated by the Cameroonian army forces between 1960 and 1961. During this barbarism, the legitimate chief, who guaranteed artistic production, was forced into exile. After presenting the remains of the artistic creation still visible in the area, our article concludes by proposing possibilities for revalorizing this Bangou artistic expression necessary for its development. (shrink)

Many contemporary artworks include active matter along with rules for conservation that are designed to either facilitate or prevent that matter’s degradation or decay. I discuss the mechanisms through which actual or potential states of material decay contribute to the work’s expressive import. Nelson Goodman and Catherine Elgin introduce the concepts of literal and metaphorical exemplification, which are critical to expression: a work literally exemplifies a property when it both possesses and highlights that property, and it metaphorically exemplifies a (...) property when the properties it literally exemplifies bring that property powerfully to mind. I argue that the literal exemplification of actual or potential states of decay enhances a work’s expressive power by stimulating our bodily and emotional responses to the physical potential of the work’s active matter. Conservation practices, by affecting the properties the work literally and metaphorically exemplifies, are key to the expressive power of works that employ states of degradation and decay. The argument is illustrated through discussion of works by Zoe Leonard, Marc Quinn, and Kara Walker that literally exemplify actually or potentially decaying materials, as contrasted with works by Ai Weiwei and Sam Taylor-Johnson that represent rather than exemplify decaying materials. (shrink)

Review of 1989 text by Ralph A. Smith, noted art education scholar during the era of DBAE (Discipline Based Art Education), that criticizes the author's agenda to remedy the ills of the state of arts education, arts' secondary status to the sciences, pluralism, and popular ideologies of of contemporary culture as an agenda that is (below the surface) clearly conservative, male-centered, Eurocentric and elitist. My conclusion: "Educators, beware.".

This paper is devoted to defending philosophical studies of mind, especially traditional ones. In my view, human mentality is a dialogue with myself, which has a social aspect that is never explained nor predicted by scientific studies. We firstly derive this picture from Descartes’ classical argmuments (§§2-3), and then develop it in the context of Kantian ethics (§4). Some readers think this combination arbitrary. However, these two philosophers agree on mind/body dualism (§5), and further, the fact that the dialogue is (...) often made in an ethical situation leads us to Kantian ethics. We shall draw this developed picture within the format of modern practical syllogisms (§§5-13). Finally, we shall refer to Nick Zangwill’s normative essentialism for the completion of our whole picture (§§7-8). (shrink)

In view of the current progress of what has been named the ‘visual turn’ or the ‘pictorial turn’,1 it is exciting to witness Sam Rose’s return to early aesthetic formalist-modernism, which was so passionate about the medium, its appearance, and visuality. Rose’s project shares a recent inclination to think anew the advent of aesthetic modernism.2 It is founded on the presumption that visual art ought to be – and actually has always been – theoretically subsumed under one meta-project. This meta-project (...) does not necessarily have a clear telos, but it does have a history. In support of this view, Rose appeals to Stanley Cavell’s claim that ‘only masters of a game, perfect slaves to that project, are in a position to establish conventions which better serve its essence. This is why deep revolutionary changes can result from attempts to conserve a project, to take it back to its idea, keep it in touch with its history’ (p. 155). According to Rose’s post-formalist view, the idea of art’s meta-project is the idea of form. (shrink)

Celebrated as the equal to the great philosophers of old, namely Plato and Aristotle, whom – as Cassiodorus put it – he taught to speak Latin better than they spoke Greek, Boethius aspired to fully emancipate Roman culture from its Greek models through translations and exegesis so faithful they would leave nothing more to be desired from the original. The essay focuses on Boethius philhellenism, without complexes insofar as it had little to do either with the mixed feelings of his (...) Roman predecessors or with the plundering agenda of his Christian contemporaries. Special attention is paid to the close relationship Boethius established between word for word translations and multi-layered commentaries which he thought of and – albeit partially – carried out as part of the same scholarly endeavour. Devoid of literary pretentions as well as free from aspirations to autonomy, Boethius literal rendering and scrupulous interpretation were meant to be completely self-sufficient. Together they stand out as both the most innovative and the most conservative features of his ambitious cultural project. -/- Célébré comme l’égal des grands philosophes du passé, auxquels il aurait appris à parler Latin mieux qu’ils ne parlaient Grec, Boèce a caressé le rêve d’une émancipation radicale de la culture romaine vis-à-vis des modèles grecs qu’il se proposait de traduire et interpréter assez fidèlement pour que la comparaison avec les sources ne soit plus nécessaire. De son effort de livrer un Aristote et un Platon latins à la hauteur des originaux grecs, nous étudions l’étroite solidarité qui relie la traduction mot-à-mot des textes grecs et la restitution scrupuleuse de leur sens. Cette double tâche, que Boèce a conçue et menée d’un seul tenant, nous est dès lors apparue comme le reflet d’un philhellénisme sans complexes, tout aussi éloigné des sentiments ambivalents que nourrissaient vis-à-vis des hellènes ses devanciers romains que des efforts visant à domestiquer l’héritage classique auxquels se livraient certains de ses contemporains de même confession que lui. Affranchis de tout rêve d’autonomie, les traductions et les commentaires de Boèce se conçoivent comme parfaitement autosuffisants. Ensemble ils constituent ce qu’il y a à la fois de franchement novateur et de profondément conservateur dans son projet de faire parler Latin les sources grecques. (shrink)

This work is about the philosophical aspects of Giovanni Urbani‟s thought, that is those reflections which constantly refer to Martin Heidegger‟s philosophy. The interest in these theoretical aspects doesn‟t stem from the necessity to determine whether Urbani has correctly understood the heideggerian lectio, but rather from a necessity of thought; the necessity to explain, in an originary way, how that particular kind of knowledge that develops through the experience of conservation is able to enrich and make speculative activity more (...) fruitful. Urbani‟s research, indeed, seems to find answers where the philosopher‟s thought stops, drifting toward mysticism. Thus the present work underlines the peculiar and original way Urbani understands Heidegger‟s lesson, starting just from the point where the theoretical aspects of their reflections start to diverge, and the idea that the conditions to build a new man and a new model of rationality are to be found within science substitutes the heideggerian waiting for the new coming of the Sacred, which is to happen in poetry: the knowledge and experience of conservation become the testing ground of this research, to which the duty to produce an «advance in civilization» has been entrusted. (shrink)

What does it mean to be conservative? What could it mean in the arts? Whoever merely conserves works of art may be a collector but is not an artist. Brahms’s trio op. 40 conserves the hand horn idiom. Yet its aesthetics will not be captured by the opposition of ‘conservative’ versus ‘progressive’. What is superior in terms of technology, Brahms maintained, need not be superior in terms of art.

In the museum context, curators and conservators often play a role in shaping the nature of contemporary artworks. Before, during and after the acquisition of an art object, curators and conservators engage in dialogue with the artist about how the object should be exhibited and conserved. As a part of this dialogue, the artist may express specifications for the display and conservation of the object, thereby fixing characteristics of the artwork that were previously left open. This process can make (...) a significant difference to the visual appearance of the work, the nature of the audience's experience, and how the work should be interpreted. I present several case studies in which the nature of the artwork has been shaped by such dialogues, and discuss principles for resolving cases in which there is a conflict between instructions specified by the artist and those adopted by the museum. (shrink)

Committing to contribute to promoting the 11th progressive cultural element – environmental-healing value – and building the eco-surplus culture for sustainable development, the AISDL Team (represented by Drs. Minh-Hoang Nguyen and Quan-Hoang Vuong) has collaborated with Discover Sustainability to launch “Environmental Sustainability Needs Humanities” Topical Collection. In contributing to the generation of knowledge that aids the social transitions toward an eco-surplus utopia, the Topical Collection welcomes various types of articles across disciplines, including Research, Reviews, Perspectives, Comments, Brief Communications, Case Studies, (...) Registered Reports, and Data Notes that are related but not limited to these issues: - Socio-cultural and economic issues that help mitigate and adapt to climate change and prevent biodiversity loss - Socio-cultural and economic issues that support the development and implementation of nature-based solutions and artificial technologies for achieving environmental sustainability - Factors that help restore the connection between nature and humans, such as science, art, literature, and lived experiences - The psychology towards climate change, biodiversity loss, social transition, and technological transformation - The roles of creativity, serendipity, and knowledge management in sustainability transformation - Sustainable financing mechanism for climate change mitigation and adaptation as well as biodiversity conservation - The roles of urban and rural humans in addressing climate change and biodiversity loss - Global agreement, national commitments, and local actions for addressing climate change and biodiversity loss. (shrink)

The perspective paper titled “Kingfisher: contemplating the connection between nature and humans through science, art, literature, and lived experiences” provides a captivating exploration of the multifaceted relationship between humans and nature using kingfishers as a focal point.

The current state of philosophy of science is characterized by stasis in the struggle between realism and antirealism. In recent years, a number of authors have come out with a program of scientific perspectivism that claims to sublate this great collision and gain the status of a new epistemological paradigm: “perspectivism, or, better, perspectival realism, is one of the newest attempts to find a middle ground between scientific realism and antirealism” [1. P. 2]. Important milestones of the perspective movement were (...) the works of Ronald Giere, Francois Recanati, Bas van Fraassen, Michela Massimi, and others. The thesis of the article is that perspectivism has not yet realized its claims to autonomy, although it has become an important new arena for discussions between realists and antirealists who try to appropriate perspectivist concepts and arguments. The “middle ground,” when thought out consistently and thoroughly, turns out to lie not “between,” but either in the territory of realism or in the territory of antirealism, depending on the presumptions of the author of a particular perspectivist conception. This is demonstrated by the analysis of the conceptions of Giere, Massimi, and Recanati. Giere’s perspectivism is based on the metaphor of color vision, and for him only some (secondary) qualities of real objects turn out to be perspectival, i.e., subject-dependent. Massimi’s perspectivism attempts, on the basis of a visual arts metaphor, to combine the phenomenon of the plurality of scientific theories (“perspectival disagreement” about what an object is) with the general realist attitude of science (agreement about that there is an object). Recanati’s perspectivism syncretizes realism about ordinary objects and relativism about other things. The first two versions of perspectivism rely on a perceptual metaphor: perspective is conditioned by the perceptual constitution of the observer, that is, it arises at the mental or cognitive level. Recanati’s version attempts to derive perspective from contextuality, that is, it is semantic. However, it does not show exactly how perceptual categories are superimposed on theories or how scientific concepts reveal their perspectival character. The isomorphism of perception and theoretical thinking, sensibility and understanding, remains undemonstrated. On the one hand, perspectivist efforts are motivated by an important concern to account for antirealist critique (lack of access to the “view from nowhere,” factual and semantic underdetermination, difficulties with the idea of approaching the truth, the historicity of knowledge, the activeness of the constructing subject, etc.) while preserving the scientific commitment to universality, validity, and truthfulness. On the other hand, the ontological question remains fundamental and unavoidable, and perspectivism (yet?) fails to circumvent it. As we see, all three versions of perspectivism considered in this article turn out to be varieties of realism: Giere and Massimi recognize this explicitly, while Recanati de facto assumes a quite respectable and conservative position of selective realism with respect to ordinary objects. (shrink)

The album Echo was produced in a depressed, drug-riddled phase when Tom Petty’s first marriage was ending and his physical condition so degraded that he took to using a cane. Petty filmed no videos, avoided playing the album’s songs on the follow-up tour and reported little memory of its making. The thoughtfulness and self-reflection that traumatic circumstances spur distinguish the album. So too does the tendency to look backwards in times of crisis, whether in hopes of finding solidity in the (...) past or just out of exhausted inability to cope with the present. -/- While melancholically creative, the album might be regarded as an echoing of past musical fragments. The sprightly mix of acoustic and electric guitars, the backing vocal harmonies and the stories of loss in songs such as “Won’t Last Long” and “This One’s for Me” harken to Petty’s albums from the late 80s to mid-90s. “Accused of Love” similarly contains echoes of Petty’s more upbeat work, but with depressing lyrical undertones. The production qualities and lyrics of “Rhino Skin” recollect “Asshole,” a Beck cover from Petty’s previous album. “I Don’t Wanna Fight”—a Heartbreakers performance composed and sung by Mike Campbell—returns to the hard driving rock of Damn the Torpedoes. The lyrics, straight-laced drums and layered drones of electric guitars of “Free Girl Now” go back further to “American Girl,” which itself was influenced by psychedelic music. At the same time, all of this typifies Petty’s oeuvre. Throughout his career, he made music steeped in past rock traditions. He was also a seminal figure in Southern rock, with its emphatically nostalgic character. -/- The crisis that Petty was experiencing echoes throughout the album in more specific ways, with many songs repeating the theme of being up or down, high or low. The theme of fighting or not wanting to has an especially strong echo, showing up in “Swingin’,” “Billy the Kid” and “I Don’t Wanna Fight.” These songs, in turn, exhibit nostalgia for past icons, with protagonists going down hard like Billy the Kid; or going down swinging like Sonny Liston; or again like Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller and Sammy Davis in a punny reference to the swing era. -/- The retrospective feel of the album is one of looking to the past for the sake of self-preservation in the present, along lines discussed by Nietzsche. While symptomatic of illness, Nietzsche maintains this movement “springs from the protective instinct of a degenerating life which tries by all means to sustain itself and to fight for existence.” This seeming denial of growth can, as Nietzsche continues, be “among the greatest conserving and yes-creating forces of life.” Petty clearly associated Echo with personal grief, refusing to listen to it for years. As with many other examples of art, however, the album was also a way of surviving and growing beyond a present trauma, and one more specifically that compelled him to overcome an important part of his past, namely, his wife of 20-plus years. One can speculate that clinging to fragments of the past—musical and otherwise—was a way of coping with a difficult present and a fading past. (shrink)

A rejoinder to Harri Mäcklin, "A Heideggerian Critique of Immersive Art".

The overarching thesis of this essay is that despite the etymological relationship between the word ‘philosophy’ and wisdom—the word ‘philosophos’, in Greek, means ‘lover of wisdom’—and irrespective of the longstanding tradition of identifying philosophers with ‘wise men’—mainline philosophy, historically, has had little interest in wisdom and has been preoccupied primarily with knowledge. Philosophy, if we are speaking of the mainline tradition, has had and continues to have more in common with the natural and social sciences than it does with the (...) humanities and liberal arts. In advancing this thesis, I divide the history of philosophy into three competing traditions: the mainline tradition of philosophy and two philosophical ‘countercultures,’ one conservative the other radical. At issue between these rival traditions is precisely the relative significance of knowledge and wisdom and their respective places in inquiry. I also provide an account of the distinction between knowledge and wisdom—which I argue is greater than has perhaps been appreciated—and between the natural and applied sciences, on the one hand, and the humanities and liberal arts on the other. (Published Online February 27 2006). (shrink)

REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL -/- ANIMAL BREEDING: ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE E-mail: [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)98143-8399 -/- 1. INTRODUÇÃO A inseminação artificial impôs-se em todo o mundo como um método de grande interesse do ponto de vista zootécnico e econômico, incrementando os rendimentos produtivos através da melhoria acelerada e da uniformidade no reagrupamento das populações. Os resultados positivos obtidos nestas últimas décadas testemunham esta possibilidade, válida tanto para os países mais desenvolvidos como (...) para os países em processo de desenvolvimento. A necessidade de uma rápida melhoria da estrutura das raças, o aumento da produção, bem como o máximo emprego de reprodutores selecionados difundiram consideravelmente o método da inseminação artificial, principalmente na espécie bovina, de forma que hoje se insemina artificialmente mais de 150 milhões de vacas e novilhas aptas para reprodução. Em certos países desenvolvidos, do ponto de vista pecuário, mais de 90% das vacas são inseminadas artificialmente, concretamente na Dinamarca 98%, mais de 95% no Japão e Israel ou 94% na Hungria; na Espanha chega-se a níveis muito próximos dos 50%. 2. CONCEITO E PRINCÍPIOS BÁSICOS O Larousse agrícola (1981) define a inseminação artificial como uma «técnica que consiste em depositar, no aparelho genital de uma fêmea, com a ajuda de instrumentos adequados, o sêmen de um macho colhido artificialmente». O sêmen, colhido por um processo variável e adequadamente diluído, serve para a inseminação artificial de um elevado número de fêmeas, o que permite multiplicar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos e, portanto, constitui um poderoso meio de melhoria do gado. 3. BREVE HISTÓRIA DA INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL Embora a zootecnia iniciasse seu verdadeiro desenvolvimento como ciência e ainda estivesse longe de abordar aspectos econômicos, Lazzaro Spallanzani no século XVIII já intuíra a extensão aplicativa da inseminação artificial realizando testes demonstrativos iniciais. Ilya Ivanov começou um século depois a aplicação prática da IA e compreendeu seu significado tecnológico. Nos primeiros anos do século XX, cientistas e técnicos tentaram desenvolver um método com profundidade; no entanto, os resultados obtidos foram escassos. As razões pelos escassos resultados podem se explicar mediante os deficientes conhecimentos da anatomia, fisiologia e patologia da reprodução e o comportamento nos dois sexos estudados, tanto do ponto de vista biológico como técnico, bem como haver trabalhado sobre espécies pouco fáceis tais como o cavalo e o cão. O conhecimento tecnológico e a aplicação sistemática da técnica tornou-se possível, em primeiro lugar, com a ideia que levou à realização da primeira vagina artificial, obra de Amantea em 1914, em seguida com a criação de eficientes mênstruos diluentes e mais recentemente com o progresso da técnica de conservação prolongada "in vitro" do material espermático por congelação. A partir dos anos trinta, em certos países como a Itália ou a Alemanha, a IA foi utilizada como meio de profilaxia das doenças genitais (brucelose, tricomoníase, vibriose, etc.). A aplicação organizada do método foi realizada pela primeira vez na Dinamarca nos anos 1938-1939, com a criação de cooperativas de inseminação com o objetivo de realizar a melhoria zootécnica bovina, alargando-se posteriormente aos outros países da Europa até à sua aplicação sistemática na atualidade. -/- 4. A PRODUÇÃO DO SÊMEN A expansão da IA na maioria das espécies de interesse zootécnico implica uma forte responsabilidade dos que se ocupam dela, tanto na fase de aplicação como na de seu desenvolvimento. No que se refere aos bovinos do Brasil, foi seguida uma ordenação coordenada das práticas de reprodução com os programas de seleção e expansão das diferentes raças. Para o efeito, foi criada uma legislação que permite dispor de normas mais completas possíveis. 4.1 Atividades a desenvolver em um centro de IA O real decreto que regula as atividades dos centros de IA (Decreto nº 91.111, de 12 de Março de 1985), que regulamenta a Lei n° 6.446, de 05 de outubro de 1977, que dispõe sobre a inspeção e fiscalização obrigatórias do sêmen destinado à inseminação artificial em animais domésticos, e dá outras providências, define como centro de IA, em seu Art. 20 Inciso 1, todo o estabelecimento que mantenha alojados reprodutores doadores de sêmen e que realize as tarefas de coleta, manipulação, Industrialização, armazenagem, comércio ou aplicação de sêmen, com as seguintes dependências: a - quarentenário; b - alojamento dos reprodutores; c - setor de coleta de sêmen; d - sala de material de coleta; e - sala de limpeza, desinfecção e esterilização de todos os materiais e instrumentos de coleta e processamento de sêmen; f - laboratório destinado ao exame, avaliação, diluição, envasamento e congelação de sêmen; g - banco de conservação de sêmen; h - setor administrativo e de expedição; i - outras dependências, se necessário. A atividade destes centros baseia-se na coleta do sêmen de reprodutores de qualidade, na sua armazenagem e subsequente distribuição; para tanto, é necessário realizar toda uma série de procedimentos para a apreciação da qualidade do sêmen e da sua aptidão para o armazenamento. A determinação da capacidade fecundante do sêmen, das suas qualidades e garantias sanitárias deve ser efetuada por técnicos especializados. 4.2 Valores genéticos do reprodutor Os centros de inseminação artificial dispõem dos melhores reprodutores de qualidade em termos de valores genéticos. De acordo com as disposições em vigor, os reprodutores devem ser submetidos a testes de descendência dos progenitores, de aptidão leiteira e estes mesmos testes ou, pelo menos, os testes de rendimento de carcaça próprio nas raças autóctones de produção de carne. Os centros devem dispor de catálogos ou listas contendo dados pormenorizados sobre a origem, qualidades reprodutivas e genéticas do reprodutor, o que permite ao criador conhecer com precisão qual é o touro (no caso dos bovinos) que lhe fornece o esperma e que melhorias pode esperar na qualidade da sua descendência. Por estas razões, os peritos dos centros devem ser responsáveis e assegurar que: a) Os reprodutores não transmitam genes letais ou semiletais ou qualquer outra anomalia geneticamente condicionada em relação à descendência. b) Os reprodutores transmitam realmente as qualidades genéticas declaradas e assegurem, em condições de manejo e alimentação dadas, uma importante produtividade da descendência. c) O preço da dose do sêmen reflita efetivamente o valor genético do reprodutor. d) O sêmen seja corretamente identificado, ou seja, pertença ao reprodutor indicado. 5. AS TÉCNICAS DE INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL 5.1 A coleta do sêmen A coleta do sêmen constitui a primeira operação a efetuar-se na técnica da IA. Nos mamíferos domésticos existem duas formas: a) Por recolha sobre a fêmea (pós-coito). b) Por recolha sobre o macho. Para desenvolvê-las foram preconizados diversos métodos: alguns como as esponjas vaginais ou aparelhos de borracha colocados nas vias genitais da fêmea não têm mais que um interesse histórico; outros, como a criação de fístulas ou punção direta no testículo, só são úteis como métodos experimentais, inclusive existem outros métodos, porém de uso pouco frequente (eletroejaculação, amaciamento das vesículas seminais, etc.). Hoje em dia tanto para o touro, carneiro, porco, cavalo e coelho o método usual é a obtenção de sêmen a partir do macho, concretamente mediante a aplicação da técnica da vagina artificial. Nas aves a emissão do esperma obtém-se mediante a massagem manual na região abdominal dos galos reprodutores. Nas abelhas, é necessário provocar a evaginação do pênis do zangão utilizando clorofórmio para depois ser efetuada a coleta do sêmen com o auxílio de uma micropipeta. 5.1.1 O método da vagina artificial Baseia-se na utilização de um aparelho prático e simples que tenta satisfazer as condições que imitem o máximo possível o aparelho genital feminino das fêmeas no momento do coito e que permite verificar uma rápida coleta de um ejaculação livre de contaminação. -/- É essencialmente constituído por um cilindro exterior de borracha endurecida e suficientemente compacto para ser utilizado como isolante térmico. Este cilindro apresenta uma abertura com parafuso de fecho; no interior do cilindro grosseiro introduz-se outro de borracha fina e flexível (camisa) revertido em suas extremidades para mantê-lo fixo mediante umas fitas de borracha. Limitada por ambos os cilindros fica uma cavidade que só se comunica com o exterior pelo orifício praticado na parede do cilindro externo. Uma das extremidades da vagina permanece aberta e a outra ajusta-se a um tubo coletor graduado de vidro no qual se recolhe o esperma. Para simular as condições naturais, introduz-se água quente (41-42ºC em bovinos) dentro da câmara em quantidade suficiente para criar uma pressão e temperatura semelhantes à da vagina da fêmea. 6. AVALIAÇÃO E TRATAMENTO DO SÊMEN: OPERAÇÕES E TÉCNICAS No laboratório podem ser avaliadas e medidas uma série de características e propriedades do sêmen através de um controle da sua qualidade. Estes exames são conclusivos ao permitir a diluição do sêmen e a sua posterior utilização ou, se for o caso, a sua eliminação. 6.1 Estudo macroscópico do esperma 6.1.1 O volume do sêmen ejaculado O volume do esperma é muito variável segundo as espécies (Tabela 1). Mesmo dentro da mesma espécie há variações, como, por exemplo, no caso dos bovinos. Circunstâncias tais como a idade, raça, momento da coleta, método no regime sexual da mesma, época do ano, regime alimentar e grau de excitação sexual em que se encontra, provocam grandes variações no total de quantidade ejaculada por animal. Tabela 1: Características médias do sêmen dos mamíferos domésticos Espécie Volume de uma ejaculação (ml) Concentração 1099/ml N° total de spz (109) Porcentagem de spz móveis Touro 5 (1 – 12) 1,2 (0,5 – 2,5) 6 65 Carneiro 0,9 (0,1 – 0,5) 4 (1,5 – 6) 3,6 90 Porco 300 0,3 90 70 Cavalo 100 0,15 15 65 Cão 2 0,1 0,2 85 Fonte: SOLTNER, 1993. A técnica para a sua medição é imediata, é realizada após a coleta mediante a utilização de um tubo graduado. O volume total de esperma é um fator secundário de apreciação. No entanto, o interesse do seu estudo reside no fato de que o volume normal ser um índice favorável que condiciona o número de doses seminais a preparar. Além disso, outras características macroscópicas importantes do esperma são a cor e o odor característicos em cada uma delas. 6.2 Estudo microscópico do esperma 6.2.1 A motilidade massal Imediatamente após a emissão, o exame microscópico direto do esperma fresco nos permite conhecer de forma aproximada a porcentagem de espermatozoides móveis, sua morfologia, tendência dos zoospermios à aglutinação (movimento de ondas e remoinhos, já que as células vivas varrem as mortas, agrupando-as) e a presença eventual de elementos estranhos (células epiteliais, pus, partículas de terra, restos de vaselina, etc.). O método é subjetivo e serve unicamente como avaliação de conjunto; no entanto, é importante a motilidade dos espermatozoides no fluido espermático. Uma boa ejaculação não deverá conter menos de 60% de espermatozoides em movimento, e este deve ser em avanço progressivo, nunca curvo, rotatório ou oscilante. A atividade massal é avaliada tecnicamente mediante microscópio, com ligeiro aumento (20 x 40), colocando uma gota de esperma sobre uma lâmina situada numa placa de aquecimento (38-39ºC). A observação pode ser direta sobre a ocular ou pode ser facilitada por um sistema que permita a visualização num monitor de televisão. 6.2.2 A concentração zoospérmica É o número de espermatozoides por mililitro de esperma variável para as diferentes espécies (tabela 1). A determinação pode ser feita utilizando sistemas semelhantes à contagem globular utilizada em hematologia, utilizando câmaras contabilísticas especiais como a câmara Burker. Esta câmara possui uma grelha integrada por três tipos de retângulos de diferentes áreas, o que permite operar com qualquer concentração. Antes de iniciar o processo é necessário diluir o esperma para uma melhor observação colocando uma quantidade conhecida sobre a câmara sobrepondo uma lamela. A contagem consiste em anotar o número de espermatozoides cujas cabeças se encontram dentro da grade, de modo que cada dois espermatozoides que eventualmente possam apresentar sua cabeça sobreposta sobre a linha divisória se conta um. O número de quadrados sobre os quais se deve fazer a contagem é de 30, obtendo depois a média aritmética do valor que resultava do número total de espermatozoides encontrados nas 30 quadras. Um exemplo prático para conhecer a concentração de espermatozoides no gado bovino pode ser deduzida utilizando a seguinte fórmula: N = M x 400 x 10 x 200 x 1.000 Onde: N: Número de espermatozoides/mm3. M: Média dos espermatozoides contados por grade. 400: Área da grelha (1/20 x 1/20 = 1/400 mm2). 10: Altura delimitada entre a câmara e a lamela (1/19 mm). 200: Título de diluição (1/200). 1000: Conversão de mm3 para cm3. Pode-se também apreciá-lo de forma rápida e precisa usando um fotômetro, avaliando uma pequena quantidade de esperma diluído. O método é baseado na relação direta que existe entre a transparência ou densidade ante a passagem da luz através do fluido espermático e sua concentração em espermatozoides. Uma fotocélula mede a luz que atravessa a preparação, o que permite deduzir diretamente a concentração. O sistema de videomicrografia consiste em um microscópio óptico focado na amostra de sêmen (foco que é feito manualmente por meio de parafuso micrométrico), uma câmera de vídeo recolhe imagens microscópicas e estas são processadas por computador. Sua vantagem é que o sistema, totalmente automatizado, pode ser ajustado para analisar a concentração no sêmen fresco e após a descongelação do mesmo. 6.2.3 A porcentagem de espermatozoides mortos e anormais Uma das provas de aptidão genésica dos reprodutores é a determinação de formas anormais de espermatozoides. Todos os animais em que o teor de tais formas ultrapasse repetidamente um determinado limite ou que sejam de um tipo característico devem ser eliminados. As colorações específicas permitem diferenciar as formas vivas das mortas em função da aceitação dos diferentes corantes utilizados. Uma das técnicas de coloração seletiva consiste em diluir uma gota de esperma num corante vital (eosina) juntamente com nigrosina. Uma vez aplicado o corante, deixa-se secar o esfregaço ao ar de modo que a eosina cora imediatamente os zoospermios mortos no momento da mistura, enquanto a nigrosina resulta na solução de contraste. A medição pode ser feita em um hematímetro ou por colorímetro. A porcentagem de formas anormais é dada pela seguinte fórmula: x=( A x 100 )/N Onde: A: Número de espermatozoides anormais encontrados. N: Número total de espermatozoides contados. Quando o teor de espermatozoides anormais ultrapassa um certo limite ou se as malformações são de um tipo característico, considera-se a ejaculação como não válida. 6.3 Os controles biológicos e bioquímicos Os controles biológicos ao esperma e espermatozoides limitam-se a testes de resistência ou grau de vigor e a testes de sobrevivência. Os controles químicos incluem, em geral, a determinação da atividade metabólica dos espermatozoides em relação a determinados produtos: frutólise, redução do azul de metileno, consumo de oxigênio, ou a utilização de testes indicadores como GOT, DNA e acrosina. 6.4 A diluição do esperma Esse processo tem por finalidade aumentar o volume total da massa espermática. Os objetivos buscados nesse processo de diluição são: a) Partindo de uma ejaculação, o poder de inseminar o maior número possível de fêmeas. b) A criação de um meio favorável à sobrevivência dos espermatozoides "in vitro". Como diluidores são utilizados diluentes e conservantes, a maioria deles são feitos a partir de gemas de ovo, frutose, leite desnatado reconstituído ou produtos químicos como o TRIS (hidroximetilaminometano) com a adição de antibióticos e glicerol. Em qualquer caso, devem satisfazer as seguintes condições: a) Que tenha um pH idôneo para cada tipo de sêmen, com bom efeito de mistura. b) Que tenham a mesma pressão osmótica e a propriedade de mantê-la. c) Que contenham substâncias alimentares necessárias para o metabolismo dos espermatozoides. d) Que contenham os minerais necessários e na concentração adequada sem ânions nem cátions tóxicos. e) Não devem conter elementos prejudiciais para os órgãos sexuais femininos, para o processo de fecundação e o desenvolvimento do óvulo fecundado. A frutose é a principal fonte de energia para o espermatozoide; este como qualquer outra célula é capaz de metabolizar os hidratos de carbono mediante um mecanismo oxidativo anaeróbio. As proteínas do ovo regulam as variações bruscas de temperatura e certos agentes químicos e efeito conservador sobre os zoospermios, o que permite uma melhor sobrevivência dos mesmos. Os lipídeos do ovo comportam-se como fatores de proteção e os complexos lipoproteicos protegem, mas também conservam o esperma. O leite desnatado apresenta a desvantagem de uma observação mais difícil dos espermatozoides ao fazer a constatação das doses seminais. Os antibióticos têm a função de inibir o desenvolvimento dos germes que acompanham o esperma no momento da coleta. A ação mais eficaz é a penicilina e a estreptomicina. À medida que certos agentes patogênicos (vibriofetus) e outras infecções específicas são erradicados, a tendência é a diminuição na utilização de antibióticos, porque, juntamente com a sua ação positiva, implica também uma diminuição da fertilidade do sêmen. O glicerol intervém no processo de conservação e favorece a formação de cristais muito pequenos durante a congelação, o que evita o dano celular e favorece a sobrevivência dos espermatozoides. 6.4.1 A taxa de diluição É um processo importante, uma vez que é necessário assegurar os resultados da fecundação. Realizado o número de espermatozoides de cada um dos ejaculados, uma vez que têm densidade diferente, procede-se ao cálculo do volume do dilúvio-conservador necessário. O número de doses obtidas por ejaculação é muito variável. De 100 a 300 ou mais para ejaculação de touro, de 10 a 15 para o de carneiro ou de bode e de 30 a 40 para o porco. Após a diluição do esperma com o mênstruo, é requerido um período de equilíbrio para que a temperatura do sêmen desça lentamente evitando, dessa maneira, o choque térmico. 6.5 O condicionamento do esperma: o enchimento e o fechamento das palhetas Para o condicionamento dos espermatozoides, sempre que se pratique a congelação do sêmen, como é o caso dos bovinos, foram utilizados diferentes sistemas como as ampolas e os tubos de celofane. No entanto, o mais frequente no Brasil é a aplicação do método francês das palhetas, de capacidade variável (0,25 ou 0,50 ml para o sêmen de touro) e grande resistência. As palhetas devem ser previamente identificadas de acordo com os códigos estabelecidos para estes casos nos centros correspondentes onde devem recolher as chaves de número e a data do congelamento, centro, raça e reprodutor com o seu nome correspondente. As operações de marcação, enchimento e fechamento das palhetas são totalmente automatizadas, no caso dos bovinos. 6.6 A congelação do sêmen Terminada a diluição, começa o processo de conservação correta do sêmen para que conserve sua efetividade de fecundação, para isso podemos recorrer à refrigeração e à congelação. O primeiro sistema é reservado aos animais cujos espermatozoides não resistem a temperaturas baixas ou quando se procura uma inseminação imediata. Nas espécies nas quais se pode realizar a congelação, como no bovino, mesmo com o aperfeiçoamento exaustivo das técnicas atuais, existe uma porcentagem de espermatozoides mortos na operação. Para evitar o máximo possível que isso aconteça, é feita uma descida gradual da temperatura, procurando uma curva adequada, de modo a evitar os riscos acima referidos. A congelação realiza-se a —196ºC com nitrogênio líquido; a conservação neste estado é praticamente indefinida. 6.6.1 Controle após a congelação Deve ser realizada em condições de qualidade, a qual é estabelecida em função do número de espermatozoides vivos e progressivamente móveis (em bovinos nunca inferior a 35%) que apareçam uma vez descongelada a palha. Terminada a análise e estabelecidos os correspondentes controles, os centros são responsáveis por: a) A distribuição de um sêmen controlado e de qualidade. b) O sêmen após descongelação contenha um número suficiente de espermatozoides móveis e fecundantes. 6.7 A qualidade sanitária do sêmen A qualidade sanitária do sémen depende diretamente das condições de vida sanitária em que se encontra o reprodutor, das condições de coleta do sêmen, do tratamento do mesmo e da sua manipulação. A infecção do esperma pode ocorrer durante a diluição e a conservação e, mais eficazmente ainda, durante a coleta e com o ar do ambiente. A infecção pode ser causada por: a) Agentes específicos das infecções genitais, que podem propagar doenças infecciosas através da inseminação (vibriose, tricomoníase, brucelose, etc.). b) Agentes não específicos como diferentes bactérias (estafilococos, estreptococos, colibactérias, germes pirógenos, etc.), fungos (micose) e vírus (IBR) que podem provocar inflamações dos órgãos genitais da fêmea e que exercem uma influência nociva dos seus produtos de metabolismo sobre o poder fecundante dos espermatozoides. Atualmente, é possível obter esperma estéril desde que se trabalhe corretamente com os diluentes; no entanto, apesar de todas as garantias que possam oferecer a tecnologia dos centros dos diferentes países, existe uma regulamentação jurídica clara, a fim de evitar a difusão de riscos para a saúde. 7. A INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL NA PRÁTICA No processo de inseminação propriamente dito, o sêmen é introduzido e depositado nas vias genitais da fêmea mediante o instrumental adequado. Para o seu desenvolvimento no gado bovino, são necessárias uma série de operações. 7.1 Coleta e transferência no termo de transporte As palhetas são recolhidas pelos inseminadores nos centros levando-as em pequenos contentores de transporte que contêm nitrogênio líquido. Ao retirar a palheta do recipiente é conveniente tê-la perfeitamente localizada para conseguir uma correta manipulação da cesta onde está situada, uma vez que uma queda brusca da temperatura faz diminuir a sobrevivência das células espermáticas. 7.2 A descongelação Realiza-se rapidamente num banho de água ou num termo que mantém a temperatura da água entre 35-37ºC. Outros sistemas diferentes não são recomendados, pois aumentam o tempo de descongelação e diminuem a capacidade fecundante do sêmen. 7.3 A aplicação do sêmen no aparelho genital da vaca Uma vez descongelada a palheta, seca-se e homogeneíza-se o seu conteúdo, corta-se uma das suas extremidades selada com álcool polivinílico solidificado e introduz-se no cateter de inseminação, instrumento cilíndrico no qual se introduz a palheta, posteriormente ajusta-se perfeitamente para evitar perdas de material seminal e, no momento da aplicação, o seu conteúdo é empurrado através de um sistema de êmbolo. O cateter é revestido com uma bainha de plástico, descartável após cada utilização. O método técnico que se impôs atualmente é o americano, no qual o lugar ideal para depositar o sêmen é na bifurcação dos cornos uterinos guiando-se por palpação manual através da parede retal. 7.4 O momento ideal de inseminação na vaca Há uma série de fatores que determinam o momento ideal de inseminação da vaca: a) A capacidade de sobrevivência dos espermatozoides nos órgãos sexuais femininos. b) A necessidade da maturidade dos espermatozoides (capacitação). c) O tempo de maturidade do óvulo e sua passagem pelo oviduto. Em geral, como média, as vacas permanecem no cio por 18 horas e ovulam às 14 horas depois, sendo a vida do óvulo de 6 a 10 horas. Em função destes fatores e para obter uma fertilidade ideal as vacas podem ser servidas durante os últimos dois terços do período de cio, ou algumas horas depois de este ter terminado, o que na prática se traduz em que se observa o cio pela manhã, as vacas podem ser servidas nessa mesma tarde e as que mostram o cio pela tarde são inseminadas na manhã seguinte. Em caso de dúvidas é sempre melhor deixar passar mais tempo. 7.5 Inseminação em caprinos, ovinos, suínos, equinos, coelhos, aves e abelhas Nos ovinos e caprinos, a inseminação é feita com sêmen fresco e refrigerado, normalmente conservado a 16 ºC com ampolas de ácido acético. A técnica da inseminação em si é simples, mas requer a utilização de espéculo para abrir a vulva e guiar a pistola inseminadora, injetando a dose correspondente à entrada do colo do útero. A dose seminal depositada varia entre 0,2 e 0,4 ml em concentrações de 5 x 106 espermatozoides/ml. No caso dos caprinos, a técnica é semelhante à das ovelhas, com a ressalva de que as doses seminais são geralmente, um pouco mais elevadas. Em suínos utiliza-se para inseminação o sêmen fresco, a temperatura de conservação varia entre 40 ºC e 15 ºC. As técnicas de congelação resultam na obtenção de espermatozoides móveis após a descongelação, mas com má fertilidade. Na porca o cio ou estro, momento apropriado para a inseminação, tem uma duração aproximada de 3 dias. A ovulação ocorre às 35 horas após o início do cio; este fato acontece às 30-40 horas de imobilização ante o cachaço, sendo a sobrevivência do óvulo de 12 horas. As fêmeas em cada cio podem ser inseminadas uma ou duas vezes. O momento apropriado é 24 horas após o início do estro quando se aplica uma única dose; caso se aplicarem duas, recomenda-se fazê-la de 24 à 36 horas após o aparecimento do estro. Devido à disposição peculiar do colo do útero na porca, a prática da inseminação suína requer: a) Uma deposição do sêmen intrauterina. b) Uma fixação do cateter correta para estimular as contrações uterinas e facilitar o transporte de espermatozoides. c) Evitar o refluxo do sêmen e a consequente diminuição do número de espermatozoides, o que entra em detrimento com a finalidade da fertilidade. A forma do cateter é adaptada à necessidade de uma correta fixação cervical para praticar a inseminação intrauterina de um volume importante de sêmen diluído (cerca de 100 cc). Os diversos modelos existentes, com variantes, tratam de imitar a forma do pênis do macho e introduzem-se na vagina girando para a esquerda para permitir seu deslizamento e uma boa fixação. O sêmen contido no recipiente é depositado por gravidade no útero. Nos equinos, o sêmen utilizado é fresco, normalmente a 4 ºC. A técnica apresenta uma maior dificuldade decorrente da necessidade de utilizar um longo tubo acoplado ao cateter de inseminação para o acesso fácil à zona de deposição do esperma no aparelho genital da égua. A dose correspondente é injetada a nível uterino. Nos coelhos é utilizado sêmen fresco, refrigerado e diluído. Para inseminar existem vários procedimentos, embora o mais comum seja a utilização de palhetas e pistola de inseminação. A aplicação do esperma efetua-se entre 1 e 4 horas após a coleta do mesmo. Nas aves, a técnica de inseminação é realizada com sêmen fresco extraído pouco antes da sua implantação na fêmea, uma vez que na maioria das espécies se constata uma rápida diminuição das taxas de fecundação com o tempo. O material e a metodologia do inseminador consistem em pipetas para a obtenção do esperma, dosador de sêmen diluído, palhetas descartáveis e seringas adequadas para a colocação do sêmen no aparelho genital da fêmea. Os intervalos de inseminação são, geralmente, de uma semana. Nas abelhas, a inseminação artificial das rainhas é prática corrente em centros especializados na seleção de reprodutores. A técnica requer um efeito sedativo na rainha durante a manipulação, abertura da prega da vagina e introdução da seringa na vagina. Para efetuar estas operações é necessário utilizar um aparelho especial de inseminação. 8. RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES Aspectos como a melhoria genética, a proteção sanitária ou a organização e gestão da empresa pecuária têm sido as principais motivações para que a técnica da inseminação artificial tenha se difundido atualmente nos países com uma pecuária organizada e desenvolvida. A utilização da técnica implica na utilização de um sêmen de qualidade, garantido pelos centros de inseminação. Através de técnicas laboratoriais, é possível prever essa qualidade mediante a realização de testes macroscópicos (motilidade massal) e microscópicos (quantidade, motilidade, porcentagem de espermatozoides anormais e densidade). Constatada a sua qualidade, o sêmen é diluído com o objetivo de conservá-lo e aumentar o volume de ejaculação, sendo-lhe adicionados diferentes tipos de diluentes e aditivos. O sêmen pode ser conservado refrigerado ou congelado com nitrogênio líquido a uma temperatura negativa de -196 ºC. Para obter uma porcentagem elevada de inseminações fecundantes nos bovinos, faz-se necessário a manipulação correta das palhetas, evitando as mudanças de temperatura até à sua posterior utilização. Os processos de descongelação, secagem e colocação no cateter devem ser realizados de forma rápida e eficiente. Nas espécies em que se utiliza sêmen fresco, além de um correto desenvolvimento da técnica em si, é de vital importância a conservação do mesmo a temperatura adequada, além da sua aplicação em um curto espaço de tempo para evitar baixas taxas de fecundação. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva – Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE. Recife, 2020. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ASBIA. Informações Técnicas sobre inseminação artificial. Acesso em: Março de 2020. ASBIA. Manual de Inseminação de Artificial, Uberaba – MG: Associação Brasileira de Inseminação Artificial, 2003. BRACKETT, B. G.; JÚNIOR, G. E. A.; SEIDEL, S. M. Avances en zootecnia. Nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. 1ª ed. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1988. BRASIL. Legislação Informatizada - Decreto n° 91.111 de 12/03/1985. Acesso em: Março de 2020. CLÉMENT, Jean Michel. Larousse agricultural dictionary. Paris: Larousse, 1981. DERIVAUX, Jules. Fisiopatología de la reproducción e inseminación artificial de los animales domésticos. Havana: Instituto Cubano del libro, 1976. GOFFAUX, M. Quelques aspects relatives a la technologie de insémination artificielle des bovins. Elevage et insémination, n. 216, p. 5-9. 1986. HAFEZ, E. S. E. Artificial Insemination in Reproduction in Farm Animals. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, p. 481-497, 1990. HOPPER, Richard M. (Ed.). Bovine reproduction. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2014. HUNTER, Ronald Henry Fraser et al. Physiology and technology of reproduction in female domestic animals. Londres: Academic Press, 1980. JOHNSON, L. A.; LARSSON, K. Deep freezing of boar semen. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 1985. LABBATE, Rodolfo D. Manual del inseminador. Córdoba: Sayg, 2000. ORGEUR, P.; SIGNORET, J. P. L'activité sexuelle du taureau: revue bibliographique. Paris: INRA, 1990, 3 (4), pp.235-242. ORTUÑO, Arturo Duarte. Manual de inseminación artificial de ganado. Disponível em: ——. Acesso em: Março de 2020. PÉREZ PÉREZ, F.; PÉREZ GUTIÉRREZ, F. Reproducción animal, inseminación animal y transplante de embriones. Barcelona: Cientifico-medica, 1985. Y PÉREZ, Félix Pérez. Reproducción e inseminación artificial ganadera. Barcelona: Cientifico-Medica, 1966. SALISBURY, G. W.; VANDERMARK, N. L. Phisiology of the reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. San Francisco : Freeman e Company, 1961, 630 p. SEVERO, N. C. História ilustrada da inseminação artificial. São Paulo: Livre Expressão, 2013. SOLTNER, D. La reproduction des animaux domestiques d’élevage. Zootechnie générale, v. 1, Paris: Sciences et techniques agricole, 1993. (shrink)

One of the moral questions concerning autonomous vehicles (henceforth AVs) is the choice between types that differ in their built-in algorithms for dealing with rare situations of unavoidable lethal collision. It does not appear to be possible to avoid questions about how these algorithms should be designed. We present the results of our study of moral preferences (N = 2769) with respect to three types of AVs: (1) selfish, which protects the lives of passenger(s) over any number of bystanders; (2) (...) altruistic, which minimizes the number of casualties, even if this leads to death of passenger(s); and (3) conservative, which abstains from interfering in such situations. We differentiate between scenarios in which participants are to make their decisions privately or publicly, and for themselves or for their offspring. We aim to answer two research questions: (1) whether the public visibility of the choice of an AV type choice make this choice more altruistic and (2) which type of situation makes it more difficult to choose altruistically: when choosing for society as a whole, when choosing only for oneself, or when choosing only for one’s offspring. Our results show that respondents exhibit a preference for an altruistic strategy for AVs and that it is reinforced when signaled to others. The altruistic preference is strongest when applies to everybody else, weaker when it reflects a solely personal choice, and weakest when choosing for one’s own child. We conclude that a public choice is considerably more likely to pressure consumers into accepting a more socially beneficial solution. (shrink)

Architecture and Deconstruction Case of Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi -/- Introduction Towards deconstruction in architecture Intensive relations between philosophical deconstruction and architecture, which were present in the late 1980s and early 1990s, belong to the past and therefore may be described from a greater than before distance. Within these relations three basic variations can be distinguished: the first one, in which philosophy of deconstruction deals with architectural terms but does not interfere with real architecture, the second one, in which (...) a collaboration between Jacques Derrida and a group of architects interested in his concepts is commenced, and the third one, in which completed or only designed objects or new concepts of deconstruction created by architects gain their supremacy over philosophy. The following book analyses these three possible ways, first of all with the reference to Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi. -/- Peter Eisenman -/- Misreading… and Other Errors -/- The issue of relations between Peter Eisenman’s work and philosophy of deconstruction may be referred to his activity more than ten years preceding his direct collaboration with Jacques Derrida (in 1985) and organisation of the exhibition Deconstructivist Architecture at Museum of Modern Art in New York (in 1988). As soon as at the stage of designing the first houses (House I-III, 1967-1970), which almost entirely inscribed in formalistic aesthetics of Modernism, the architect analysed the problem of architecture dependence on its assumptions. All his later designs may be treated as consequence of this initial interest in relations between practice and theory, and at the same time as an introduction to manipulations later on led at the level of metaphysics of architecture. Beginning with the issue of presence, considered in comments to House VI (1972), the number of ideas having their analogies in philosophy of deconstruction increased. The text entitled The End of the Classical: The End of the Beginning, The End of the End (1984), in which Eisenman criticised questions of representation in architecture, its delusive strive for truth and comparably unattainable attempts at ultimate definition of elementary rules, should be acclaimed the breaking point. This attitude was extended by numerous strategies disturbing architecture rules defined at metaphysical level in an essay Moving Arrows, Eros, and Other Errors: an Architecture of Absence (1986). The issue of Eisenman’s passage from formalism to deconstruction has already been much discussed in the literature (Rosalind Krauss, Thomas Patin among others), still it should be mentioned that the threads similar to Derrida’s concept included in Eisenman’s writing reveal untranslatability of architecture and philosophy. -/- Choral Works or Separate tricks -/- In 1985-1986 a series of seven disputes between Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman took place. The pretext for them were designs concerning Parc de la Villette in Paris. The situation of many months of collaboration between a notable philosopher of the second half of the 20th c. and an architect that already had a huge theoretical oeuvre, ended up with a publication of a large volume entitled Chora L Works and it became at the same time a vast study area for historians of contemporary architecture and philosophers. Derrida’s contribution to concept works were his considerations over the idea of chôra, the properties related to this concept were about to be reflected in shapes of the park. Therefore, Chora L Works became an example of the abilities of contemporary art, both in its capability of translation from philosophical ideas to artistic forms and its resistance to tradition of representing in architecture some phenomena and values originating outside this discipline. In the final period of their collaboration both interlocutors started to polemicise with each other more decidedly, what became a separate part of their thought exchange. The exchange of letters between Derrida and Eisenman at the turn of 1989 ended up the period of their direct contacts, nevertheless, at this time precisely a large group of experts in issues of deconstruction joined the discussion and extended the revealed in the former dispute problems into more than ten years of further considerations and publications. Except for a long text by Jeffrey Kipnis, who had participated in the meetings of the philosopher and the architect, there appeared also comments of researchers of artistic theories (K. Michael Hays, Thomas Patin), philosophers (Andrew Benjamin), and even experts in Greek literature (Maria Theodorou or Ann Bergren). Following these debates a contemporary reflection on architecture has saturated with indeed numerous concepts originating in philosophy of deconstruction. -/- Architecture which imitates mute philosophy -/- The series of Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman meetings, which took place in the period of 1985-1987, induced many authors to make comments. Some of them (Jeffrey Kipnis, Ann Bergren, Maria Theodorou) developed the subject of chôra which was introduced to the discussion by Derrida. The problem that was about to be solved was the question of tying up the concept of chôra with architecture, including Eisenman’s architecture and the series of meetings within frames of Chora L Works project. Kipnis on this occasion paid attention to chôra and its character of anachronia which infects any being created within chôra. In other words any event has its counterpart (analogon) in another, earlier event. He demonstrated the similarity of structure of many events and statements from the times of Derrida and Eisenman’s meetings to the almost identical behaviour of figures in Plato’s dialogue Timaeus. The loss of beginning present in this phenomenon was appropriate to both features of chôra and the effects of typical analyses of philosophy of deconstruction. Bergren’s analyses focused on accentuating gender of chôra, which, according to this author, had been neglected hitherto in discussions. She collated chôra descriptions with characteristics of women in myths, early Greek epic and philosophy and she arrived at a conclusion that chôra has features of a single woman and a married one at the same time. And yet Theodorou’s studies showed that in the Homeric epics chôra is not treated as an idea but is related with single things and events. The other part of the comments (represented by Andrew Benjamin and K. Michael Hays’ utterances) concerns Eisenman’s attitude to tradition which was treated as a variety of iteration understood philosophically. Benjamin commenced his considerations at the point of closeness between a definition of tradition and a concept of chôra understood as perpetuation (placement). A problematic issue was for him Eisenman’s complex relation to tradition based on its contest and affirmation at the same time. Overcoming the simple subordination to tradition – according to Benjamin – was based on awareness of the role of repetition in culture not known before. Hays made an attempt to explain the pleasure and torment of repetition with the support of Sigmund Freud and Roland Barthes’ concepts. According to Hays repetitions are attempts of a single being to a certain primal state perceived as free of any tension. In a similar way Rosalind Krauss explained a motif of a grate present in Modernistic art and also exceptionally frequent in Eisenman’s work. -/- Annex Architecture is still writing Balzac novels. Peter Eisenman and literature -/- Architecture’s approach to writing, script or literature, present within Peter Eisenman’s work, is an exceptional phenomenon, furthermore a complex one. The article considers four possible relations. The first one relates to Eisenman’s characteristics as a person extremely gifted with the ability to wordplay, which very ‘play’ reveals skills to create architectural images. In the second approach the attention has been paid to Eisenman’s interests – in the first period of his oeuvre – in linguistic works by Noam Chomsky and his transformational-generative grammar. The third kind of relations applied to overcoming the need for autonomy of architecture (and of modernist aesthetics at the same time) and renew interests in questions of meaning in architecture. The fourth sort of relations occurred when Eisenman started to create reflections of historic or literary narrations in architecture – ‘stone stories’ and architectural fictions of their kind. -/- Bernard Tschumi -/- From perversion to deconstruction In Bernard Tschumi’s writings from the 1970s and 1980s we can find a transposition of important threads of post-structuralist ideas deriving from Georges Bataille, Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida’s works. The analysis of the architect’s writings also shows roots in Phillippe Sollers, Michel Foucault and Denis Hollier’s works. The analysis of borrowed elements from the beginnings of Tschumi’s theoretical activity may be helpful in explaining the contents of his later writings motre inspired by philosophy of deconstruction. The set of his earliest views was inspired by Marxism, Neo Marxism and French Structuralism, mainly by the writings of Henri Levebre and Guy Debord. From the thought of Levebre Tschumi took interest for city as not only a question of urbanistics but also a political issue. From Debord’s concepts he borrowed a conviction about the role of situational violation for changes in the society structure. Some of these beliefs were preserved in his own concepts of architecture as an event. From this period derived also his will to change conservative elements of social structure not by means of political revolution but of theoretical and creative activity. Tschumi acknowledged that the effective way of the proceedings towards achieving his aims would be accepting the role of both a critical intellectualist and architecture expert who would not hide away his left-wing orientation. The speculations defined by the architect as ‘revolting analyses’ were about to characterise contradictions which tear the society apart, penetrate architecture and constitute the basis of culture. Spreading away of the conscience of false assumptions hidden away in various disciplines could have weakened cohesion of a conservative society and influence the will to change among the elites. This way the beginnings of political revolution were rooted in philosophy of architecture. In 1977 Tschumi published his text entitled The Pleasure of Architecture inspired by Roland Barthes’s The Pleasure of the Text, it also included some concepts derived from Georges Bataille and Jacques Derrida. First of all the author used Barthes’s concept which made an assumption that literary activity is pervaded by the spirit of resistance towards social rules, and Tschudi transferred this remark onto architecture. From the ideas of Bataille, acquainted via Holier’s work, he derived his belief that two concepts of space, a conceptual one (defined as Pyramid) and a sensual one (defined as Labirynth), not losing their distinct features, they join in the concept of experienced space which exceeds contradictions. The exceeding itself was defined as the basic rule of architecture and it was referred to situations in which architecture not only negates social needs, but also disavows its own tradition. Crossing the borders applies not only to political issues or permanent rules of the very discipline but also interfering with other fields (especially literature and film). The fact that architecture is associated with organising events turned Tschumi’s attention to questions of violence that result from upsetting architectural order of a given building by its users and the one hand, and on the other from forcing the users to specific acts imposed by this very order. The analysis of the concepts used by Tschumi in his early writings indicates that they are close to definitions that would occur in his reflection in the following years influenced by philosophy of deconstruction. -/- Approaching deconstruction Tschumi in his theories developed in the 1980s presumed that the current social world had undergone a deep process of decay, and the reaction against which ought to be based on ordering-up actions, and also preserving the main outline of disintegration of the whole and its elements in the state of conflict. The statements concerning the nature of the contemporary to Tschumi social relations were applied by him to the world of architecture, this led him to coming up with designing strategies that took into consideration the destabilised character of conditions in which works of architecture were created. New ways of conduct invented by Tschumi drew their inspiration from literature and research on literature, psychoanalysis, structural linguistics, structuralism and post structuralism, and eventually also deconstruction philosophy. The proposed methods were opposed by their author both to functionalism continuity trends and postmodern architecture. Tschumi’s proposals contradicted any forms of conservatism or traditionalism in political sphere as well as in reference to tendencies in architecture. They were not simple contradictions of social or architectural rules, they intrude them from the inside, weaken or escalate the already existing incongruities, they move the boundaries between the areas. Revolutionary illusions about the possibility of radical changes were replaced with strategies which completed, tainted or test former rules in the series of formal games of permutation and combination. Quite different from avant-garde formalism Tschumi’s games were not about maintaining the autonomy of a given area, but on the contrary – polluting it with other areas’ influences. Tschumi enjoyed demonstrating illusions of architecture concerning simple relations between form and function, or between form and meaning. Making use of Freud, Lacan and Foucault’s research he introduced a category of “madness” into architecture allowing an observation that the recognised norms are nothing but merely ones of many possible principles of behaviour, and their recognised status resulted from unjustified hindering innovativeness which is crucial for architecture. To reborn architecture’s capability of changing Tschumi also made use of Barthes’s discoveries concerning rules of narration and works by writers who applied in their writing knowledge on linguistics. Making a work’s author unclear by various mechanical transformations of its elements was however apparent only, and formal rigours imposed on the process of designing liberated possibilities difficult to obtain in more traditional creative action. Another mode of acting introduced by Tschumi was combining his work of elements deriving from outside architecture; joining space records with notation of motion and events accompanying architectural objects among others. These architectural and extra-architectural elements were not unified, on the contrary their heterogenous and conflictual character was stressed. This is how shock, anxiety and instability, typical for live in great metropolises, infiltrated architecture. Taking some ideas of deconstruction philosophy as a pattern Tschumi also took into critical consideration in his essays traditional in architecture oppositions between form and figuration, or theory and practice. By combining various inspirations he eventually worked out an idea of architectural event, which he understood as a series of actions contesting its own field, redefining its sources, principles and elements. An event, understood in this way, was not so much producing works as rather creating conditions of their production and at the same time designing the society different from a hierarchic one. -/- Park of deconstruction Among numerous philosophical strategies of deconstruction most frequently used was questioning the practice of strong opposition of two reasons. In many cases Bernard Tschumi’s writings just consider functioning of the conflict juxtaposition of the ideas of structure and ornament or theory and practice in history of architecture. Violation of traditional relations between terms of this kind, both old and modern, raised Jacques Derrida’s objections, when he was induced for the first time to co-operate with architects’ milieu. During this long lasting thought exchange the philosopher eventually acknowledged Bernard Tschumi’s arguments for reasoning the encroachment of architecture’s fundamental rules. Deconstruction applied in architecture was not a simple transposition or analogy of practices that had been applied by philosophy of deconstruction. We may even say that considering architectural terms became an important formula of deconstruction. Architecture understood in philosophical way became something beyond the practice and theory of its own discipline, a sort of metaphysics of both philosophy and architecture. The deliberate encroachment of simplicity of dividing architecture into theory and practice, for the first time became a clear aim for Tschumi in his drawings and texts entitled The Manhattan Transcripts. The contents of this series of works was a record of characteristic features of this New York district in such a way that not only objects were the subject of the record but also relations between objects, people and events. The record was about to take into consideration a conflict character of elements of this representation and at the same time to avoid applying to them the rule of mimetism. The record became a form of reflection over the very record by an increased control over the ways of representation. Architecture which was considered in the The Manhattan Transcripts was not directed to fulfill the needs of inhabitation or production, it was rather related with hitherto usually marginalised liminal situations: building ostentatiously big monuments, religious cult, war etc. Architecture operating in these relations focused also the attention on the included in it continuous tendency to overpass its own restrictions, the role of violence as its not recognised factor, or the meaning of excess and shock in its operation. Architecture moving from reason towards madness became even more visible in the design of Parisian Parc de la Villette, whose pavilions were defined as folies (in French it means both small park buildings and follies). The park was supposed to be on the one hand a reflection of traditional society disintegration while on the other it questioned basic rules of producing a work of architecture. The traditional rules of designing, based on ordering up, were replaced with the strategies of dysfunction and dissociation. In Tschumi’s opinion methods of this kind may be equivalent of what Derrida named différance. Instead of aiming at mergence, any diversity, plays or variations were strengthen. Tschumi’s texts, in which he explained his attitude, were completed by Derrida’s extent statement entitled Point de folie – Maintenant l’architecture. Derrida’s article is the most significant of all his statements on architecture as a form of thinking and activity. According to the philosopher, architecture should divide space (in French defined as espacement), what enables both thinking and action – it arranges the space of an event. Tschumi’s buildings, defined as folies, in an essential way destabilise any created order, and at the same time they refresh it. Derrida’s statement suggests that architecture may become both metaphor of an order merging a language or a society but also of inner forces which deconstruct and reconstruct it. Therefore architecture is at the same time a construction, a deconstruction and a reconstruction. Parc de la Villette stands out in this system with its attempt to step beyond the scheme of an easy repetition and its heading for chances of achieving more radical otherness. -/- Conclusion Destruction as construction. Paradoxes of deconstruction in architecture -/- Scepticism about persistence and common importance of fundamental values of human culture evinced in philosophers and writers’ works as early as in Greek antiquity, nevertheless it was not expressed so strongly as in the second half of the 20th century. Especially in Heidegger’s work Being and Time (although originated in 1927, still influential in all later philosophy) the following states were characterised: the state of losing the ground (Abgrund), of being out of sight (Unheimlichkeit) and of being out of dwelling (Un-zuhause-sein) – as the basis of self-confidence of conscious being there (Dasein). The entire criticism of philosophy of home and dwelling draws the inspiration from this early writing of the German philosopher, it combines crisis of basic terms of metaphysics with social conditions which are dictated by living in large metropolis. The crisis of both metaphysical foundation and home appears to be similar to the situation of weakening the relations between a man and his dwelling in extensively expanding cities. Whereas philosophy, as well as many disciplines of social sciences, have diagnosed for a long time the destabilisation of fundamental ideas of Western culture and crucial changes in the ways of dwelling, architecture itself occurred to be “the last fortress of metaphysics” (J. Derrida). Among contemporary architects, Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi were the ones who engaged most decidedly in the issues of critical analysis of architecture foundation and its social role. Both the architects noticed new formulas of contemporary social and individual existence, tremendously different from the entire history, and at the same time they affirmed lack of adequacy of architecture concepts to new situations. Both Eisenman and Tschumi used to describe the existing architecture as a tool for consolidation of highly integrated and hierarchised societies, and also as a discipline extremely uncoincidental with the current character of social life based on ideas of freedom and diversity. The means to transform architecture and make a factor of further social changes out of it, was a concept that accentuated revealing the inner contradictions of this discipline, and considering them in designing strategies. Eisenman’s activity, in regard of what has just been noticed, was focused on questioning the basic rules of traditionally comprehended architecture, especially the rule of purpose. The American architect noticed that the concept of architecture as fulfilment the need of location, hides away the fact that the location has to be constantly reconsidered, and hence it is overtaken by change (dislocation). Therefore new concept of architecture propounded architectural activity to translocate the concept of location – more than before – but also to change its status perpetually. Such comprehended architecture should claim, as its main purpose, the constant revision of this purpose and create itself anew permanently. Even Eisenman’s earliest designs of houses nos. I-IV broke with such values as the sense of safety, closeness and familiarity, and just on the contrary they accentuated senses of strangeness, homelessness and loss of confidence. The contradictions within architecture noticed by Tschumi referred to combination of intellectual and sensual values in architecture, when their non-appropriation was defeated by an additional condition, namely the way of experience based on pleasure of excess, marked by insanity. The features of folly were especially visible in his designs of gardens, where the order of planning was mixed with sensual experience introduced by particular elements (both the ones created by nature, and the buildings defined as folies). Parc de la Villette designed by the French architect in Paris put in question not only the common understanding of purpose in architecture but also the ideas of order and integrity, as its plan was based on the combination of independent layers with records of grids of points, various lines and planes. The architecture that collides inadequate elements with each other was supposed to be a kind of an event with no beginning and no end. The architecture treated as an event became a form of a space weakened articulation that maintains its diversity and lack of accordance of the elements building it up. The analyses of Eisenman and Tschumi’s theoretical writings indicate how much the aims of architecture have actually changed; instead of supporting social persistence, the architecture is rather intensifying contradictions, and instead of providing people with the sense of safety, it sublimes danger. From simple acts of defamiliarisation, increasing the distance to itself and enhancing the role of theory, through discomfort, anxiety, not feeling someone at home, weirdness, excess, shock and violence, architecture reached the edge of stability and uncertainty, only to make an attempt at penetrating what is impossible and unutterable, and recording what cannot become the subject of any records. -/- . (shrink)

The issue of musical identity—of what defines works of music, gives each its unique character and distinguishes them from one another—is one of the central issues in the philosophy of music. Too often in the philosophical literature it is approached as a purely theoretical question, one that can be answered adequately through careful intellectual consideration of scores and performances. The typical philosophical approach to the performance of Western art music, particularly that composed between the Baroque and Romantic eras, is to (...) offer descriptions of how musical works come into being, what their origins may be, which of their structural and aesthetic elements must be observed and conserved in their representations, and so on. It takes the written notation of a musical work, the score, to be a kind of blueprint created by a composer, defining and describing an autonomous musical entity, the musical work, such that another person might perform it. The work is recognized paradoxically as something existing independently of, yet deriving its identity from, its origins with the composer. (shrink)

Culture and Religion have fundamental differences. Culture is related to nature, while religion emphasizes on authority and revelation. Culture naturally is more dynamic, while culture religionised is stagnant and conservative.

In Nigeria, if the effects of development policies were felt by every Nigerian citizen, the search for respite would have assumed committed and prompt dimensions. Common hindrances to social development seem to be inflation, corruption, embezzlement, extreme ethnicity, selfishness and man's inhumanity to man. Nigeria has suffered exploitation in two phases: first in the colonial era, and second, during the post-colonial era, in which the nation is struggling against the forces of independent colonialism by its own people. Nigerians have approached (...) their struggles in various dimensions. Their criticisms have been registered freely in newspapers, magazines, radio and television. Yet, nothing has changed. Many have suffered different shades of attacks and embarrassment in the course of protest, while a few are doing it intellectually through some literary means. Chris Nwamuo, a Theatre Arts Administrator, a teacher, a playwright and a play director falls within this category. He has offered his voice as a cry for the underdogs of this society and has exhibited this attribute in several of his plays, one of which is The Prisoners. The play makes the author a "Marxist" in some way. The theory of class struggle forms the basis of modern socialism pioneered by Karl Mark, Friedrich Engels, as well as the conservative advocate of social reform, Lorenz Von Stein (Killian and Turner 279). The theory of class struggle, encapsulated in class-consciousness in its restricted sense, incorporates as a central feature, the burning conviction that members of a class suffer from a shared state of injustice. In the Marxian analysis, class-consciousness has always been understood as a political consciousness of one's own rational class interests and their opposition to the interest of other classes. (shrink)

The Exclusion Argument for physicalism maintains that since (1) every physical effect has a sufficient physical cause, and (2) cases of causal overdetermination are rare, it follows that if (3) mental events cause physical events as frequently as they seem to, then (4) mental events must be physical in nature. In defence of (1), it is sometimes said that (1) is supported if not entailed by conservation laws. Against this, I argue that conservation laws do not lend sufficient (...) support to (1) to render its denial ‘unscientific’, and that those who accept (3) and deny (4) may consequently respond to the Exclusion Argument by denying (1) without thereby setting themselves at odds with current science. I also argue that conservation laws are compatible with (3) and the negation of (4), and that one can therefore accept conservation laws and (3) while denying both (1) and (4). (shrink)

This paper shows how to conservatively extend classical logic with a transparent truth predicate, in the face of the paradoxes that arise as a consequence. All classical inferences are preserved, and indeed extended to the full (truth—involving) vocabulary. However, not all classical metainferences are preserved; in particular, the resulting logical system is nontransitive. Some limits on this nontransitivity are adumbrated, and two proof systems are presented and shown to be sound and complete. (One proof system allows for Cut—elimination, but the (...) other does not.). (shrink)

This chapter surveys the ethical and metaphysical issues raised by the restoration of paintings and sculptures.

Since the launch of applications such as DALL-E, Midjourney, and Stable Diffusion, generative artificial intelligence has been controversial as a tool for creating artwork. While some have presented longtermist worries about these technologies as harbingers of fully automated futures to come, more pressing is the impact of generative AI on creative labour in the present. Already, business leaders have begun replacing human artistic labour with AI-generated images. In response, the artistic community has launched a protest movement, which argues that AI (...) image generation is a kind of theft. This paper analyzes, substantiates, and critiques these arguments, concluding that AI image generators involve an unethical kind of labour theft. If correct, many other AI applications also rely upon theft. (shrink)

Conservativeness has been proposed as an important requirement for deflationary truth theories. This in turn gave rise to the so-called ‘conservativeness argument’ against deflationism: a theory of truth which is conservative over its base theory S cannot be adequate, because it cannot prove that all theorems of S are true. In this paper we show that the problems confronting the deflationist are in fact more basic: even the observation that logic is true is beyond his reach. This seems to conflict (...) with the deflationary characterization of the role of the truth predicate in proving generalizations. However, in the final section we propose a way out for the deflationist — a solution that permits him to accept a strong theory, having important truth-theoretical generalizations as its theorems. (shrink)

This paper has three objectives. First, I argue that apprehending an installation artwork is similar to apprehending an artwork for performance: in each case, audiences must recognize a relationship between the performance or display one encounters and the parameters expressed in the underlying work. Second, I consider whether realizations are also artworks in their own right. I argue that, in both installation art and performance, a particular realization is sometimes an artwork in its own right (even as it realizes another (...) work). I offer criteria for determining when this is the case. Application of the criteria yields the verdict that performances are sometimes artworks in their own right, while displays of installation artworks rarely are. This difference, though, is merely contingent on the conventions of the respective art forms. Third, I address ontological concerns about entities that are both abstract and temporal, as many artworks are on my analysis. (shrink)

Religious conservatives in the U.S. have frequently opposed public-health measures designed to combat STDs among minors, such as sex education, condom distribution, and HPV vaccination. Using Rawls’s method of conjecture, I will clear up what I take to be a misunderstanding on the part of religious conservatives: even if we grant their premises regarding the nature and source of sexual norms, the wide-ranging authority of parents to enforce these norms against their minor children, and the potential sexual-disinhibition effects of the (...) above public-health measures, their opposition to at least one of these measures, HPV vaccination, cannot be justified. In fact, their comprehensive doctrines, when properly interpreted, should lead them to back this measure and thereby draw closer to a policy consensus with other citizens regarding teenage sexual health. (shrink)

We study the conservation of energy, or lack thereof, when measurements are performed in quantum mechanics. The expectation value of the Hamiltonian of a system changes when wave functions collapse in accordance with the standard textbook treatment of quantum measurement, but one might imagine that the change in energy is compensated by the measuring apparatus or environment. We show that this is not true; the change in the energy of a state after measurement can be arbitrarily large, independent of (...) the physical measurement process. In Everettian quantum theory, while the expectation value of the Hamiltonian is conserved for the wave function of the universe, it is not constant within individual worlds. It should therefore be possible to experimentally measure violations of conservation of energy, and we suggest an experimental protocol for doing so. (shrink)

Recent debate regarding transgender persons’ bathroom-utilization prerogatives raises broader issues concerning current practices of sex segregation more generally. I argue that the only consistently Progressive position on bathroom access is an outright opposition to any form of bathroom segregation. This opposition, in turn, entails a thorough-going rejection of all types of sex- and gender-segregation. I then suggest that Progressives uncomfortable with such wide-ranging implications may wish to consider the merits of a certain Traditionalist position on such matters—one that counsels caution (...) and legislative forbearance when it comes to overturning long-standing customs (such as those embodied in current practices of sex-segregation). (shrink)

American sociologist Robert Nisbet once described conservatives and libertarians as “uneasy cousins.” The description is apt. While sharing a family resemblance and many of the same political rivals, conservatism and libertarianism are fundamentally at odds. This paper explains why this is so from the conservative perspective. It surveys the starting points and major themes of conservatism and libertarianism. It identifies what conservatives and libertarians agree about. It concludes by showing what conservatives have against libertarianism.

Conservation can occur anywhere regardless of scale, political jurisdiction, or landownership. We present a framework to help managers at protected areas practice conservation at the scale of relationships. We focus on relationships between stakeholders and protected areas and between managers and other stakeholders. We provide a synthesis of key natural resources literature and present a case example to support our premise and recommendations. The purpose is 4-fold: 1) discuss challenges and threats to conservation and protected areas; 2) (...) outline a relationship-scale approach to address conservation threats; 3) describe the tools and techniques that can be used to implement this approach; and 4) present a case example from rural Alaska, USA, to illustrate relationship-scale conservation. Our case example illustrates how aspects of this approach to conservation were applied to address a wildlife population decline. Tools needed to implement relationship-scale conservation include 1) collecting and documenting narratives of place; 2) measuring and monitoring trust and commitment; and 3) identifying and mitigating threats. We recommend that planners and managers, working with their research partners, redefine and refocus their goals and objectives to include these practices. Doing so will enable them to gain substantial applied knowledge about their stakeholders and foster and maintain place relationships as desired outcomes of conservation. The ultimate outcome is a better prognosis for long-term global survival of protected areas and biodiversity. Published 2014. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. (shrink)

This month, the AISDL Team was glad to see its continuing effort to raise the voice for conserving wildlife appearing in Pacific Conservation Biology (published by CSIRO/the Australian Academy of Science). The article stipulates the need for weaving humane values with scientific information, leveraging the sociocultural power to harmonize humans with nature. The article articulates the coauthors’ idea of building a funding source to contribute to the nature conservation cause by investing in some listed stocks. Technically, stocks we (...) intend to invest in must possess some key features of (i) having significant growth potential, (ii) containing little environmental risk of potential moral-practical gaps in their CSR missions, and (iii) showing a certain degree of “relevance” with AISDL’s fundamentals. (shrink)

In this paper, I argue that an utterance can function to conserve or maintain the truth of its asserted content, what I call conservative speech. Conservative utterances can work to preserve the truth of their asserted content in two ways. In the first, directive conservatives, the utterance serves as an indirect directive for interlocutors to act in ways that serve to maintain the asserted content. In the second, constitutive conservatives, serve to partly constitute the truth conditions of the asserted content (...) directly. Constitutive conservatives, I argue, are particularly important because they are a central tool for how social groups enforce and thereby maintain facts about group norms and values in the face of deviation. They thus have a central role to play in understanding the role of language in the abilities of social groups to create and maintain their norms and values. (shrink)

Earth and every living organism on this planet require water for survival and without water there would be no life. Drinking water should be clean that means it should be free from micro-organisms, free from harmful chemical and other pollutants. Consuming unsafe drinking water may lead to several water borne diseases, and other long term and chronic health problems. Water conservation encompasses the policies, strategies and activities to manage fresh water as a sustainable resource to protect the water environment (...) and to meet current and future human demand. Water conservation in simple words, is an effort to save water and ultimately save the planet. Water conservation is needed to protect the ecosystem and to restore its fast deterioration and to overcome the threats of environmental degradation, to meet the unavoidable emergency of shortage for drinking and domestic water in near future. (shrink)

I argue against Barbara Montero's claim that Conservation of Energy has nothing to do with physicalism. I reject her reconstruction of the argument for physicalism from CoE, and offer an alternative reconstruction that better captures the intuitions of those who believe that there is a conflict between interactionist dualism and CoE.

Most recent discussions of reasons in art criticism focus on reasons that justify beliefs about the value of artworks. Reviving a long-neglected suggestion from Paul Ziff, I argue that we should focus instead on art-critical reasons that justify actions—namely, particular ways of engaging with artworks. I argue that a focus on practical rather than theoretical reasons yields an understanding of criticism that better fits with our intuitions about the value of reading art criticism, and which makes room for a nuanced (...) distinction between criticism that aims at universality and criticism that is resolutely personal. (shrink)

This quantitative study utilized the descriptive method of research that aimed to assess the implementation of environmental conservation practices in Baybay City Leyte with 92 officials and 115 zone residents of the 23 barangays in the city. Data were gathered through online and pen-paper surveys using frequency mean and Chi-square test. Barangay officials & Zone residents showed the same level of awareness of the environmental conservation practices implemented in Baybay City. Based on the results, the highest average weighted (...) mean environmental conservation practices were the Ordinance on Solid Waste Management. Whereas, the Ordinance on the Use of Plastics Bags has the lowest average weighted mean. There is no significant difference in the level of awareness of the environmental conservation practices between the barangay officials and zone residents. The findings on the level of implementation of the environmental conservation practices, barangay officials asserted a high level of implementation while zone residents claim to have implemented of all the (3) ordinances. For barangay officials, the Ordinance on Solid Waste Management had the highest weighted mean. While the Ordinance on the Use of Plastics Bags had the lowest weighted mean. Whereas, for the zone residents the Ordinance on Regulating the Use of Plastics Bags had the highest weighted mean. While the Ordinance on Anti-Littering and Prohibiting Persons from Throwing any Refuse or Garbage, Spitting, or Improper Urinating into Streets and Canals had the lowest weighted mean. There is a significant difference in the level of implementation of the environmental conservation practices between the barangay officials and zone residents on the Ordinance on Anti-Littering and Prohibiting Persons from Throwing any Refuse or Garbage, Spitting, Improper Urinating into Streets and Canal and Ordinance on Solid Waste Management. However, there is no significant difference in the level of implementation of environmental conservation practices in the Ordinance of the Use of Plastics Bags. (shrink)

Environment, Conservation, and Sustainability Journals.

Modern technology plays an important role in our daily lives. Many people use technology for their works, interactions, and special interests such as art. Art as a discipline, which expresses human emotion and creative side, takes a new form for its contextualization with the help of information technology. A neologism for this discipline is “digital art.” Some experts who employ a traditional value in their aesthetical perspective consider this new approach unlikely. Walter Benjamin, an eminent figure from this group, stated (...) that art must have an aura in its production as is the case in paintings. With this aura, the work of art and not artwork has uniqueness of value. However, the problem arises when information technology becomes a predominant tool for the work of art. Digital art does not consider the aura as the core value in defining something as a work of art. Furthermore, digital artists think that art can exist within a digital object and maintain its uniqueness. Parallel with the latter, this article will describe the dispute and make a clear statement that a work of art in the digital age does not require aura. (shrink)

For Malraux, modernity in art is not only about modern art; it is also about the birth of what he aptly terms “the first universal world of art.” This event was a consequence of the process of metamorphosis which is central to Malraux’s account of the relationship between art and time. The article explains this event, noting also that modern aesthetics has not provided an explanation.

We review a recent approach to the foundations of quantum mechanics inspired by quantum information theory. The approach is based on a general framework, which allows one to address a large class of physical theories which share basic information-theoretic features. We first illustrate two very primitive features, expressed by the axioms of causality and purity-preservation, which are satisfied by both classical and quantum theory. We then discuss the axiom of purification, which expresses a strong version of the Conservation of (...) Information and captures the core of a vast number of protocols in quantum information. Purification is a highly non-classical feature and leads directly to the emergence of entanglement at the purely conceptual level, without any reference to the superposition principle. Supplemented by a few additional requirements, satisfied by classical and quantum theory, it provides a complete axiomatic characterization of quantum theory for finite dimensional systems. (shrink)

Many conservatives endorse a defence of closed borders grounded in basic liberal rights such as the basic right of association. Some conservatives also endorse libertarian principles of legitimacy. It is not clear though that this sort of defence of closed borders is somehow coherent with these libertarian ideals. I argue that conservative libertarians of this kind must reject this defence of closed borders because either it collapses into a form of statism incoherent with libertarian principles of legitimacy, or into an (...) ideal precept without appeal regarding reality in the here and now that could only be applied to changing the very nature of the societies we know. As a result, at least conservative libertarians need to find a different source of justification for closed borders. (shrink)

Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds. Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species.

We reflect on the nature of art, the creative process, and the connection between art and philosophy.