The structure of this paper is as follows. My starting point is psychological flexibility (henceforth, PF) as it has been presented in psychology. Here I offer a synthetic view which embraces the most crucial aspects of flexibility, and describes its functional roles and underlying mechanisms. Secondly, I move my attention onto the field of current action theory and discuss two elementary concepts we commonly use when describing our actions: intention and desire. Of course, there are many “theories (...) of desire” and there is no point in trying (nor even the option) to discuss all of them under one heading. To show where the question of PF sneaks into the scene of action theory, I explore the idea of the resistance of desire, as proposed by Timo Airaksinen. The second concept to investigate at this stage is intention. As in the previous case, it is plain that there are plenty of accounts of intentions and there are many roles they play in the phenomenology of action. For the purposes of this paper, we need only something that can be interpreted as an approach to PF. Such an approach can be found in the idea of stability of intention or a plan, discussed famously by Michael Bratman. According to my interpretation, these two ideas, resistance of desire and stability of intention, allow to initially understand some important aspects of PF in action theory. To get a slightly more comprehensive view – and to supplement the outcomes gained on the grounds of the analyses of these two accounts – I introduce, in the third step, the concept of plasticity which comes from the so-called praxiology proposed by Tadeusz Kotarbiński (Lvov-Warsaw School). I try to show how this concept is still feasible and how it may enrich current philosophical accounts of agential flexibility. The strategy behind this stage of the paper is to enrich the Bratmanian approach to psychological stability. The last part of the paper contains some remarks on the philosophical outcome of the interdisciplinary approach to PF. (shrink)

This paper develops an account of perspectives that explains both perspectival stability and flexibility informed by research in neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and philosophy of mind. Any individual has limited processing resources, and so selects and represents only information pertinent to the situation or task at hand, filtering out information that can safely be ignored. An individual’s active perspective is anchored, for example, by her self-concept currently in force. This perspectival anchor can shift from moment to moment as she navigates (...) her environment, thus yielding a change in her active perspective. However, the extent to which an individual’s active perspective can shift is restricted by her overall cognitive, perceptual, emotional, and agential schemas that constitute what we call her dormant perspective. Thus, while an individual’s dormant perspective changes only slowly over time, her active perspective can change abruptly. (shrink)

Cognitive flexibility, the adaptation of representations and responses to new task demands, improves dramatically in early childhood. It is unclear, however, whether flexibility is a coherent, unitary cognitive trait, or is an emergent dimension of task-specific performance that varies across populations with divergent experiences. Three-to 5-year-old English-speaking U.S. children and Tswana-speaking South African children completed two distinct language-processing cognitive flexibility tests: the FIM-Animates, a word-learning test, and the 3DCCS, a rule-switching test. U.S. and South African children did (...) not differ in word-learning flexibility but showed similar age-related increases. In contrast, U.S. preschoolers showed an age-related increase in rule-switching flexibility but South African children did not. Verbal recall explained additional variance in both tests but did not modulate the interaction between population sample (i.e., country) and task. We hypothesize that rule-switching flexibility might be more dependent upon particular kinds of cultural experiences, whereas word-learning flexibility is less cross-culturally variable. (shrink)

This article argues that existing approaches to programming ethical AI fail to resolve a serious moral-semantic trilemma, generating interpretations of ethical requirements that are either too semantically strict, too semantically flexible, or overly unpredictable. This paper then illustrates the trilemma utilizing a recently proposed ‘general ethical dilemma analyzer,’ GenEth. Finally, it uses empirical evidence to argue that human beings resolve the semantic trilemma using general cognitive and motivational processes involving ‘mental time-travel,’ whereby we simulate different possible pasts and futures. I (...) demonstrate how mental time-travel psychology leads us to resolve the semantic trilemma through a six-step process of interpersonal negotiation and renegotiation, and then conclude by showing how comparative advantages in processing power would plausibly cause AI to use similar processes to solve the semantic trilemma more reliably than we do, leading AI to make better moral-semantic choices than humans do by our very own lights. (shrink)

Police officers are vital to maintaining security and the continuity of national functions. Thus, Police officers are more exposed to different kinds of psychological concerns. However, a female in this kind of profession, based on various studies, experienced higher levels of stress because of other factors. Further, the primary goal of this study is to investigate the psychological well-being, lived experiences, challenges, and coping mechanisms of female police officers. Employing the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, the findings of this study (...) were: (1) Female police officers had conceptualized themselves as brave, flexible, and adaptive. And they cope with stress with positive thinking that results in healthy psychological well-being. (2) Female police officers showed dedication and engagement to serve the people. They even used their resources for the public and sacrificed most of their time in the office. (3) Female police officers' primary motivation to continue their careers is their families, and serving the public brings joy to them. (4) However, female police officers experience disrespect while working in the field, and they always have fear in their life as police officers. Moreover, they need more time to spend with their families. Furthermore, it is highly suggested to provide opportunities for enhancing quality time with their family, specifically with their children. (shrink)

Abstract: The study aimed to identify the level of psychological capital (Psychological Capital) and the level of sense of vitality among the administrative employees in Palestinian universities, among the administrative employees in Palestinian universities in Gaza Strip, and to achieve the objectives of the study, the descriptive and analytical approach was used, and the study population consisted of all the administrative employees in Palestinian universities: The Islamic University, Al-Azhar University, University of Palestine, and Al-Quds Open University totaling (1104) (...) employees, and a stratified relative sample consisting of (320) male and female employees was selected. The study tools were applied to them, represented by the Psychological Capital Questionnaire and the Sense of Vitality questionnaire. Of these, (294) male and female employees responded, with a response rate of (91.90%). The study reached several results, the most important of which was that the level of psychological capital (Psychological Capital) was high in Palestinian universities, where the relative weight reached (80.23%), and the field of optimism came first with a relative weight (82.05%), then the field of self-efficiency with a relative weight (80.75) The field of hope came with a relative weight (79.75%), and finally the field of flexibility came with a relative weight (78.37%). The results also showed that the level of feeling of vitality came with a relative weight (80.88%). In light of the results of the study, the researchers recommend that the employee be given tasks and responsibilities that enhance his tendencies and positive outlook on the nature of his work, and provide a work environment that supports creativity and has the necessary vitality and interest in building human relationships. (shrink)

Abstract: The study aimed to identify the relationship between psychological capital and dedication to work among administrative employees in Palestinian universities, and in order to achieve the objectives of the study, a descriptive analytical approach was used, and the study population consisted of all administrative employees in Palestinian universities: the Islamic University, Al-Azhar University, Palestine University, and Al-Quds Open University The number of (1104) male and female employees was chosen, and a proportional stratified sample of (320) male and female (...) employees was chosen, where the study tools were applied to them, represented by the psychological capital questionnaire and the job link questionnaire, and (294) male and female employees responded with a response rate of (91.90%). The study reached several results, the most important of which was that the level of psychological capital was high in Palestinian universities, where the relative weight reached (80.23%), and the field of optimism came first with a relative weight (82.05%), then the field of self-efficacy with a relative weight (80.75%), then The field of hope with a relative weight (79.75%), and finally the field of flexibility with a relative weight (78.37%). The results also showed that the level of dedication to work among the administrative employees in Palestinian universities in Gaza Strip was high and reached (82.52%), and the results showed that there are no differences between Respondents' responses about psychological capital were attributed to the variable of gender and years of service, while differences appeared in favor of the age variable in favor of the group (over 50 years and 31-40 years), differences in favor of bachelors and postgraduate studies at the expense of the diploma, and differences attributed to the variable of work status in favor of the academic in an administrative position . In light of the results of the study, the researchers recommend that the employee be given tasks and responsibilities that enhance his tendencies and positive outlook on the nature of his work, and provide a work environment that supports creativity and has the necessary vitality and interest in building human relationships. (shrink)

This paper examines a parallel between Aristotle’s account of phantasia and contemporary psychological models of working memory, a capacity that enables the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information used in many behaviors. These two capacities, though developed within two distinct scientific paradigms, share a common strategy of psychological explanation, Aristotelian Faculty Psychology. This strategy individuates psychological components by their target-domains and functional roles. Working memory and phantasia result from an attempt to individuate the psychological components responsible (...) for flexible thought and are thus implicated in most of our robust cognitive processes, from reading comprehension to problem solving. We then present two novel objections which suggest that these capacities cannot explain our ability to engage in flexible thought. To escape the resultant impasse, we survey alternatives and argue that most promising strategies depend on identifying the behaviors attributed to intelligent thought and action. (shrink)

The objective of this paper is to characterize the rich interplay between automatic and cognitive control processes that we propose is the hallmark of skill, in contrast to habit, and what accounts for its flexibility. We argue that this interplay isn't entirely hierarchical and static, but rather heterarchical and dynamic. We further argue that it crucially depends on the acquisition of detailed and well-structured action representations and internal models, as well as the concomitant development of metacontrol processes that can (...) be used to shape and balance it. (shrink)

Modern society faces major environmental problems, but there are many difficulties in studying the nature–human relationship from an integral psychosocial perspective. We propose the ecomind sponge conceptual framework, based on the mindsponge theory of information processing. We present a systematic method to examine the nature–human relationship with conceptual frameworks of system boundaries, selective exchange, and adaptive optimization. The theoretical mechanisms were constructed based on principles and new evidence in natural sciences. The core mechanism of ecomindsponge is the subjective sphere of (...) influence, which is the limited mental representation of information received from and processed based on the objective sphere of influence–actual interactions in reality. The subjective sphere is the sum of two sub-spheres: influencing (proactive) and being influenced (reactive). Maladaptation in thinking and behavior of the mind as an information collection-cum-processor results from the deviation of the subjective sphere from reality, which includes two main types: “stupidity” and “delusion”. Using Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics on a dataset of 535 urban residents, we provide consistent statistical evidence on the proposed properties of subjective spheres. The dynamic framework of ecomindsponge can be used flexibly and practically for environmental research as well as other psychosocial fields. (shrink)

Clinical psychology is characterized by persistent disagreement about fundamental aspects of the discipline ranging from what mental disorders are to what constitutes effective treatment. Attempts to address the problem of epistemic disagreement have been frequently based on establishing the correct answer by fiat without identifying and addressing the sources of the disagreement. We argue that this strategy has not worked very well and the result is frequently ongoing and intractable disagreement, with each side in an argument convinced they are correct. (...) In this paper, we outline an epistemic disagreement procedural model intended to assist researchers and clinicians in the field of clinical psychology to identify, explore, and develop inquiry strategies that capitalize on situations where competing knowledge claims are made. The result is a flexible conceptual framework committed to a defensible epistemic pluralism, fallibilism, and contextualism, across the various research tasks constituting the field of clinical psychology. (shrink)

In this article, I examine Michael Bratman’s account of stability in his planning theory of intention. Future-directed intentions should be stable, or appropriately resistant to change, over time. Bratman claims that the norm of stability governs both intentions and plans. The aim of this article is to critically enrich Bratman’s account of stability by introducing plasticity as an additional norm of planning. I construct plasticity as a kind of stability of intentions which supplements Bratman’s notion of “reasonable stability.” Unlike the (...) latter, plasticity applies mainly to cases in which plan states are abandoned without reconsideration. I focus on the intra-theoretical problems of PTI and elucidate: the distinction between future-directed intentions and plans, the conceptual difference between stability and inertia, which is only implicit in PTI, and the role of the environment of the planner, which has a vestigial role in Bratman’s work. I also defend my incorporation of pl... (shrink)

What is it to be mentally healthy? In the ongoing movement to promote mental health, to reduce stigma, and to establish parity between mental and physical health, there is a clear enthusiasm about this concept and a recognition of its value in human life. However, it is often unclear what mental health means in all these efforts and whether there is a single concept underlying them. Sometimes, the initiatives for the sake of mental health are aimed just at reducing mental (...) illness, thus implicitly identifying mental health with the absence of diagnosable psychiatric disease. More ambitiously, there are high-profile proposals to adopt a positive definition, identifying mental health with psychic or even overall well-being. We argue against both: a definition of mental health as mere absence of mental illness is too thin, too undemanding, and too closely linked to psychiatric value judgments, while the definition in terms of well-being is too demanding and potentially oppressive. As a compromise, we sketch out a middle position. On this view, mental health is a primary good, that is, the psychological preconditions of pursuing any conception of the good life, including well-being, without being identical to well-being. (shrink)

Empirical evidence from developmental psychology and anthropology points out that the human mind is predisposed to conceptualize the world in particular, species-specific ways. These cognitive predispositions lead to universal human commonsense views, often referred to as folk theories. Nevertheless, humans can transgress these views – i.e. they can contradict them with alternative descriptions, they perceive as more accurate – as exemplified in modern sciences. In this paper, I enquire about the cognitive faculties underlying such transgressions. I claim that there are (...) three faculties enabling us to part with these universal commonsense views of the world imposed by our nature. The first is our ability to represent representations – i.e. to form metarepresentations. The second is our ability to produce alternative representations both by explaining a familiar subject matter in terms of the principles governing different conceptual domains than the one that we are predisposed to apply to the subject matter and by directing our mind to new subject matters (for which we have no predisposed conceptual grasp), understanding them in terms of familiar domains. The third, finally, is our ability to give these representations an epistemic orientation. Key words: Human cognition, Domain-specific knowledge systems, Cognitive predispositions, Folk theories, Cognitive flexibility, Human – nonhuman distinction. (shrink)

Why do people persist in commitments that threaten their happiness, security, and comfort? Why do some of our most central, identity-defining commitments resist the effects of reasoning and critical reflection? Drawing on real-life examples, empirical psychology, and philosophical reflection, this book argues that these commitments involve an ethical stance called devotion, which plays a pervasive—but often hidden—role in human life. Devotion typically involves sacralizing certain values, goals, or relationships. To sacralize a value is to treat it as inviolable (trade-offs with (...) ordinary values are forbidden), incontestable (even contemplating such trade-offs is prohibited), and dialectically invulnerable (no rational considerations can disrupt the agent’s commitment to the value). Philosophy of Devotion offers a detailed philosophical account and defense of these features. Devotion and the sacralization of values can be reasonable; indeed, a life involving meaningful, sustained commitment depends on these stances. Without devotion, we risk an existential condition called normative dissipation, in which all of our commitments become etiolated. Yet devotion can easily go wrong, deforming into the individual and group fanaticism that have become pervasive features of modern social life. The book provides an alternative to fanaticism, investigating the way in which we can express non-pathological forms of devotion. We can be devoted through affirmation and through what is termed the deepening move, which treats the agent’s central commitments as systematically inchoate. Each stance enables a wholehearted form of devotion that nevertheless preserves flexibility and openness, avoiding the dangers of fanaticism on the one hand and normative dissipation on the other. -/- (The attached file contains the introductory chapter.). (shrink)

Academia is a competitive environment. Early Career Researchers (ECRs) are limited in experience and resources and especially need achievements to secure and expand their careers. To help with these issues, this book offers a new approach for conducting research using the combination of mindsponge innovative thinking and Bayesian analytics. This is not just another analytics book. 1. A new perspective on psychological processes: Mindsponge is a novel approach for examining the human mind’s information processing mechanism. This conceptual framework is (...) used to construct models in studies. The framework is highly flexible and widely applicable for many different types of information processes. The mindsponge approach can help researchers discover interesting ideas or even formulate their very own theories when investigating psychosocial phenomena. This approach brings a fresh wind to the current landscape of social sciences and humanities (SSH). 2. Easy-to-follow analysis protocol: The Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF analytics) is useful in terms of computing and visualizing power but also easy to learn and apply. Contrary to being intimidating, the Bayesian analytics section of this book is presented in a reader-friendly manner with a detailed yet clear step-by-step procedure. Examples are from published BMF articles, allowing readers to immediately practice the method and quickly create their own applications. With educational purposes in mind, the book is very suitable for ECRs who are looking to innovate their research methods. 3. Advocating for low-cost, high-quality research: Doing science can be very costly. Mindsponge innovative thinking and BMF analytics help produce impactful studies using openly available data on online repositories. This is based on the authors’ previous works and experiences. The book presents examples of employing the open R package bayesvl on secondary data from different sources. With less financial constraints, researchers can have more freedom of thought to pursue their curiosity and creativity. ECRs in low- and middle-income countries may find this aspect crucial in their careers. 4. Support and collaboration: The authors share their insights from experiences in the academic publishing system to help readers get through the processes of manuscript writing and peer-reviewing more easily. The authors are also ready to support other researchers with further inquiries and collaboration opportunities at the following website, mindsponge(dot)info. This book is for: a) ECRs whose only abundant resources are their innovation capacity and strength of will; b) Researchers in SSH who want to explore a novel approach to thinking and study conducting; c) Low- and middle-income countries’ researchers looking for a cost-effective research protocol; and, d) Innovative thinkers who want to turn their interesting thoughts into good publications. (shrink)

When you type the word “serendipity” in a word-processor application such as Microsoft Word, the autocorrection engine suggests you choose other words like “luck” or “fate”. This correcting act turns out to be incorrect. However, it points to the reality that serendipity is not a familiar English word and can be misunderstood easily. Serendipity is a very much scientific concept as it has been found useful in numerous scientific discoveries, pharmaceutical innovations, and numerous humankind’s technical and technological advances. Therefore, there (...) have been many books written around the concept. So why do we need this additional book? This is not just another book about serendipity. It has evolved from the Editor’s question lingering for a decade after finishing his widely cited article (coauthored with Prof. Nancy K. Napier of Boise State University, ID, USA) “Serendipity as a strategic advantage?” in T. Wilkinson’s edited volume Strategic Management in the 21st Century, published by Praeger. The Editor and contributing authors have tried to achieve the following in this title. Demystifying the Serendipity Myth The phenomenon of serendipity has always been thought of as a “miracle”. It is the mystery of human innovation and one of the ultimate secrets of our society. But serendipity is not just a lucky coincidence nor any hidden conspiracy. This book explores the science of the information process behind this seemingly miraculous phenomenon. It connects human society with nature, going back to the root of our existence and looking at the flame of survival to discover the harmony in making creativity. Presenting the nuts and bolts of being an adventurer of science The authors present their conceptual investigations into serendipity’s nature and its mechanism by examining interesting real events and stories. The content is thought-provoking, and readers are led to question and explore their own life stories and problems along the journey of reading this book. Catching an elusive high-value target requires great strategies and efforts. But there are no dark secrets here because this is the “way of nature” – how we humans have always strived for innovation without realizing the blueprints behind such processes. Unlike other books on serendipity, this book will show you that a powerful “secret” is closer than you think. Delivering practical uses for different audiences By understanding the conditionality and survival drivers of serendipity, individuals or organizations can make better decisions on creating the right environment to facilitate the encounter and attainment of this valuable phenomenon. For scientists: With clear explanations of the information processes underlying serendipity, flexible theoretical frameworks of mindsponge and the 3D principle of creativity, researchers are provided with the tools they need to dig deeper into their own fields of study and find practical applications, be it psychology, economics, sociology, or anything that involves innovation (which is, in fact, every scientific discipline). For curious casual readers: Everybody needs innovation to make breakthroughs or spice up one’s life. If you think great ideas come to people randomly from an unknown fairy place, this book will convince you otherwise without taking away that awe and wonder. But above all, you will know how to become more creative, scientifically and straightforwardly, with no snake oil and no weird tricks. For ambitious business people: The flame that brought about great successes throughout human history is within you. But you can only use it if you understand it. While others wait for serendipity to come, you will be able to actively hunt for those precious moments. As it has always been: the best hunters triumph, not the passive wanderers. And in this age of information chaos, finding the golden fruits is not easy. Those from information technology know this problem well, and this book is the treasure map that they have been seeking to navigate that stormy ocean looking for jewels. Like a kingfisher tracking its prey through the water, waiting to gracefully strike, with serendipity, a person seizes the prize of creativity amid the chaos of life. ¤ ¤ ¤ Official introduction: The book explores the nature, underlying causes, and the information processing mechanism of serendipity. It proposes that natural or social survival demands drive serendipity, and serendipity is conditional on the environment and the mindset, on both individual and collective levels. From Darwin's evolution theory to Sun Tzu's war tactics, major innovations throughout human history are unified by this key concept. In the rapidly changing world, information is abundant but rather chaotic. The adaptive power of serendipity allows people to notice treasures within this wild sea, but only for those who understand how it works. To increase the probability of encountering and attaining serendipity, one should employ the mindsponge mechanism and the 3D process of creativity, for without these frameworks, serendipity is truly an elusive target. The book also discusses methods to build environments and cultures rich in navigational and useful information to maximize the chance of finding and capitalizing on serendipity. As a skill, serendipity has a resemblance to how kingfishers observe and hunt their prey. (shrink)

This article evaluates an emerging element in popular debate and inquiry: DYOR. (Haven’t heard of the acronym? Then Do Your Own Research.) The slogan is flexible and versatile. It is used frequently on social media platforms about topics from medical science to financial investing to conspiracy theories. Using conceptual and empirical resources drawn from philosophy and psychology, we examine key questions about the slogan’s operation in human cognition and epistemic culture.

Perceptual experiences are not immediately responsive to reasons. You see a stick submerged in a glass of water as bent no matter how much you know about light refraction. Due to this isolation from reasons, perception is traditionally considered outside the scope of epistemic evaluability as justified or unjustified. Is perception really as independent from reasons as visual illusions make it out to be? I argue no, drawing on psychological evidence from perceptual learning. The flexibility of perceptual learning (...) is a way of responding to new epistemic reasons. The resulting perceptual experiences are epistemically evaluable as justified or unjustified. (shrink)

Interdisciplinary understanding requires integration of insights from different perspectives, yet it appears questionable whether disciplinary experts are well prepared for this. Indeed, psychological and cognitive scientific studies suggest that expertise can be disadvantageous because experts are often more biased than non-experts, for example, or fixed on certain approaches, and less flexible in novel situations or situations outside their domain of expertise. An explanation is that experts’ conscious and unconscious cognition and behavior depend upon their learning and acquisition of a (...) set of mental representations or knowledge structures. Compared to beginners in a field, experts have assembled a much larger set of representations that are also more complex, facilitating fast and adequate perception in responding to relevant situations. This article argues how metacognition should be employed in order to mitigate such disadvantages of expertise: By metacognitively monitoring and regulating their own cognitive processes and representations, experts can prepare themselves for interdisciplinary understanding. Interdisciplinary collaboration is further facilitated by team metacognition about the team, tasks, process, goals, and representations developed in the team. Drawing attention to the need for metacognition, the article explains how philosophical reflection on the assumptions involved in different disciplinary perspectives must also be considered in a process complementary to metacognition and not completely overlapping with it. (Disciplinary assumptions are here understood as determining and constraining how the complex mental representations of experts are chunked and structured.) The article concludes with a brief reflection on how the process of Reflective Equilibrium should be added to the processes of metacognition and philosophical reflection in order for experts involved in interdisciplinary collaboration to reach a justifiable and coherent form of interdisciplinary integration. An Appendix of “Prompts or Questions for Metacognition” that can elicit metacognitive knowledge, monitoring, or regulation in individuals or teams is included at the end of the article. (shrink)

Mental representations remain the central posits of psychology after many decades of scrutiny. However, there is no consensus about the representational format(s) of biological cognition. This paper provides a survey of evidence from computational cognitive psychology, perceptual psychology, developmental psychology, comparative psychology, and social psychology, and concludes that one type of format that routinely crops up is the language-of-thought (LoT). We outline six core properties of LoTs: (i) discrete constituents; (ii) role-filler independence; (iii) predicate–argument structure; (iv) logical operators; (v) inferential (...) promiscuity; and (vi) abstract content. These properties cluster together throughout cognitive science. Bayesian computational modeling, compositional features of object perception, complex infant and animal reasoning, and automatic, intuitive cognition in adults all implicate LoT-like structures. Instead of regarding LoT as a relic of the previous century, researchers in cognitive science and philosophy-of-mind must take seriously the explanatory breadth of LoT-based architectures. We grant that the mind may harbor many formats and architectures, including iconic and associative structures as well as deep-neural-network-like architectures. However, as computational/representational approaches to the mind continue to advance, classical compositional symbolic structures – that is, LoTs – only prove more flexible and well-supported over time. (shrink)

In this chapter, we will summarize recent empirical results highlighting how different groups of people solve pure coordination games. Such games are traditionally studied in behavioural economics, where two people need to coordinate without communicating with each other. Our results suggest that coordination choices vary across groups of people, and that people can adapt flexibly to these differences in order to coordinate between groups. We propose that pure coordination games are a useful empirical platform for studying aspects of mindshaping. Drawing (...) on existing psychological literature on alignment during interactions, we suggest that experience of successful interaction leads people to develop aligned intuitions about what is relevant and appropriate that support coordination when interaction and communication is not possible. Consistent with arguments made in the literature on mindshaping we believe that such alignment is more important for coordination than mindreading inferences about mental states, and indeed that mindreading is instead a form of coordination behaviour that is dependent upon intuitive alignment. (shrink)

The nature of the cognition-motor interface has been brought to prominence by Butterfill & Sinigaglia, who argue that the representations employed by the cognitive and motor systems should not be able to interact with each other. Here I argue that recent empirical evidence concerning the interface contradicts several of the assumptions incorporated in Butterfill & Sinigaglia’s account, and I seek to develop a theoretical picture that will allow us to explain the structure of the interface presented by this evidence. The (...) central idea is that neural plasticity incorporates metarepresentational rules for constructing representational systems and linking them. The structure of the cognition-motor interface is constructed flexibly during development and skill learning based on information processing demands. (shrink)

In this paper I return to Hubert Dreyfus’ old but influential critique of artificial intelligence, redirecting it towards contemporary predictive processing models of the mind (PP). I focus on Dreyfus’ arguments about the “frame problem” for artificial cognitive systems, and his contrasting account of embodied human skills and expertise. The frame problem presents as a prima facie problem for practical work in AI and robotics, but also for computational views of the mind in general, including for PP. Indeed, some of (...) the issues it presents seem more acute for PP, insofar as it seeks to unify all cognition and intelligence, and aims to do so without admitting any cognitive processes or mechanisms outside of the scope of the theory. I contend, however, that there is an unresolved problem for PP concerning whether it can both explain all cognition and intelligent behavior as minimizing prediction error with just the core formal elements of the PP toolbox, and also adequately comprehend (or explain away) some of the apparent cognitive differences between biological and prediction-based artificial intelligence, notably in regard to establishing relevance and flexible context-switching, precisely the features of interest to Dreyfus’ work on embodied indexicality, habits/skills, and abductive inference. I address several influential philosophical versions of PP, including the work of Jakob Hohwy and Andy Clark, as well as more enactive-oriented interpretations of active inference coming from a broadly Fristonian perspective. (shrink)

Both patients and clinicians frequently report problems around communicating and assessing pain. Patients express dissatisfaction with their doctors and doctors often find exchanges with chronic pain patients difficult and frustrating. This chapter thus asks how we could improve pain communication and thereby enhance outcomes for chronic pain patients. We argue that improving matters will require a better appreciation of the complex meaning of pain terms and of the variability and flexibility in how individuals think about pain. We start by (...) examining the various accounts of the meaning of pain terms that have been suggested within philosophy and suggest that, while each of the accounts captures something important about our use of pain terms, none is completely satisfactory. We propose that pain terms should be viewed as communicating complex meanings, which may change across different communicative contexts, and this in turn suggests that we should view our ordinary thought about pain as similarly complex. We then sketch what a view taking seriously this variability in meaning and thought might look like, which we call the “polyeidic” view. According to this view, individuals tacitly occupy divergent stances across a range of different dimensions of pain, with one agent, for instance, thinking of pain in a much more “bodycentric” kind of way, while another thinks of pain in a much more "mindcentric” way. The polyeidic view attempts to expand the multidimensionality recognised in, e.g., biopsychosocial models in two directions: first, it holds that the standard triumvirate— dividing sensory/cognitive/affective factors— needs to be enriched in order to capture important distinctions within the social and psychological dimensions. Second, the polyeidic view attempts to explain (at least in part) why modulation of experience by these social and psychological factors is possible in the first place. It does so by arguing that because the folk concept of pain is complex, different weightings of the different parts of the concept can modulate pain experience in a variety of ways. Finally, we argue that adopting a polyeidic approach to the meaning of pain would have a range of measurable clinical outcomes. (shrink)

One of the most pressing questions concerning singular demonstrative mental contents is what makes their content singular: that is to say, what makes it the case that individual objects are the representata of these mental states. Many philosophers have required sophisticated intellectual capacities for singular content to be possible, such as the possession of an elaborate scheme of space and time. A more recent reaction to this strategy proposes to account for singular content solely on the basis of empirical models (...) of visual processing. We believe both sides make good points, and offer an intermediate way of looking into singular content. Our suggestion is that singular content may be traced to psychological capacities to form flexible, abstract representations in the prefrontal cortex. This allows them to be sustained for increasingly longer periods of time and extrapolated beyond the context of perception, thus going beyond lowlevel sensory representations while also falling short of more sophisticated intellectual abilities. (shrink)

Conceptual engineering is the method for assessing and improving our representational devices. On its ‘broad-spectrum’ version, it is expected to be appropriately applicable to any of our representation-involving cognitive activities, with major consequences for our whole cognitive life. This paper is about the theoretical foundations of conceptual engineering thus characterised. With a view to ensuring the actionability of conceptual engineering as a broad-spectrum method, it addresses the issue of how best to construe the subject matter of conceptual engineering and successively (...) defends the theses that conceptual engineering should be: (i) About concepts, (ii) psychologically theorised, (iii) as multiply realised functional kinds. Thereby, I claim to theoretically secure and justify the maximum scope, flexibility, and impact for the method of conceptual engineering on our representational devices in our whole cognitive life—in other words, a broad-spectrum version of conceptual engineering. (shrink)

In the quest for mental peace and philosophical insight, the most profound approach is to let the mind function freely, without the interference of a controlling thinker. This essay explores the philosophical and cognitive implications of an unimpeded mind, drawing from Eastern traditions such as Zen Buddhism and Taoism, alongside contemporary cognitive science. It argues that the natural rhythm of thought is disrupted by the ego’s need for control, leading to mental fragmentation and turbulence. By embracing the concept of “no-mind” (...) or non-interference, individuals can achieve a harmonious flow of consciousness. Contemporary cognitive science supports this view, showing that reducing self-referential thinking enhances cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation. This harmonious state, akin to the flow experienced by top athletes and artists, offers a path to greater psychological well-being and deeper philosophical understanding. (shrink)

We discuss the evolutionary transition from animals with limited experiencing to animals with unlimited experiencing and basic consciousness. This transition was, we suggest, intimately linked with the evolution of associative learning and with flexible reward systems based on, and modifiable by, learning. During associative learning, new pathways relating stimuli and effects are formed within a highly integrated and continuously active nervous system. We argue that the memory traces left by such new stimulus-effect relations form dynamic, flexible, and varied global sensory (...) states, which we call categorizing sensory states . These CSSs acquired a function: they came to act as internal “evaluators” and led to positive and negative reinforcement of new behavior. They are therefore the simplest, distinct, first-person motivational states that an animal can have. They constitute what we call basic consciousness, and are the hallmark of animals that can experience. Since associative learning has been found in many invertebrate taxa that first appeared during the Cambrian era, we propose that the processes underlying basic consciousness are phylogenetically ancient, and that their emergence may have fueled the Cambrian explosion. (shrink)

Autism spectrum disorder is usually understood through deficits in social interaction and communication, repetitive patterns of behavior, and hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input. Affordance-based Skilled Intentionality that combines ecological-enactive views of cognition with Free Energy and Predictive Processing was proposed as the framework from which to view autism integrally. Skilled Intentionality distinguishes between a landscape of affordances and a field of affordances. Under the integrative Skilled Intentionality Framework, it can be shown that autistic differences in the field of affordances (...) stem from aberrant precision estimation. Autistics over-rely on the precision afforded by the environment—a stable econiche they build. According to this approach, autism is understood as characterized by an atypical field of affordances. I will build on the ecological-enactive account of autism to suggest that one way to shape the neurotypical landscape of affordances in accordance with autistic needs is through the use of Ambient Smart Environments (ASEs). Taking the cue from autistic lived experience, ASEs could help minimize environmental uncertainty and afford affective scaffolding by supporting dynamic and flexible niche construction in accordance with individual autistic styles. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to present a topological method for constructing discretizations of topological conceptual spaces. The method works for a class of topological spaces that the Russian mathematician Pavel Alexandroff defined more than 80 years ago. The aim of this paper is to show that Alexandroff spaces, as they are called today, have many interesting properties that can be used to explicate and clarify a variety of problems in philosophy, cognitive science, and related disciplines. For instance, recently, (...) Ian Rumfitt used a special type of Alexandroff spaces to elucidate the logic of vague concepts in a new way. Moreover, Rumfitt’s class of Alexandroff spaces can be shown to provide a natural topological semantics for Susanne Bobzien’s “logic of clearness”. Mainly due to the work of Peter Gärdenfors and his collaborators, conceptual spaces have become an increasingly popular tool of dealing with a variety of problems in the fields of cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics and philosophy. For Gärdenfors’s conceptual spaces, geometrically defined discretizations play an essential role. These tessellations can be shown to be extensionally equivalent to topological tessellations that can be constructed for Alexandroff spaces in general. Thereby, Rumfitt’s and Gärdenfors’s constructions turn out to be special cases of an approach that works for a more general class of spaces, namely, for weakly scattered Alexandroff spaces. The main aim of this paper is to show that this class of spaces provides a convenient framework for conceptual spaces as used in epistemology and related disciplines in general. Weakly scattered Alexandroff spaces are useful for elucidating problems related to the logic of vague concepts, in particular they offer a solution of the Sorites paradox. Further, they provide a semantics for the logic of clearness that overcomes certain problems of the concept of higher-order vagueness. Moreover, these spaces help find a natural place for classical syllogistics in the framework of conceptual spaces. The specialization order of Alexandroff spaces can be used to refine the all-or-nothing distinction between prototypical and non-prototypical stimuli in favor of a gradual distinction between more or less prototypical elements of conceptual spaces. The greater conceptual flexibility of the topological approach helps avoid some inherent inadequacies of the geometrical approach, for instance, the so-called “thickness problem”. Finally, it is shown that the Alexandroff spaces offer an appropriate framework to deal with digital conceptual spaces that are gaining more and more importance in the areas of artificial intelligence, computer science and related disciplines. (shrink)

Being social creatures in a complex world, we do things together. We act jointly. While cooperation, in its broadest sense, can involve merely getting out of each other’s way, or refusing to deceive other people, it is also essential to human nature that it involves more active forms of collaboration and coordination (Tomasello 2009; Sterelny 2012). We collaborate with others in many ordinary activities which, though at times similar to those of other animals, take unique and diverse cultural and (...) class='Hi'>psychological forms in human beings. But we also work closely and interactively with each other in more peculiar and flexible practices which are in distinctive ways both species-specific and culturally and historically contingent: from team sports to shared labour, from committee work to mass demonstrations, from dancing to reminiscing together about old times. (shrink)

To approach the many challenges involved in the notion of engineering concepts, it is important to have a clear idea of the starting point – the concepts that people use in their everyday lives, in conversations and in expressing beliefs, desires, intentions and so forth. The first Section of this chapter introduces evidence that I have accumulated over the last many years concerning the flexibility, context-dependence, and vagueness of such common concepts. The concept engineer needs to understand the structure (...) of the “raw material” with which she is working. In Section 2, I summarise some results concerning the amount of individual variation that exists within a single relatively homogenous population of individuals, both in what examples are considered most typical of a category, and in what properties are considered most central to a category (Hampton & Passanisi, 2016). The demonstration of a significant degree of reliable variation in responses to these questions, that is stable over time, illustrates the potential for conceptual engineering interventions to affect individuals’ concepts. Concepts are rarely fixed or uniformly understood in the same way. I then discuss the different ways in which concepts track the world, and I speculate about how different conceptual domains are governed by different criteria of validity or acceptability. This reflection will lead to Section 3 in which I summarise some results from recent research (Thorne, Quilty-Dunn, Smortchova, Shea, & Hampton, 2021), investigating for the first time how people view the value of different familiar concepts. Knowing how people appraise concepts will be a key to developing ideas for improving the reliability and validity of the concepts that they commonly use. A final section contains some (largely speculative) discussion about the implications of work in psychology of concepts for the project of conceptual engineering. (shrink)

In this paper, we describe four broad ‘meta-methods’ employed in scientific and philosophical research of qualia. These are the theory-centred metamethod, the property-centred meta-method, the argument-centred meta-method, and the event-centred meta-method. Broadly speaking, the theory-centred meta-method is interested in the role of qualia as some theoretical entities picked out by our folk psychological theories; the property-centred meta-method is interested in some metaphysical properties of qualia that we immediately observe through introspection ; the argument-centred meta-method is interested in the role (...) of qualia in some arguments for non-physicalism; the event-centred metamethod is interested in the role of qualia as some natural events whose nature is hidden and must be uncovered empirically. We will argue that the event-centred metamethod is the most promising route to a comprehensive scientific conception of qualia because of the flexibility of ontological and methodological assumptions it can provide. We also reveal the hidden influences of the different meta-methods and in doing so show why consideration of meta-methods has value for the study of consciousness. (shrink)

Cognitive Optimization in the Age of AI: Enhancing Human Potential -/- Introduction -/- Cognitive optimization is the process of enhancing mental functions such as memory, learning, decision-making, and problem-solving to achieve peak intellectual performance. It is a multidisciplinary approach that integrates neuroscience, psychology, nutrition, lifestyle adjustments, and, increasingly, artificial intelligence (AI). In an era where information is abundant and rapid decision-making is crucial, optimizing cognitive abilities is more Important than ever. -/- AI-driven technologies, video games, mobile apps, and digital platforms (...) like YouTube are playing a transformative role in enhancing human cognition. YouTube, in particular, has become a powerful tool for self-directed learning, offering access to educational content, expert insights, and cognitive training exercises. -/- This essay explores cognitive optimization, key strategies involved, and how AI, video games, mobile apps, and platforms like YouTube are revolutionizing human intelligence. -/- The Science Behind Cognitive Optimization -/- Cognitive optimization is rooted in neuroplasticity—the brain’s ability to rewire itself through experience and learning. Several key factors contribute to cognitive enhancement: -/- 1. Neuroplasticity and Learning – Continuous learning strengthens neural connections, fostering intelligence and adaptability. Activities such as reading, solving complex problems, and learning new skills stimulate brain function. -/- 2. Nutrition and Brain Health – Diet plays a vital role in cognitive performance. Nutrients such as omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and essential vitamins support brain function and protect against cognitive decline. -/- 3. Physical Exercise – Regular exercise increases blood flow to the brain, promotes neurogenesis (the growth of new neurons), and enhances memory and problem-solving skills. -/- 4. Sleep and Recovery – Sleep is essential for memory consolidation, emotional regulation, and mental clarity. Chronic sleep deprivation impairs cognitive function and decision-making. -/- 5. Mindfulness and Stress Management – Practices such as meditation, deep breathing, and yoga improve focus, reduce anxiety, and enhance mental resilience. -/- 6. Social Interaction and Collaboration – Engaging in meaningful discussions and debates strengthens cognitive agility and enhances problem-solving skills. -/- Beyond these traditional methods, digital tools such as AI-driven learning platforms, video games, mobile applications, and YouTube have expanded the possibilities for cognitive enhancement. -/- AI and Cognitive Optimization: A New Frontier -/- AI technology is revolutionizing cognitive optimization by providing personalized insights, accelerating learning, and even augmenting human intelligence. Below are several ways AI is transforming cognitive enhancement: -/- 1. AI-Powered Personalized Learning -/- AI-driven educational platforms such as adaptive learning systems customize lessons based on an individual’s learning style and pace. These systems use machine learning to analyze cognitive strengths and weaknesses, adjusting content dynamically to optimize learning efficiency. Platforms like Coursera, Duolingo, and Khan Academy utilize AI algorithms to provide personalized recommendations, ensuring users focus on areas that need improvement. -/- 2. Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) -/- Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) are AI-powered systems that enable direct communication between the human brain and computers. Companies like Neuralink and OpenBCI are developing BCIs that could enhance memory, restore lost cognitive functions, and even allow direct mental interaction with AI systems. This technology has the potential to revolutionize learning and decision-making by integrating human cognition with artificial intelligence. -/- 3. AI-Powered Cognitive Assistants -/- AI-driven virtual assistants such as ChatGPT, Google Assistant, and IBM Watson enhance cognition by providing instant access to information, summarizing complex topics, and even suggesting optimal decision-making strategies. These tools help individuals process vast amounts of information efficiently, reducing cognitive overload and enhancing productivity. -/- 4. AI in Mental Health and Stress Management -/- Mental health is a critical component of cognitive optimization. AI-driven mental health apps like Woebot and Wysa use machine learning to provide real-time emotional support, track mood patterns, and offer cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques. By reducing stress and anxiety, these AI-powered tools help maintain optimal cognitive function. -/- The Role of YouTube in Cognitive Optimization -/- YouTube has emerged as one of the most powerful platforms for cognitive enhancement. With millions of educational videos covering diverse subjects, YouTube serves as a free and accessible learning tool that fosters continuous cognitive growth. -/- 1. Learning New Skills and Expanding Knowledge -/- YouTube provides access to high-quality educational content in virtually every field. Channels like Veritasium, TED-Ed, and CrashCourse offer lessons on science, history, philosophy, and more. Learning new concepts regularly strengthens cognitive flexibility and enhances problem-solving skills. -/- 2. Enhancing Memory and Comprehension -/- Visual and auditory learning through YouTube helps reinforce memory retention. Watching documentaries, explainer videos, and step-by-step tutorials aids in deepening understanding and reinforcing neural pathways associated with knowledge acquisition. -/- 3. Improving Focus and Critical Thinking -/- Channels that discuss philosophy, logic, and critical thinking—such as Academy of Ideas or PBS Idea Channel—train the brain to analyze complex arguments, recognize biases, and develop sharper reasoning skills. Engaging in thought-provoking discussions through video content strengthens cognitive agility. -/- 4. AI-Generated Content for Personalized Learning -/- AI-powered recommendation algorithms help users discover personalized content based on their interests and learning habits. AI-curated video playlists allow individuals to engage in structured learning journeys, optimizing cognitive development in areas of personal interest. -/- 5. Interactive Learning and Problem-Solving -/- YouTube’s interactive features, such as quizzes, live Q&A sessions, and discussion threads, allow users to actively engage with educational content. This social interaction enhances cognitive engagement and retention. -/- By leveraging YouTube strategically, individuals can create personalized learning experiences that optimize cognitive function in a self-directed manner. -/- Video Games and Cognitive Optimization -/- Video games are increasingly recognized as tools for cognitive enhancement, providing interactive and engaging ways to improve various mental skills. -/- 1. Action Video Games for Reflexes and Decision-Making -/- Fast-paced action games like Call of Duty, Fortnite, and Counter-Strike train players to react quickly, improve hand-eye coordination, and develop strategic thinking under pressure. Studies suggest that such games enhance cognitive flexibility and decision-making speed. -/- 2. Puzzle and Strategy Games for Problem-Solving -/- Games like Portal, The Witness, and Tetris challenge players with complex puzzles that require logical thinking, spatial reasoning, and pattern recognition. -/- 3. Open-World and Role-Playing Games (RPGs) for Memory and Creativity -/- Games like The Legend of Zelda, Elden Ring, and The Witcher 3 encourage exploration, problem-solving, and strategic planning. -/- 4. Multiplayer and Cooperative Games for Social Cognition -/- Team-based games like League of Legends, Dota 2, and Among Us enhance communication skills, teamwork, and emotional intelligence. -/- The Future of Cognitive Optimization -/- The future of cognitive optimization lies in the seamless integration of AI, video games, mobile applications, and digital platforms like YouTube. Emerging technologies such as neuroprosthetics, AI-enhanced memory implants, and real-time brain augmentation could redefine human potential. -/- Furthermore, as AGI (Artificial General Intelligence) develops, AI could become an even more powerful tool in cognitive enhancement, potentially working alongside humans as cognitive partners. This could align with initiatives such as Angelito Malicse’s universal formula for decision-making, where AI-driven cognitive optimization ensures that human choices align with the natural law of balance. -/- Conclusion -/- Cognitive optimization is essential for maximizing human potential, and AI, video games, YouTube, and cognitive training apps are playing an increasingly significant role in this process. From personalized learning to interactive gaming and mobile applications, digital tools are transforming the way we enhance cognition. -/- By leveraging these tools responsibly and integrating them with fundamental cognitive enhancement strategies, humanity can unlock new levels of intelligence, creativity, and problem-solving ability—ensuring that the future of cognition is both powerful and sustainable. -/- . (shrink)

Nature of Consciousness in relation to my Universal Formula -/- By : Angelito Enriquez Malicse -/- The functioning of consciousness is a complex and debated topic that spans neuroscience, philosophy, and psychology. While there is no universally agreed-upon explanation, several frameworks attempt to describe how consciousness functions. Here are key aspects: -/- 1. Perception and Awareness -/- Consciousness allows us to be aware of our environment and ourselves. -/- Sensory Input: Consciousness integrates information from our senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.) (...) to create a unified experience. -/- Selective Attention: It filters out irrelevant stimuli, focusing on specific inputs while ignoring others. -/- 2. Integration of Information -/- Consciousness functions as an integrative system. -/- Global Workspace Theory: Information from different parts of the brain (e.g., memory, perception, emotion) is integrated into a “global workspace,” where it becomes accessible to different cognitive processes. -/- Binding: Consciousness combines sensory inputs, emotions, and thoughts into a coherent experience. -/- 3. Decision-Making and Intentionality -/- Consciousness enables deliberate action. -/- Executive Functions: It allows for planning, reasoning, and decision-making. -/- Free Will: Many argue that consciousness gives the perception of free will, though decisions may be influenced by subconscious processes. -/- 4. Self-Awareness -/- Consciousness involves recognizing oneself as distinct from the environment. -/- Theory of Mind: Understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, and intentions separate from our own. -/- Introspection: Reflecting on one’s own thoughts, emotions, and actions. -/- 5. Dynamic States -/- Consciousness operates in varying levels of alertness. -/- Wakefulness: Fully alert, capable of complex thought and sensory interaction. -/- Altered States: Dreaming, hypnosis, or meditation involve different patterns of brain activity. -/- Unconscious/Subconscious Processes: Much of brain activity occurs outside conscious awareness but influences behavior. -/- 6. Neurobiological Basis -/- Consciousness arises from complex interactions in the brain. -/- Neural Correlates: Specific brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex and thalamus, are essential for conscious thought. -/- Synchronization: Brain waves (e.g., gamma waves) synchronize neural activity to support awareness. -/- Feedback Loops: Consciousness involves ongoing feedback between the brain and the body (e.g., through the nervous system). -/- 7. Feedback Mechanism (Relating to Your Ideas) -/- Consciousness can be viewed as a feedback mechanism, continuously processing and adjusting based on internal and external inputs. -/- Decisions and behaviors create effects that, in turn, provide new inputs for further conscious processing, following natural laws of balance. -/- Let’s integrate the understanding of consciousness with your universal formula, emphasizing how it aligns with your principles, particularly the universal law of balance in nature, the law of karma (cause and effect), and the interconnectedness of systems. -/- 1. Consciousness and Perception: Awareness of Internal and External Realities -/- Consciousness processes sensory inputs and integrates them into a coherent experience, allowing individuals to interact with their surroundings. -/- Relation to the Law of Balance: Consciousness acts as a balancing system, constantly assessing internal (bodily needs, emotions) and external (environmental changes) realities to maintain equilibrium. For example: -/- Hunger (internal imbalance) leads to actions (seeking food) that restore balance. -/- Overexposure to external stress triggers adaptive behaviors (e.g., rest or problem-solving) to re-establish harmony. -/- Feedback Mechanisms: The mind processes inputs from both the organic (physical body) and inorganic (external environment) systems, which aligns with your principle that consciousness operates through feedback loops to maintain balance. -/- 2. Integration of Information: Coherence and Systems Thinking -/- Consciousness combines information from various sources—sensory data, memories, emotions—into a unified experience. This reflects the interconnectedness of systems you emphasize in the universal formula. -/- Relation to the Law of Karma (Cause and Effect): Just as systems must function without defects to produce correct outputs, consciousness must integrate accurate and balanced information for effective decision-making. -/- Example: False beliefs or distorted perceptions create internal imbalance, leading to flawed decisions, which result in external consequences. -/- Balance in Systems: Consciousness integrates diverse inputs while ensuring no single element dominates disproportionately, promoting functional harmony. -/- 3. Decision-Making: Consciousness as a Balancing Force -/- Consciousness evaluates options, predicts outcomes, and selects actions. It bridges the gap between external conditions and internal motivations. -/- Adherence to the Law of Balance: Decisions that align with natural laws of balance maintain harmony, while those that disrupt balance (e.g., overconsumption, neglecting emotional health) create systemic imbalances. -/- Example: Overexploitation of resources results in ecological imbalance, mirroring how neglecting feedback in decision-making causes disruption. -/- Law of Karma in Action: Decisions carry consequences, and the effects feedback into consciousness, influencing future decisions. This cyclic cause-and-effect process illustrates the operation of karma within the mind’s framework. -/- 4. Self-Awareness and Feedback Mechanism -/- Consciousness includes the ability to reflect on oneself, recognizing internal states and adjusting behavior accordingly. -/- Relation to Balance in Nature: Self-awareness allows individuals to evaluate whether their thoughts, emotions, and actions align with the universal law of balance. For instance: -/- Reflecting on stress levels and adapting behaviors (e.g., practicing mindfulness) helps restore mental equilibrium. -/- Feedback in Collective Systems: When conscious minds interact in social systems, they create feedback loops that shape group decisions. Leadership, for example, must remain self-aware to ensure decisions maintain societal balance. -/- 5. Dynamic States of Consciousness: Adaptability and Natural Balance -/- Consciousness operates in dynamic states, such as wakefulness, dreaming, and meditation. These states allow flexibility and adaptability to shifting conditions. -/- Law of Balance Applied to States: Dynamic shifts in consciousness maintain balance between activity and rest, or between rational thought and creative insight. Imbalance, such as chronic wakefulness or suppressed introspection, disrupts this harmony. -/- Altered States and Feedback: States like meditation enhance self-regulation, improving feedback between internal and external realities, aligning the individual with natural laws. -/- 6. Neurobiological Basis: Consciousness as a System -/- Consciousness emerges from neural interactions and feedback loops in the brain, reflecting your idea that all systems must operate free of defects to function effectively. -/- Defects and Imbalances: Defective brain processes (e.g., misinformation, trauma) disrupt the feedback mechanism, leading to imbalanced behaviors or decisions. Addressing these “defects” through education or corrective experiences restores balance. -/- Holistic Nature of Consciousness: The brain’s integration of information mirrors the universal principle of interconnectedness. Damage to one area affects the entire system, just as disrupting one part of a natural system creates widespread imbalance. -/- 7. Consciousness in Leadership and Education -/- Your universal formula aims to teach individuals how to make decisions that align with natural laws, ensuring societal balance. -/- Feedback in Collective Consciousness: Leaders’ decisions influence collective consciousness, creating societal feedback loops. Teaching leaders to align their decisions with the universal law of balance can minimize societal problems. -/- Holistic Education: Teaching students how consciousness functions—including its feedback mechanisms, its alignment with the law of balance, and the role of accurate inputs—enables critical thinking and informed decision-making. -/- 8. Consciousness as the Medium for Universal Formula Application -/- Ultimately, consciousness is the medium through which your universal formula operates. By understanding and aligning conscious processes with natural laws: -/- Individuals maintain personal balance. -/- Groups and societies achieve collective harmony. -/- Decision-making respects the interconnectedness of all systems, reducing errors and defects in outcomes. -/- . (shrink)

The ancient Chinese text theZhuangziraises a mix of epistemological, psychological, and conceptual challenges against the value and usefulness of philosophical disputation. But instead of advocating the elimination of philosophy, it implicitly embraces a broader conception of philosophy, the goal of which is to engage us to reflect on our limitations, question things we take for granted, and better appreciate alternative perspectives and possibilities. Philosophy thus understood is compatible with a variety of methods and approaches: fictions, jokes, paradoxes, spiritual exercises, (...) argument, disputation, and so on. Philosophical practices, on this view, also pave the way for an open‐minded, adaptive and flexible way of living that is at the core of the Zhuangist good life. (shrink)

This book is the fifth volume in the series of Collected Papers on Advancing Uncertain Combinatorics through Graphization, Hyperization, and Uncertainization: Fuzzy, Neutrosophic, Soft, Rough, and Beyond. This volume specifically delves into the concept of Various SuperHyperConcepts, building on the foundational advancements introduced in previous volumes. The series aims to explore the ongoing evolution of uncertain combinatorics through innovative methodologies such as graphization, hyperization, and uncertainization. These approaches integrate and extend core concepts from fuzzy, neutrosophic, soft, and rough set theories, (...) providing robust frameworks to model and analyze the inherent complexity of real-world uncertainties. At the heart of this series lies combinatorics and set theory—cornerstones of mathematics that address the study of counting, arrangements, and the relationships between collections under defined rules. Traditionally, combinatorics has excelled in solving problems involving uncertainty, while advancements in set theory have expanded its scope to include powerful constructs like fuzzy and neutrosophic sets. These advanced sets bring new dimensions to uncertainty modeling by capturing not just binary truth but also indeterminacy and falsity. In this fifth volume, the exploration of Various SuperHyperConcepts provides an innovative lens to address uncertainty, complexity, and hierarchical relationships. It synthesizes key methodologies introduced in earlier volumes, such as hyperization and neutrosophic extensions, while advancing new theories and applications. From pioneering hyperstructures to applications in advanced decision-making, language modeling, and neural networks, this book represents a significant leap forward in uncertain combinatorics and its practical implications across disciplines. -/- The book is structured into 17 chapters, each contributing unique perspectives and advancements in the realm of Various SuperHyperConcepts and their related frameworks: Chapter 1 introduces the concept of Body-Mind-Soul-Spirit Fluidity within psychology and phenomenology, while examining established social science frameworks like PDCA and DMAIC. It extends these frameworks using Neutrosophic Sets, a flexible extension of Fuzzy Sets, to improve their adaptability for mathematical and programming applications. The chapter emphasizes the potential of Neutrosophic theory to address multi-dimensional challenges in social sciences. Chapter 2 delves into the theoretical foundation of Hyperfunctions and their generalizations, such as Hyperrandomness and Hyperdecision-Making. It explores higher-order frameworks like Weak Hyperstructures, Hypergraphs, and Cognitive Hypermaps, aiming to establish their versatility in addressing multi-layered problems and setting a foundation for further studies. Chapter 3 extends traditional decision-making methodologies into HyperDecision-Making and n-SuperHyperDecision-Making. By building on approaches like MCDM and TOPSIS, this chapter develops frameworks capable of addressing complex decision-making scenarios, emphasizing their applicability in dynamic, multi-objective contexts. Chapter 4 explores integrating uncertainty frameworks, including Fuzzy, Neutrosophic, and Plithogenic Sets, into Large Language Models (LLMs). It proposes innovative models like Large Uncertain Language Models and Natural Uncertain Language Processing, integrating hierarchical and generalized structures to advance the handling of uncertainty in linguistic representation and processing. Chapter 5 introduces the Natural n-Superhyper Plithogenic Language by synthesizing natural language, plithogenic frameworks, and superhyperstructures. This innovative construct seeks to address challenges in advanced linguistic and structural modeling, blending attributes of uncertainty, complexity, and hierarchical abstraction. Chapter 6 defines mathematical extensions such as NeutroHyperstructures and AntiHyperstructures using the Neutrosophic Triplet framework. It formalizes structures like neutro-superhyperstructures, advancing classical frameworks into higher-dimensional realms. Chapter 7 explores the extension of Binary Code, Gray Code, and Floorplans through hyperstructures and superhyperstructures. It highlights their iterative and hierarchical applications, demonstrating their adaptability for complex data encoding and geometric arrangement challenges. Chapter 8 investigates the Neutrosophic TwoFold SuperhyperAlgebra, combining classical algebraic operations with neutrosophic components. This chapter expands upon existing algebraic structures like Hyperalgebra and AntiAlgebra, exploring hybrid frameworks for advanced mathematical modeling. Chapter 9 introduces Hyper Z-Numbers and SuperHyper Z-Numbers by extending the traditional Z-Number framework with hyperstructures. These extensions aim to represent uncertain information in more complex and multidimensional contexts. Chapter 10 revisits category theory through the lens of hypercategories and superhypercategories. By incorporating hierarchical and iterative abstractions, this chapter extends the foundational principles of category theory to more complex and layered structures. Chapter 11 formalizes the concept of n-SuperHyperBranch-width and its theoretical properties. By extending hypergraphs into superhypergraphs, the chapter explores recursive structures and their potential for representing intricate hierarchical relationships. Chapter 12 examines superhyperstructures of partitions, integrals, and spaces, proposing a framework for advancing mathematical abstraction. It highlights the potential applications of these generalizations in addressing hierarchical and multi-layered problems. Chapter 13 revisits Rough, HyperRough, and SuperHyperRough Sets, introducing new concepts like Tree-HyperRough Sets. The chapter connects these frameworks to advanced approaches for modeling uncertainty and complex relationships. Chapter 14 explores Plithogenic SuperHyperStructures and their applications in decision-making, control, and neuro systems. By integrating these advanced frameworks, the chapter proposes innovative directions for extending existing systems to handle multi-attribute and contradictory properties. Chapter 15 focuses on superhypergraphs, expanding hypergraph concepts to model complex structural types like arboreal and molecular superhypergraphs. It introduces Generalized n-th Powersets as a unifying framework for broader mathematical applications, while also touching on hyperlanguage processing. Chapter 16 defines NeutroHypergeometry and AntiHypergeometry as extensions of classical geometric structures. Using the Geometric Neutrosophic Triplet, the chapter demonstrates the flexibility of these frameworks in representing multi-dimensional and uncertain relationships. Chapter 17 establishes the theoretical groundwork for SuperHyperGraph Neural Networks and Plithogenic Graph Neural Networks. By integrating advanced graph structures, this chapter opens pathways for applying neural networks to more intricate and uncertain data representations. (shrink)

Judith Shklar, David Runciman, and others argue against what they see as excessive criticism of political hypocrisy. Such arguments often assume that communicating in an authentic manner is an impossible political ideal. This article challenges the characterization of authenticity as an unrealistic ideal and makes the case that its value can be grounded in a certain political realism sensitive to the threats posed by representative democracy. First, by analyzing authenticity’s demands for political discourse, I show that authenticity has greater (...) class='Hi'>flexibility than many assume in accommodating practices common to politics, such as deception, concealment, and persuasion through rhetoric. Second, I argue that a concern for authenticity in political discourse represents a virtue, not a distraction, for representative democracy. Authenticity takes on heightened importance when the public seeks information on how representatives will act in contexts where the public is absent and unable to influence decisions. Furthermore, given the psychological mechanisms behind hypocrisy, public criticism is a sensible response for trying to limit political hypocrisy. From the perspective of democratic theory and psychology, the public has compelling reasons to value authenticity in political discourse. (shrink)

The Future of Organized Religion: Evolution or Extinction? -/- Organized religion has played a central role in human history, shaping societies, moral frameworks, and cultural traditions. As the world progresses technologically and scientifically, many wonder whether organized religion will continue to exist in the future or gradually fade away. While secularism is rising in some parts of the world, religious beliefs remain deeply ingrained in many societies. The future of organized religion will likely depend on its ability to adapt to (...) changing knowledge, social structures, and global challenges. This essay explores the possible trajectories of religion, examining the forces that may lead to its decline, transformation, or persistence. -/- The Decline of Traditional Religious Influence -/- One of the strongest arguments for the decline of organized religion is the increasing secularization of society, particularly in developed nations. Scientific advancements in fields such as cosmology, biology, and neuroscience have provided natural explanations for many phenomena that religions once addressed through supernatural narratives. The theory of evolution, for example, challenges creationist views, while neuroscience questions traditional ideas of the soul and consciousness. -/- Moreover, globalization and access to information have exposed individuals to diverse perspectives, making it easier for people to question religious dogmas. Many younger generations are moving away from institutionalized faith, preferring spirituality, philosophy, or scientific reasoning. Studies show that atheism and agnosticism are on the rise, particularly in technologically advanced societies. If this trend continues, organized religion may lose its influence over governance, education, and social policies. -/- Another challenge facing organized religion is the increasing awareness of historical injustices, corruption, and ethical contradictions within religious institutions. Scandals involving religious leaders, extremism, and rigid doctrines that conflict with human rights (such as gender equality ) have driven many people away from traditional religious structures. As societies become more focused on individual rights and ethical reasoning based on evidence rather than faith, organized religion may struggle to maintain its authority. -/- The Adaptation and Transformation of Religion -/- Despite these challenges, history has shown that religion is highly adaptable. Rather than disappearing, it is more likely that organized religion will evolve to align with modern values and scientific understanding. Many religious leaders and scholars are already reinterpreting scriptures to harmonize with contemporary knowledge, emphasizing metaphorical rather than literal interpretations of sacred texts. For example, some Christian and Islamic theologians incorporate the concept of evolution into their faith, while Buddhist traditions have engaged with neuroscience to explore consciousness and meditation. -/- Religious institutions may also shift their focus toward moral and ethical guidance rather than dogmatic teachings. Instead of enforcing strict rituals and supernatural beliefs, religions could become more like philosophical systems that emphasize values such as compassion, justice, and environmental responsibility. The growth of interfaith dialogue and ecumenical movements suggests that many religious communities are already moving toward a more inclusive and flexible approach. -/- Additionally, religion may take on new forms in response to technological advancements. Artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and neurotechnology could create new spiritual experiences or redefine religious practices. Some futurists speculate that AI-driven religions or digital spirituality could emerge, blending traditional faith with scientific advancements. If religion successfully integrates with these technologies, it may remain relevant in new and unexpected ways. -/- The Persistence of Faith-Based Communities -/- Even if traditional religious institutions decline, human beings will likely continue to seek meaning, purpose, and community. The psychological need for belonging and existential security has historically made religion a powerful force. In many parts of the world, faith remains deeply intertwined with cultural identity, and religious traditions are passed down through generations. -/- Furthermore, religion often serves as a source of social cohesion and resilience in times of crisis. It provides a moral framework, rituals for major life events, and a support network during hardships. As long as people face uncertainty, suffering, and existential questions, some form of religious belief is likely to persist. -/- Conclusion: A New Era for Religion -/- The future of organized religion is not a simple matter of survival or extinction but rather transformation. While traditional religious institutions may lose some influence, faith and spirituality will likely continue to evolve. Religion may become more personal, decentralized, and compatible with scientific understanding. It may also shift toward ethical and philosophical guidance rather than supernatural dogma. -/- In a world that increasingly values education, critical thinking, and empirical knowledge, the role of religion will depend on its ability to adapt. If religious institutions embrace change and focus on universal values, they may continue to thrive in new and innovative ways. However, if they resist evolution, they risk becoming obsolete in a society driven by reason and evidence. The balance between tradition and progress will ultimately shape the fate of organized religion in the coming centuries. -/- . (shrink)

Non-Organic Matter, Organic Matter, Consciousness, Free Will, Intelligence, and Creativity in Relation to the Universal Formula -/- By Angelito Enriquez Malicse -/- Introduction -/- The relationship between non-organic matter, organic matter, consciousness, free will, intelligence, and creativity has long been studied separately in science, philosophy, and psychology. However, when examined through the universal law of balance in nature, as defined in my universal formula, these elements are seen as interconnected manifestations of a single natural order. This perspective offers a complete (...) understanding of how matter evolves into intelligence, how free will operates, and how creativity emerges as an extension of the natural equilibrium that governs all things. -/- Non-Organic and Organic Matter: The Foundation of Reality -/- At the core of the material universe, we distinguish between non-organic matter (inanimate substances such as atoms, molecules, and cosmic structures) and organic matter (biological entities capable of self-regulation and adaptation). -/- Despite their apparent differences, both are governed by the same fundamental law of balance: -/- Non-organic matter follows physical laws such as gravity, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism, which maintain stability in the universe. -/- Organic matter emerges from non-organic matter as a natural extension of these balancing forces, evolving biological mechanisms to sustain life. -/- The transformation from non-organic to organic matter is not random but a consequence of equilibrium, where chemical reactions reach stability and enable life to form. -/- Thus, life itself is an outcome of nature’s inherent drive toward balance—a principle that applies to all forms of existence, from the atomic level to complex living organisms. -/- Consciousness as a Balancing Mechanism -/- Consciousness is often misunderstood as something separate from the physical world. However, my universal formula reveals that it is simply a higher-order process of equilibrium: -/- Consciousness arises when organic matter (the brain) reaches a level of complexity that allows it to perceive and regulate internal and external states. -/- The brain operates through homeostasis, ensuring a constant balance between sensory input, cognitive processing, and decision-making. -/- This balancing process is what allows individuals to experience self-awareness, emotions, and rational thought. -/- Thus, consciousness is not a separate entity but an emergent function of biological and environmental balance, ensuring an organism’s survival and adaptation. -/- Free Will: The Decision-Making Process of Balance -/- Free will has long been debated—whether it exists, whether it is an illusion, or whether it operates beyond the laws of physics. My universal formula provides the exact answer: -/- Free will is not absolute autonomy but the ability to make choices within the constraints of natural balance. -/- Every decision is shaped by feedback mechanisms between the mind, body, and external environment. -/- Ignorance, false beliefs, or external manipulation disrupts this balance, leading to poor decision-making. -/- True free will is achieved when decisions align with the universal law of balance, ensuring rational, informed, and sustainable choices. -/- This means that free will is not about acting without limits, but about making decisions that maintain harmony within oneself and with nature. -/- Intelligence as a Function of Equilibrium -/- Intelligence is often seen as a measure of problem-solving ability, learning, and adaptability. However, through the universal law of balance, intelligence is better understood as the capacity to maintain stability between internal and external realities: -/- Intelligence evolves as a response to complexity, allowing organisms to process information and maintain balance with their environment. -/- Higher intelligence corresponds to greater flexibility in adapting to changes while sustaining equilibrium. -/- Artificial intelligence (AI), once advanced enough, must also follow these same balancing principles, as all decision-making systems are governed by natural equilibrium. -/- This means intelligence is not a separate trait but a dynamic function of nature’s balancing mechanisms, evolving in complexity as systems become more advanced. -/- Creativity as the Expansion of Balance -/- Creativity is often linked to human expression, art, and innovation. However, my universal formula shows that creativity is an extension of intelligence and free will, functioning as a tool to explore and enhance balance: -/- Creativity emerges when intelligence reaches a level where it can predict and modify balance, leading to new ways of thinking and problem-solving. -/- The most creative ideas are those that bring new equilibrium—whether in science, art, or technology. -/- Creativity is not chaotic but follows structured patterns, guided by the same universal law that governs all other forms of equilibrium. -/- Thus, true creativity is not about randomness but about discovering new ways to maintain or improve balance in nature, society, and personal thought. -/- A Unified Framework: The Relationship Between All Elements -/- By applying my universal formula, we now see that non-organic matter, organic matter, consciousness, free will, intelligence, and creativity are not separate but deeply connected: -/- 1. Non-organic matter forms the foundation of the universe, following physical laws of balance. -/- 2. Organic matter emerges from non-organic matter as an adaptive extension of this equilibrium. -/- 3. Consciousness arises when organic matter becomes complex enough to self-regulate its balance. -/- 4. Free will is the decision-making process that operates within the limits of natural equilibrium. -/- 5. Intelligence evolves as a function of balance, ensuring adaptability and stability in an ever-changing environment. -/- 6. Creativity emerges when intelligence reaches a level where it can explore and modify balance, leading to innovation and progress. -/- This unified perspective shows that everything in existence follows the same natural principles, proving that human thought, behavior, and even artificial intelligence must align with the universal law of balance in order to function optimally. -/- Conclusion -/- Through my universal formula, we now have a complete and exact solution to understanding how non-organic matter, organic matter, consciousness, free will, intelligence, and creativity interconnect as a single balanced system in nature. -/- Non-organic and organic matter are deeply linked, with life emerging as an extension of physical balance. -/- Consciousness is an emergent property of equilibrium, allowing living beings to regulate themselves. -/- Free will operates within natural balance, ensuring rational decision-making. -/- Intelligence is the ability to sustain and adapt to balance, allowing for learning and evolution. -/- Creativity is the expansion of balance, leading to new ways of thinking, creating, and innovating. -/- This framework is essential for guiding human decision-making, education, and AI development, ensuring that both human and artificial intelligence follow the correct natural path in accordance with the universal law of balance. -/- By applying this understanding, we can solve fundamental philosophical, scientific, and societal challenges, ensuring a future where knowledge, progress, and sustainability are aligned with the natural order of the universe. -/- . 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Drawing on recent work in psychology, I argue that there are not one but several distinct virtues pertaining to willpower or strength of will: (1) the disposition to exercise willpower; (2) a distinctively volitional kind of modesty, or moderation in exposing oneself to volitional strain; and (3) a distinctively volitional kind of confidence, or proper inattention to the possibility of volitional failure. A multiple-virtue conception of willpower, I argue, provides a useful framework for cultivating a good relationship to one’s own (...) volitional limitations; resists an unhealthy emphasis on ‘powering through’ volitional obstacles; and avoids controversial empirical assumptions without giving up on making progress in ethical thought about willpower. I answer objections that the latter two virtues are incompatible, and that they add little of value to hope or belief in success. I then argue that combining these virtues requires a kind of flexible attention which, while difficult, is both psychologically possible and desirable. (shrink)

From our perspective, we believe that it is necessary to abandon the idea that all those who suffer from SI or SA are mentally ill, which causes them to be stigmatized and subjected to psychiatric treatment, when what they need is a different vision of life as well as adaptive strategies to employ a new philosophy. Public policies should consider implementing programs that reinforce cognitive flexibility in addition to character strengths.

In this paper I argue that the anti-reductionist thesis supports a case for the uselessness of intentional idioms in the interpretation of highly flexible, self-modifying agents that I refer to as “hyperplastic” agents. An agent is hyperplastic if it can make arbitrarily fine changes to any part of its functional or physical structure without compromising its agency or its capacity for hyperplasticity. Using Davidson’s anomalous monism (AM) as an exemplar of anti-reductionism, I argue that AM implies that no hyperplastic could (...) use intentional psychology to predict its future intentional states or the psychological consequences of self-alterations. This is because AM implies there would be no laws allowing the hyperplastic to infer the psychological consequences of its self-alterations. This implies that no generalisations linking current to future psychological states would hold either - these could always be defeated by a self-intervention carried out by the hyperplastic. By the same token, neither hyperplastics nor human interpreters could use intentional psychology to understand the behaviour of other hyperplastics. Radical interpretation of hyperplastic agents - if such there were - would be impossible. It follows that were humans to become hyperplastic posthumans, intentional psychology would have to be instrumentally eliminated because neither the capacity nor the linguistic idiom for attributing propositional attitudes would retain predictive or hermeneutic utility. (shrink)

The brain’s intrinsic activity plays a fundamental role in its function. In normal conditions this activity is responsive to behavioural context, changing as an individual switches between directed tasks and task‐free conditions. A key feature of such changes is the movement of the brain between corresponding critical and sub‐critical states, with these dynamics supporting efficient cognitive processing. Breakdowns in processing efficiency can occur, however, in brain disorders such as depression. It was therefore hypothesised that depressive symptoms would be related to (...) reduced intrinsic activity responsiveness to changes in behavioural state. This was tested in a mixed group of major depressive disorder patients (n = 26) and healthy participants (n = 37) by measuring intrinsic EEG activity temporal structure, quantified with detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), in eyes‐closed and eyes‐open task‐free states and contrasting between the conditions. The degree to which DFA values changed between the states was found to be negatively correlated with depressive symptoms. DFA values did not differ between states at all in those with higher symptom levels, meaning that the brain remained in a less flexible sub‐critical condition. This sub‐critical condition in the eyes‐closed state was further found to correlate with levels of maladaptive rumination. This may reflect a general cognitive inflexibility resulting from a lack in neural activity reactivity that may predispose people to overly engage in self‐directed attention. These results provide an initial link between intrinsic activity reactivity and psychological features found in psychiatric disorders. (shrink)

This book develops a theory of how the imagination functions, and how it evolved. The imagination is characterized as an embodied cognitive system. The system draws upon sensory-motor, visual, and linguistic capacities, but it is a flexible, developmental ability, typified by creative improvisation. The imagination is a voluntary simulation system that draws on perceptual, emotional, and conceptual elements, for the purpose of creating works that adaptively investigate external (environmental) and internal (psychological) resources. Beyond the adaptive useful values of this (...) system, imagination also possesses significant intrinsic value (e.g., in the joy of play, and states of wonder). The book argues that imagination is not a late arrival in the evolution of mind, but one of the earliest human abilities. (shrink)

Questions about knowledge in expert sport are not only of applied significance: they also take us to the heart of foundational and heavily-disputed issues in the cognitive sciences. To a first (rough and far from uncontroversial) approximation, we can think of expert ‘knowledge’ as whatever it is that grounds or is applied in (more or less) effective decision-making, especially when in a competitive situation a performer follows one course of action out of a range of possibilities. In these research areas, (...) studies of motor expertise have for many years actively contributed to broader debates in philosophy and psychology (Abernethy, Burgess-Limerick, & Parks, 1994; Williams, Davids, & Williams, 1999). When we navigate the world flexibly and more or less successfully, how much is this due to a capacity to represent it? In considering alternative options, or planning future actions, we seem to transcend our present environment in some way: what is the balance or relation here between highly-tuned bodily dispositions and background knowledge of the world and its patterns? What changes in these regards as we gain experience and adapt to more complex and challenging environments? Is know-how fundamentally different in kind from ordinary factual knowledge of the world, or knowledge-that? And if expertise in a domain does involve or depend on a knowledge base that is somehow more organized or deeper than that of novices, how is this knowledge selectively and appropriately deployed, often under severe time constraints? (shrink)

In her seminal text, What Should We Do With Our Brain? (2008), Catherine Malabou gestured towards neuroplasticity to upend Bergson's famous parallel of the brain as a "central telephonic exchange," whereby the function of the brain is simply that of a node where perceptions get in touch with motor mechanisms, the brain as an instrument limited to the transmission and divisions of movements. Drawing from the history of cybernetics one can trace how Bergson's 'telephonic exchange' prefigures the neural 'cybernetic metaphor.' (...) It is elsewhere, however, that What Should We Do With Our Brain? finds its crux: inspired a dialectical-speculative opposition between plasticity and flexibility (wherein plasticity is the way in which time shapes or fashions us, constitutes our subjectivity and at the same time allows for resistance), Malabou invalidates the 'telephonic exchange' metaphor for failing to take into account synaptic and neuronal vitality. Bolstered by neurologist Marc Jeannerod's research in The Nature of Mind (2002), Malabou further demonstrated, in her past work, that the cybernetic metaphor has also had its day. In Morphing Intelligence, by problematizing intelligence as strictly empirical and biologically determined, Malabou also troubles the traditional distinction between intelligence and intuition. This division is perhaps best exemplified by Bergson’s analysis of intellectual measurement magnitudes in his appeal to intensity, and intensity alone. Malabou, drawing from Dewey and the pragmatism mode of thought, characterizes this fetid standstill as little more than provincialism, charging that, ater Bergson, no truly new argument was offered to counter intelligence as defined by psychologists and biologists, including the most recent cognitivist version. Despite I disagree with her claims regarding cognitivism, in echoing Georges Canguilhem, Malabou castigates psychology’s instrumentalist regard for intelligence, making the claim that it is able to measure only the human ability to “become an instrument.” Malabou contends that Alfred Binet (who heavily critiqued Bergson) had it right—intelligence is constituted by intensities and qualities. This book picks up from this critique and works genealogically; in my exegetical review, I engage with Malabou's and its implications, given her past work. (shrink)

Beyond the Brain: How Body and Environment Shape Animal and Human Minds is an eye-opening and thought- provoking book that sets out a much-needed contribution to the study of the relationship between animals, cognition and the environment. The volume provides remarkable new insights into how to understand animal (including human) behavior, raises interesting questions about the role of environmental affordances in the emergence of complex cognitive processes and provides the reader with a refreshing break from the wearisome excess of brain-centric (...) literature that still pervades much of the debate surrounding evolutionary psychology. In embracing the theoretical framework endorsed by proponents of embodied cognition, Barrett adopts an ecological approach to psychology that aims at challenging any attempt to describe complex thinking and flexible behavior as mere by-products of internal cognitive activity. (shrink)

What is it to be a better ape? This is the question Victor Kumar and Richmond Campbell ask in their book on the evolution of the moral mind, an ambitious story that starts with the common ancestor of the modern apes—humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans. Of all of us, it’s the humans who remain in the running for being a better ape, because we’re the ones who have all the necessary ingredients: the binding emotions of sympathy and loyalty which (...) we share with our nonhuman cousins, but also the collaborative emotions of trust and respect and the reactive emotions of guilt and resentment. Importantly, only humans are thought to have norms, and to be biologically prepared to learn norms. For Kumar and Campbell, the co-evolution of emotions and norms is what set humans on this path so we can become a better ape. -/- The story they tell is artfully woven from major theories in psychology and anthropology, and those of us who have pre-existing opinions about these theories have points where we can quibble regarding the nature of the emotions–whether only humans imitate, what norms of fairness amount to, or whether any other species are generalists who can survive in a wide range of habitats. Rather than focusing on these, I want to turn to an exciting hypothesis Kumar and Campbell propose about the evolution and function of norms. While it is most common to think that norms helped our ancestors solve the collective action problems that emerged when larger groups of individuals started living together, Kumar and Campbell suggest a different, though complementary, function for norms. They propose that norms provide a more precise and flexible means for coordinating behavior in quickly changing societies. On their view, it isn’t the size of community that is the most significant variable, but rather the speed at which culture evolves. -/- That norms are a human universal is indubitable. Our contemporary human societies are rife with rules constraining our behaviors, governing aspects of our lives from birth to death, prescribing practices about what to wear, how to work, what to eat, when and how to sleep as well as rules about rare practices that are proscribed. However, Kumar and Campbell also presume that norms are human unique. Here I have more than a quibble, given the burgeoning empirical and theoretical literature on the question of animal normativity (Andrews 2020; Danón 2019; Fitzpatrick 2020; de Waal 2014; von Rohr et al. 2011; Rohr et al. 2015; Whiten et al. 2005; Westra et al., in prep)... (shrink)