Political science is divided between methodological individualists, who seek to explain political phenomena by reference to individuals and their interactions, and holists (or nonreductionists), who consider some higher-level social entities or properties such as states, institutions, or cultures ontologically or causally significant. We propose a reconciliation between these two perspectives, building on related work in philosophy. After laying out a taxonomy of different variants of each view, we observe that (i) although political phenomena result from underlying individual attitudes and behavior, (...) individual-level descriptions do not always capture all explanatorily salient properties, and (ii) nonreductionistic explanations are mandated when social regularities are robust to changes in their individual-level realization. We characterize the dividing line between phenomena requiring nonreductionistic explanation and phenomena permitting individualistic explanation and give examples from the study of ethnic conflicts, social-network theory, and international-relations theory. (shrink)

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyse the broad phases of web development: the read-only Web 1.0, the read-write Web 2.0, and the collaborative and Internet of Things Web 3.0, are examined for the theoretical lenses through which they have been understood and critiqued. Design/methodology/approach – This is a conceptual piece, in the tradition of drawing on theorising from outside the Information Systems field, to shed light on developments in information communication technologies (ICTs). Findings – Along (...) with a summary of approaches to Webs 1.0 and 2.0, the authors contend that a more complex and poststructuralist theoretical approach to the notion of, and the phenomenon of Web 3.0, offers a more interesting and appropriate theoretical grounding for understanding its particularities. Originality/value – The discussion presages five further papers engaged with ICTs in a changing society, each of which similarly addresses novel theoretical understandings. (shrink)

Vocal fry is a phonation, or voicing, in which an individual drops their voice below its natural register and consequently emits a low, growly, creaky tone of voice. Media outlets have widely acknowledged it as a generational vocal style characteristic of millennial women. Critics of vocal fry often claim that it is an exclusively female vocal pattern, and some say that the voicing is so distracting that they cannot understand what is being said under the phonation. Claiming that a phonation (...) is so distracting as to prevent uptake of the semantic content of an utterance associated with it is an extreme reaction, especially when accompanied by demands for women to change their phonation. We argue that this reaction limits women's communicative autonomy. We analyze the extreme reaction to female vocal fry, which we characterize as a non-content-based response, from the perspectives of philosophy of language, feminist epistemology, and linguistics. We argue that when fry is heard as annoying and distracting, it is because the hearer interprets the speaker as echoing an utterance from a position of authority to which she is not entitled. We show that this reaction encodes conscious or unconscious sexist attitudes toward women's voices. (shrink)

The theme of this study is about establishing a purely logical theory about the Universe. Logic is the premier candidate for the reality behind phenomena. If there is a final theory, the Universe must be logic itself, called pure logic, elements of which include not only logic and illogic but also logical and illogical manipulations between them. The kernel is the revised law of the excluded middle: between two basic concepts are four possible manipulations, three logical and one illogical, whereas (...) only one is realized. The key parameter for an element is aim, including reason, outcome, and neutrality. When an element is a contradiction, it can be located at three positions: reason, outcome, and manipulation, corresponding to three colors of quark. Thus, there is interaction with the SU(3) symmetry keeping the number of the three elements balanced locally. A proposition without contradiction has two independent aims. When one aim changes, there is interaction with the U(1) symmetry. When two aims change together, there is interaction with the SU(2) symmetry. (shrink)

Ray and Cooper (2024) argue that bioethicists should take environmental justice seriously as a matter of health justice; as part of this project, they defend a legal right to a healthy environment....

Psychedelic experiences are often compared to “transformative experiences” due to their potential to change how people think and behave. This study empirically examines whether psychedelic experiences constitute transformative experiences. Given psychedelics’ prospective applications as treatments for mental health disorders, this study also explores neuroethical issues raised by the possibility of biomedically directed transformation—namely, consent and moral psychopharmacology. To achieve these aims, we used both inductive and deductive coding techniques to analyze transcripts from interviews with 26 participants in psychedelic retreats. Results (...) indicate that psychedelic experiences can constitute transformative experiences. Twenty participants reported experiences or insights that were seemingly inaccessible or impossible to attain if not for the psychoactive effects of psychedelics. All participants besides one reported some change in identity, values, beliefs, desires, and behavior—changes in behavior being the most common. Participants also reported feeling capable deciding to use psychedelics in part due to information seeking prior to their retreats. Finally, several participants reported an enhanced capacity for enacting changes in their lives. Our results underscore both the importance of subjective embodiment to transformation and the role of transformative agency in shaping outcomes of the psychedelic experience. We examine our results relative to neuroethical issues and advocate for centering the person in psychedelic research and neuroethical inquiry about psychedelics to avoid pitfalls associated with psychedelics’ potential as moral psychopharmacological agents. (shrink)

Thời gian trôi qua, Trái Đất nghe tin nóng lên ghê lắm. Bọn bói cá ở ngoài đê Sông Hồng thỉnh thoảng báo tin nước cạn, cá gầy. Bây giờ ngẫm lại Bói Cá thấy nguy hiểm thật. Ngài tăng cường tìm hiểu, mà phải tin tức khoa học nghiêm chỉnh nhé. Một đội tinh nhuệ, thạo tin, gồm Cò, Chim Sâu, Chim Sẻ, Chào Mào, v.v.., được lập ra để báo cáo tình hình nguy cấp.

Allelopathy is an important biological phenomenon in exotic plant invasions. Studies about this phenomenon can help us to understand how plant interactions influence plant colony and ecosystem functioning. Both alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides, Ap) and crofton weed (Eupatorium adenophorum, Ea) are important destructive exotic species in China. Their allelopathic effects on native plant species are well documented. However, whether alligator weed and crofton weed antagonize each other regarding plant growth? There is largely unknown currently. Here we report that the leaf (...) extract from crofton weed possesses the negative effect on the growth of alligator weed. The results showed that root growth of alligator weed could be seriously inhibited by aqueous extract from crofton weed, exhibited as no root or a few roots if only. Consistent with the inhibition of root growth, we observed changes of physiological and biochemical parameters in treated alligator weed. The chlorophyll content, the root activity and the acetolactate synthase (ALS) activity were significantly decreased; while the rate of superoxide anion (O2-), the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, the peroxidase (POD) activity, and the shikimic acid content were remarkably increased in the treated alligator weed plants. These physiological analyzes suggested that the main allelopathic effects of crofton weed were mainly through affecting the integrity of cell membrane and the activity of the key enzymes. Further, these data also imply that one exotic species has the potential value to be used in bio-control of the other exotic species. (shrink)

A dynamical system is called chaotic if small changes to its initial conditions can create large changes in its behavior. By analogy, we call a dynamical system structurally chaotic if small changes to the equations describing the evolution of the system produce large changes in its behavior. Although there are many definitions of “chaos,” there are few mathematically precise candidate definitions of “structural chaos.” I propose a definition, and I explain two new theorems that show that a set of models (...) is structurally chaotic if it contains a chaotic function. I conclude by discussing the relationship between structural chaos and structural stability. (shrink)

Agent-centered constraints on harming hold that some harmful upshots of our conduct cannot be justified by its generating equal or somewhat greater benefits. In this paper I argue that all plausible theories of agent-centered constraints on harming are undermined by the likelihood that our actions will have butterfly effects, or cause cascades of changes that make the world dramatically different than it would have been. Theories that impose constraints against only intended harming or proximally caused harm have unacceptable implications for (...) choices between more and less harmful ways of securing greater goods. This leaves as plausible only theories that impose constraints against causing some unintended distal harms. But, I argue, given the distal harms our actions are likely to cause through their butterfly effects, these theories entail that any way of sustaining our lives is overwhelmingly likely to involve unjustified killing, and that we are therefore morally required either to allow ourselves to waste away or kill ourselves. (shrink)

‘Deep adaptation’ refers to the personal and collective changes that might help us to prepare for – and live with – a climate-influenced breakdown or collapse of our societies. It is a framework for responding to the terrifying realization of increasing disruption by committing ourselves to reducing suffering while saving more of society and the natural world. This is the first book to show how professionals across different sectors are beginning to incorporate the acceptance of likely or unfolding societal breakdown (...) into their work and lives. They do not assume that our current economic, social and political systems can be made resilient in the face of climate change but, instead, they demonstrate the caring and creative ways that people are responding to the most difficult realization with which humanity may ever have to come to terms. Edited by the originator of the concept of deep adaptation, Jem Bendell, and a leading climate activist and strategist, Rupert Read, this book is the essential introduction to the concept, practice and emerging global movement of Deep Adaptation to climate chaos. (shrink)

Climatology is a paradigmatic complex systems science. Understanding the global climate involves tackling problems in physics, chemistry, economics, and many other disciplines. I argue that complex systems like the global climate are characterized by certain dynamical features that explain how those systems change over time. A complex system's dynamics are shaped by the interaction of many different components operating at many different temporal and spatial scales. Examining the multidisciplinary and holistic methods of climatology can help us better understand the nature (...) of complex systems in general. -/- Questions surrounding climate science can be divided into three rough categories: foundational, methodological, and evaluative questions. "How do we know that we can trust science?" is a paradigmatic foundational question (and a surprisingly difficult one to answer). Because the global climate is so complex, questions like "what makes a system complex?" also fall into this category. There are a number of existing definitions of `complexity,' and while all of them capture some aspects of what makes intuitively complex systems distinctive, none is entirely satisfactory. Most existing accounts of complexity have been developed to work with information-theoretic objects (signals, for instance) rather than the physical and social systems studied by scientists. -/- Dynamical complexity, a concept articulated in detail in the first third of the dissertation, is designed to bridge the gap between the mathematics of contemporary complexity theory (in particular the formalism of "effective complexity" developed by Gell-Mann and Lloyd [2003]) and a more general account of the structure of science generally. Dynamical complexity provides a physical interpretation of the formal tools of mathematical complexity theory, and thus can be used as a framework for thinking about general problems in the philosophy of science, including theories, explanation, and lawhood. -/- Methodological questions include questions about how climate science constructs its models, on what basis we trust those models, and how we might improve those models. In order to answer questions about climate modeling, it's important to understand what climate models look like and how they are constructed. Climate model families are significantly more diverse than are the model families of most other sciences (even sciences that study other complex systems). Existing climate models range from basic models that can be solved on paper to staggeringly complicated models that can only be analyzed using the most advanced supercomputers in the world. I introduce some of the central concepts in climatology by demonstrating how one of the most basic climate models might be constructed. I begin with the assumption that the Earth is a simple featureless blackbody which receives energy from the sun and releases it into space, and show how to model that assumption formally. I then gradually add other factors (e.g. albedo and the greenhouse effect) to the model, and show how each addition brings the model's prediction closer to agreement with observation. After constructing this basic model, I describe the so-called "complexity hierarchy" of the rest of climate models, and argue that the sense of "complexity" used in the climate modeling community is related to dynamical complexity. -/- With a clear understanding of the basics of climate modeling in hand, I then argue that foundational issues discussed early in the dissertation suggest that computation plays an irrevocably central role in climate modeling. "Science by simulation" is essential given the complexity of the global climate, but features of the climate system--the presence of non-linearities, feedback loops, and chaotic dynamics--put principled limits on the effectiveness of computational models. This tension is at the root of the staggering pluralism of the climate model hierarchy, and suggests that such pluralism is here to stay, rather than an artifact of our ignorance. Rather than attempting to converge on a single "best fit" climate model, we ought to embrace the diversity of climate models, and view each as a specialized tool designed to predict and explain a rather narrow range of phenomena. Understanding the climate system as a whole requires examining a number of different models, and correlating their outputs. This is the most significant methodological challenge of climatology. -/- Climatology's role contemporary political discourse raises an unusually high number of evaluative questions for a physical science. The two leading approaches to crafting policy surrounding climate change center on mitigation (i.e. stopping the changes from occurring) and adaptation (making post hoc changes to ameliorate the harm caused by those changes). Crafting an effective socio-political response to the threat of anthropogenic climate change, however, requires us to integrate multiple perspectives and values: the proper response will be just as diverse and pluralistic as the climate models themselves, and will incorporate aspects of both approaches. I conclude by offering some concrete recommendations about how to integrate this value pluralism into our socio-political decision making framework. (shrink)

A community, for ecologists, is a unit for discussing collections of organisms. It refers to collections of populations, which consist (by definition) of individuals of a single species. This is straightforward. But communities are unusual kinds of objects, if they are objects at all. They are collections consisting of other diverse, scattered, partly-autonomous, dynamic entities (that is, animals, plants, and other organisms). They often lack obvious boundaries or stable memberships, as their constituent populations not only change but also move in (...) and out of areas, and in and out of relationships with other populations. Familiar objects have identifiable boundaries, for example, and if communities do not, maybe they are not objects. Maybe they do not exist at all. The question this possibility suggests, of what criteria there might be for identifying communities, and for determining whether such communities exist at all, has long been discussed by ecologists. This essay addresses this question as it has recently been taken up by philosophers of science, by examining answers to it which appeared a century ago and which have framed the continuing discussion. (shrink)

When you type the word “serendipity” in a word-processor application such as Microsoft Word, the autocorrection engine suggests you choose other words like “luck” or “fate”. This correcting act turns out to be incorrect. However, it points to the reality that serendipity is not a familiar English word and can be misunderstood easily. Serendipity is a very much scientific concept as it has been found useful in numerous scientific discoveries, pharmaceutical innovations, and numerous humankind’s technical and technological advances. Therefore, there (...) have been many books written around the concept. So why do we need this additional book? This is not just another book about serendipity. It has evolved from the Editor’s question lingering for a decade after finishing his widely cited article (coauthored with Prof. Nancy K. Napier of Boise State University, ID, USA) “Serendipity as a strategic advantage?” in T. Wilkinson’s edited volume Strategic Management in the 21st Century, published by Praeger. The Editor and contributing authors have tried to achieve the following in this title. Demystifying the Serendipity Myth The phenomenon of serendipity has always been thought of as a “miracle”. It is the mystery of human innovation and one of the ultimate secrets of our society. But serendipity is not just a lucky coincidence nor any hidden conspiracy. This book explores the science of the information process behind this seemingly miraculous phenomenon. It connects human society with nature, going back to the root of our existence and looking at the flame of survival to discover the harmony in making creativity. Presenting the nuts and bolts of being an adventurer of science The authors present their conceptual investigations into serendipity’s nature and its mechanism by examining interesting real events and stories. The content is thought-provoking, and readers are led to question and explore their own life stories and problems along the journey of reading this book. Catching an elusive high-value target requires great strategies and efforts. But there are no dark secrets here because this is the “way of nature” – how we humans have always strived for innovation without realizing the blueprints behind such processes. Unlike other books on serendipity, this book will show you that a powerful “secret” is closer than you think. Delivering practical uses for different audiences By understanding the conditionality and survival drivers of serendipity, individuals or organizations can make better decisions on creating the right environment to facilitate the encounter and attainment of this valuable phenomenon. For scientists: With clear explanations of the information processes underlying serendipity, flexible theoretical frameworks of mindsponge and the 3D principle of creativity, researchers are provided with the tools they need to dig deeper into their own fields of study and find practical applications, be it psychology, economics, sociology, or anything that involves innovation (which is, in fact, every scientific discipline). For curious casual readers: Everybody needs innovation to make breakthroughs or spice up one’s life. If you think great ideas come to people randomly from an unknown fairy place, this book will convince you otherwise without taking away that awe and wonder. But above all, you will know how to become more creative, scientifically and straightforwardly, with no snake oil and no weird tricks. For ambitious business people: The flame that brought about great successes throughout human history is within you. But you can only use it if you understand it. While others wait for serendipity to come, you will be able to actively hunt for those precious moments. As it has always been: the best hunters triumph, not the passive wanderers. And in this age of information chaos, finding the golden fruits is not easy. Those from information technology know this problem well, and this book is the treasure map that they have been seeking to navigate that stormy ocean looking for jewels. Like a kingfisher tracking its prey through the water, waiting to gracefully strike, with serendipity, a person seizes the prize of creativity amid the chaos of life. ¤ ¤ ¤ Official introduction: The book explores the nature, underlying causes, and the information processing mechanism of serendipity. It proposes that natural or social survival demands drive serendipity, and serendipity is conditional on the environment and the mindset, on both individual and collective levels. From Darwin's evolution theory to Sun Tzu's war tactics, major innovations throughout human history are unified by this key concept. In the rapidly changing world, information is abundant but rather chaotic. The adaptive power of serendipity allows people to notice treasures within this wild sea, but only for those who understand how it works. To increase the probability of encountering and attaining serendipity, one should employ the mindsponge mechanism and the 3D process of creativity, for without these frameworks, serendipity is truly an elusive target. The book also discusses methods to build environments and cultures rich in navigational and useful information to maximize the chance of finding and capitalizing on serendipity. As a skill, serendipity has a resemblance to how kingfishers observe and hunt their prey. (shrink)

Until the late 19th century scientists almost always assumed that the world could be described as a rule-based and hence deterministic system or as a set of such systems. The assumption is maintained in many 20th century theories although it has also been doubted because of the breakthrough of statistical theories in thermodynamics (Boltzmann and Gibbs) and other fields, unsolved questions in quantum mechanics as well as several theories forwarded within the social sciences. Until recently it has furthermore been assumed (...) that a rule-based and deterministic system was also predictable if only the rules were known, but this assumption has now been undermined by modern chaos-theory describing rule-based and deterministic, but unpredictable systems, while catastrophe-theory delivers a set of types describing various kinds of instability and conditions for the stability of a given system. Hence the main trait in the theoretical development in the 20th-century science can be described as a basic modification and limitation of some of the fundamental and strong assumptions forwarded in the previous epochs of modern science. Ironically, the very same process has been a process in which the human capacity to intervene in nature has expanded dramatically and mainly with the help of the very same theories, and not least because they allow nature to be described and made manipulable on a lower level and a more fine-grained scale. While the overall theoretical consistency between the various theories has gone, the reach of human intervention in nature has increased based on quite new dimensions whether in the area of physics (e.g.: energy technologies, chemical technologies, nanotechnologies etc.) or biology (ge¬netic manipulation) or in the area of psychology, sociology and culture (artificial simulations of mental processes, new means of communication, implying changes in the social infrastructure and cultural behaviour etc.). While some of these changes and new conditions can be reflected from within the conceptual framework of rule-based systems, albeit more complex than formerly recognized, others seem to give rise to the question of whether there are »systems« and relations between different systems in the world which are not rule-based? For instance, it seems to be obvious that the notion of instability represents a major conceptual break with former theories of rule-based systems, as the stability of the latter is an axiomatically given property implied in the very notion of rule-based systems, while instability can only be the result of external influence which should be explained as the result of another rule-based sy¬stem. While there are no difficulties implied concerning the stability of rule-based systems, the notion of unstable states of a system raises the question of how there can be a system at all if there are no invariant stabilising principles? This is the first question which I will address. And I shall do so by taking two examples of such systems as my point of departure. The first example will be the computer and the second will be ordinary language. In both cases I will argue that the stability of these systems (which are both defined by the existence/presence of human intentions) are provided by the help of - differently organised - redundancy functions which both allow the maintenance of systems in unstable macro-states, suspension of previous rules, underdetermination and overdetermination and generation/emergence/creation of new rules more or less independent of previous rules by the help of optional recursions to the permanently accessible underlying levels as for instance the level of binary representation in computers. Since the notion of redundancy is both controversial as such and often avoided, the concept is discussed (as defined in Claude Shannon's mathematical theory of information and in the semiotic framework of J. J. Greimas) and leading to a more general definition in which the redundancy functions serve to overcome noisy conditions, but at the cost of rule-based stability, determination, and predictability. A second question will be how the notion of rule-generating systems relates to the notion of anticipatory systems and it will be argued that rule-generating systems share some features with an¬ticipatory systems and that the former from a certain viewpoint can be seen as a subclass of the latter, although anticipative features are not necessarily a part of the definition of rule-generating systems. On the other hand, it will be discussed whether anticipatory systems which are not rule-generating systems can exist and it will be argued that the capacity to anticipate is strongly limited if it is not part of a rule-generating system. Therefore, it is concluded that the most powerful anticipatory systems need to be rule-generating systems. (shrink)

The epistemology and phenomenology of contemporary society tend to be deepened, and the philosophical challenges never are minimal that we may be called to face with the kind of post-modern chaos from the rapidly changing phenomena of the global community. The ballast held on the identity of faculty members as a teacher and researcher now turns due so as to be recast with our intrinsic of routine performance. I considered their quality as bent on the intellectual strife on the method (...) and the kind of attitude, say, evaluation and consultation. In this paper, the authors have presented some thought and implications that triangulated the triad, i.e., research methodology, program evaluation and consulting illustration on the college research program rankings. The author is hoped that the discourse can help the academicians to share the attribute of different methods as well as the dimension of evaluation and consulting, perhaps essentially related with their work role in terms of teaching and researching. Keywords: Research Method, Qualitative Studies, Mixed Method, Program Evaluation, Theory and Philosophy, Program Rankings, Consulting, Journal Writing. (shrink)

The aim of this study is to identify the key terms and arguments of J. Lovelock՚s sustainable retreat concept and their analysis with emphasize on the consequences of this concept for political, social and environmental thinking. J. Lovelock points out that considering rapid and complex changes in global environment, marked by the term Anthropocene; we do not have enough time and sources to realize the sustainable development concept. For that reason, it is, according to him, necessary to formulate sustainable retreat (...) concept as a strategy which will allow to prepare for climate change in a way that not only a man as a biological specie, but also civilized society could survive. Even basic theses of this concept indicate a need to revalue majority political concepts, mainly concepts of sovereignty, citizenship, also the freedom of movement and residence, freedom of business and consume, which are fundamentals of neoliberal economic-political system. Retreat expects elaborated and organized migration to beforehand chosen and arranged areas. Opposite to retreat is mass escape chaos that reduces human relations to fight for survival. As J. Lovelock proposed in his sustainable retreat concept, relocating people from areas affected by climate changes to climate oases would mean that rich northern countries give up their current, in fact, isolationistic politics that refuses climate migrants. Therefore the sustainable retreat concept requires much greater competence and mainly willingness to cooperate not only on national, but also on international and global level more than humanity is able to do it currently. (shrink)

I examined the dance between harmony and chaos, particularly through the lens of sympathetic knowledge, the value of all experiences, and the necessity of a leap of love for true care and understanding. Drawing from the philosophies of Jane Addams and Martin Luther King Jr. This paper navigates the complex interplay between individual experiences and societal structures, showing the importance of how empathetic engagement and a commitment to understanding other perspectives are crucial for cultivating a harmonious society. The discussion of (...) the UAW strike served as a modern embodiment of these principles, showing how collective action and empathy can lead to substantial societal change. This essay has not only argued that a harmonious society is attainable but has also underscored the importance of active participation, mutual understanding and love as foundational pillars in this pursuit. By recognizing the inherent value in every individual’s experience and choosing a path of empathy and love, even in the face of adversity, we take significant steps towards dismantling systems of injustice and fostering a more equitable and harmonious world. This is not a utopian dream but a tangible goal that requires ongoing effort, understanding, and, most importantly, a leap of love. (shrink)

تهدف هذه الدراسة في إطارها المقارن لتحديد العلاقة بين قيمتي المواطنة والديمقراطية وتحدياتهما لإعادة بناء الدولة في ليبيا. تنطلق فرضية الدراسة من إن المواطنة هي القيمة السياسية لبناء مجتمع ليبي قائم على الديمقراطية كوسيلة واستراتيجية للحكم. وهكذا من خلال المنهجين المقارن والوصفي تبين إن الديمقراطية هي وعي وثقافة وسلوك حضاري تراكمي ذاتي وموضوعي، والمواطنة هي هوية وحق واوجب وشراكة في صناعة الحاضر والمستقبل تحت سيادة القانون. واقعياً ليبيا دولة منهارة منذ تدخل الناتو عسكرياً وإسقاطه للنظام السابق. لقد تحول طابع الصراع (...) بعد ذلك لصراعات قبلية وجهوية تبعاً للمصالح الفئوية. إن سوء الإدارة السياسية والاقتصادية وفسادها، وانعدام التداول السلمي للسلطة، وتداخل مصالح الدول الاقليمية والدولية في ليبيا أدى إلى إحباط لليبيين من الديمقراطية التي لم تجلب معها تغييراً جذرياً. إن المقاربة الواقعية لتحقيق المواطنة والديمقراطية في ليبيا تتطور في نمط قائم على الانتماء للقبيلة والجماعات المصلحية، والمطلوب أن تتطور في نمط يقوم على الانتماء للدولة – الوطنية. والنتيجة لا وجود للمواطنة ولا للديمقراطية بسبب انعدام الدولة. وبالطبع لن يتم ذلك بشكل فعال إلا باستعادة الطبقة الوسطى لدورها في الحياة الاقتصادية والسياسية. الكلمات المفتاحية: المـواطنـة، الديـمقراطية، الدولة، لـيـبـيـا، الهويـة٠ -/- This study investigates the correlation between citizenship and democracy values and the challenges they introduce in rebuilding the Libyan state. It posits that citizenship represents a crucial political value for establishing a democratic society in Libya. By employing comparative and historical methods, it argues that democracy encompasses a progressive awareness, culture, and sophisticated conduct that are both subjective and objective in nature. Citizenship is portrayed as an identity, a privilege, a duty, and a collaborative effort in shaping the country's present and future within a legal framework. Following NATO's intervention, Libya descended into chaos, with tribal and regional disputes driven by factional interests. The disillusionment among Libyans towards democracy stems from its failure to effectuate significant change, marred by political and economic mismanagement, corruption, absence of peaceful power transitions, and the influence of regional and international dynamics. The study suggests that while Libya's current approach to citizenship and democracy leans towards tribal and interest group affiliations, it ought to shift towards a state-centric and nationalistic perspective. In conclusion, without a unified state, the concepts of citizenship and democracy are untenable. Hence, it is imperative for the middle class to regain its economic and political influence to achieve this transition. Keywords: Citizenship, Democracy, State, Libya, Identity. (shrink)

Critical examination of possible socio-political Anthropocene consequences leads to the conclusion that the sustainable development concept is not an adequate answer for current threats and risks. An effort to implement the sustainable development concept can even make climate changes and other forms of nature devastation worse, as it turns out on ongoing greenhouse gas concentrations growth in the atmosphere, despite obligations that result to all states of the world from Paris agreement. The climate change rate and range of plant and (...) animal species extinction confirms J. Lovelock´s thesis that humanity does not have enough time and, most likely, enough sources to implement the sustainable development concept and, as B. Latour points out, we do not have a big enough planet. Therefore, it is necessary to think about a retreat – to areas that are likely to stay livable even after the sea level rise and desertification; it is necessary to think about how to move millions of people from areas flooded by sea or parched by desert; to think about a change of our current way of life, of production of food and energy so that not only humankind as animal species would continue, but also our civilization and its technological and organizational knowledge. Even basic theses based on this concept indicate a need to reassess most political concepts, mainly the concepts of sovereignty, citizenship, but also those of freedom of movement and residence, freedom of business and consume, which work as fundamentals of the neoliberal economic-political system. Retreat expects complex and organized migration to beforehand chosen and arranged areas. Opposite to retreat is mass escape chaos that reduces human relations to fight for survival. As J. Lovelock proposed in his sustainable retreat concept, relocating people from areas affected by climate changes to climate oases would mean that rich northern countries give up their current, in fact, isolationistic politics of refusing climate migrants. Therefore, the concept of sustainable retreat requires much greater competence and especially willingness to cooperate not only nationally, but also internationally and globally, in addition to what humanity is capable of doing today. (shrink)

Epidemiological crisis during recrudescence of pandemic like COVID-19 may stir fear and anxiety leading to prejudices against people and communities, social isolation and stigma. Such behavioral change may wind up into increased hostility, chaos and unnecessary social disruptions. A qualitative exploratory approach was utilized to conduct an extensive review of secondary literature. The case-studies were gathered from academic literature like articles, opinions and perspective pieces published in journals and in grey literature like publications in humanitarian agencies and media reports. Grey (...) literature was included in the scope as the COVID-19 situation is still evolving. I discuss some of the mechanisms of stigmatization and how social connectedness and empathetic understandings can be a way out of negative stereotyping and discrimination met out to the sufferer of the communicable diseases as COVID-19. Empathetic understanding paves a way to approach a problem from the perspective of ‘we’ not limiting one only to ‘I’. The moment when we make an approach from ‘I’ to ‘We’ actually then we embark on a journey of illness to wellness. Keywords: COVID-19, pandemic, stigma, discrimination, mental health, empathy, India, Face-to-face communication, social distancing, suicide. (shrink)

Michelle’s thesis explores the extent to which a researcher could contribute to change by engaging leaders in conversations that might intensify commitment to or the direction of their actions around socio-environmental decline in Bermuda as a country historically organised in the tradition of an entrepreneurial for-profit enterprise. The framing of a space to reflect on highlighted the significance of time that led to the bricolage design of a heuristic device called a moon gate. Time, the keystone of the moon gate, (...) created a prism lighting up the twists and turns of kaleidoscopic images of the chaos of the markets and the creative diversity of human and nonhuman participants. She undertook a philosophical approach with her study of the contested space of time around sensitivity to maintaining a fulcrum point based on the wellbeing of people and planet. (shrink)

COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS ANIMAIS OBJETIVO O estudante explicará a conduta sexual de fêmeas e machos de diferentes espécies domésticas para detectar a fase de receptividade sexual, com a finalidade de programar de maneira adequada a monta ou a inseminação artificial. A observação da conduta sexual dos animais é indispensável para o sucesso da estação reprodutiva em uma determinada propriedade. Logo, o estudante obterá o alicerce necessário sobre os pontos teóricos e práticos a serem observados para a seleção dos animais aptos (...) para a reprodução, além dos meios de identificação comportamental dos animais no que se refere a atividade cíclica das fêmeas. • _____INTRODUÇÃO O comportamento sexual característico de fêmeas e machos devem-se, por um lado, ao ambiente endócrino do organismo e, por outro, a uma influência da aprendizagem obtida ao longo da vida. Este comportamento é indispensável para alcançar a cópula em um momento apropriado, a fim de alcançar uma fertilização que culmina com a gestação. Conhecer as características do comportamento reprodutivo das diferentes espécies domésticas é de grande utilidade para poder determinar o momento ideal de serviço nas fêmeas, bem como para avaliar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos; também serve para detectar algumas alterações que modificam o comportamento sexual normal. No caso das fêmeas, o comportamento sexual distintivo está limitado ao estágio do ciclo estral conhecido como estro, enquanto nos machos, a atividade reprodutiva pode acontecer a qualquer momento. Nas fêmeas e nos machos das espécies sazonais, o comportamento sexual é suprimido ou diminuído, respectivamente, durante as épocas de anestro. Existem espécies em que certas mudanças observáveis no comportamento ou na genitália são suficientes para identificar as fêmeas no cio. Outras espécies, entretanto, requerem necessariamente a presença do macho para poder expressar seu comportamento estral e somente quando ele estiver presente será possível estabelecer o momento em que a fêmea está em estro. Em determinadas propriedades, o macho reprodutor somente é utilizado para cobrir as fêmeas em cio; o trabalho de detecção das fêmeas que pode ser desgastante para o reprodutor é realizado por um outro macho conhecido como rufião. Esse animal não cobre as fêmeas, apenas é utilizado para a observação de fêmeas aptas à monta. É comum que, quando se fala em comportamento sexual, seja dada mais importância à fêmea do que ao macho, pois seu comportamento é aquele que se limita a períodos curtos, além de ser aquele que permitirá a cópula; mas os machos também têm uma participação muito ativa, pois além de atrair e detectar as fêmeas no cio, devem ser capazes de realizar a cópula com sucesso. Através da conduta sexual dos machos é observada sua eficiência reprodutiva, isto é, se ele possui a capacidade de detecção e cobrição padrão esperada de um reprodutor. Se as observações forem negativas, o ideal é a realização de um exame andrológico. • _____ETAPAS DO COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL O comportamento sexual feminino possui três finalidades: atrair o macho (atração) por meio de sinais e da busca ativa do mesmo, estimular o macho para realizar a cópula (proceptividade), ao qual alcançam exibindo-se ante o mesmo, e facilitar a cópula (receptividade) ao permanecer imóvel, realizando a lordose (figura 1) e o movimento lateral da cauda. Figura 1: reflexo de lordose na vaca e na gata, ambas em cio. Os machos também apresentam três estágios comportamentais; na primeira, procuram ativamente as fêmeas, realizam atividades de cortejo, se aproximam da fêmea e se estimulam sexualmente (fase pré-copulatória) (figura 2). Assim que detectam uma fêmea no cio, realizam a monta, que inclui movimentos pélvicos, penetração e ejaculação (fase copulatória). No final, eles exibem um estágio de descanso e desinteresse pela fêmea no cio, conhecido como estágio pós-copulador ou refratário. Figura 2: comportamento sexual de um macho caprino ante uma fêmea. A etapa pré-copulatória consiste na aproximação do macho, no ato de fugar que é o de cheirar a vulva da fêmea. Quando a fêmea urina o macho cheira e produz o reflexo de flehmen. Por último o macho escoiceia a fêmea para depois realizar a monta na etapa copulatória. • _____ESTIMULAÇÃO SEXUAL A estimulação sexual é um componente essencial para que o comportamento sexual ocorra. Como parte desse estímulo, machos e fêmeas de algumas espécies secretam substâncias voláteis conhecidas como feromônios fora do corpo, que exercem sua ação sobre outros indivíduos da mesma espécie. Essas substâncias são detectadas pelo órgão vomeronasal (figura 3), também conhecido como órgão de Jacobson; localizado no osso vômer, entre o nariz e o céu da boca; que possui dois dutos nasopalatinos cujas aberturas estão localizadas atrás do lábio superior. A superfície desses dutos e do órgão é recoberta por um epitélio com neurônios bipolares sensoriais que captam feromônios e enviam informações, por meio de um estímulo nervoso, ao bulbo olfatório acessório e para o hipotálamo. Para facilitar a entrada de feromônios no órgão vomeronasal, os ruminantes machos e equinos, bem como algumas fêmeas, realizam o reflexo de Flehmen (figura 4), que consiste em um movimento facial em que o lábio superior é levantado para expor a abertura dos dutos nasopalatinos. Determinou-se que as fêmeas produzem feromônios que são secretados na urina, bem como no muco cervical e vaginal, a fim de atrair o macho e promover sua atividade sexual; estimulação conhecida como efeito feminino indireto. Esses feromônios também podem estimular outras fêmeas; na verdade, foi visto que as fêmeas que estão juntas sincronizam a apresentação de seu estro e podem até iniciar a estação reprodutiva juntas. Este fenômeno é conhecido como efeito feminino-feminino ou efeito feminino direto. Figura 3: olfateio da genitália pelo macho. Aqui o macho é atraído pelo feromônio que a fêmea produz e exala pela vagina. Figura 4: movimento do lábio superior típico do reflexo de Flehmen. Os machos sexualmente ativos, por sua vez, também emitem feromônios, que podem ser detectados na urina, na secreção de algumas glândulas sebáceas, nas glândulas ante-orbitais de carneiros e, no caso de porcos, na saliva (figura 5). Essas emissões são dependentes de andrógenos, logo os machos castrados não conseguem produzi-las. Esses feromônios, sinergicamente com as vocalizações e o comportamento do macho, exercem um efeito bioestimulante eficiente conhecido como efeito macho, que é uma alternativa ecológica e econômica para a manipulação do ciclo estral de fêmeas domésticas. O efeito macho tem sido usado com sucesso para esse fim em ovinos, caprinos, suínos e, em menor medida, em bovinos. Figura 5: salivação em reprodutores suínos, com o qual estimulam as fêmeas. Com o efeito macho, é possível causar um aumento na frequência de secreção dos pulsos de LH, o que acelera o início da atividade reprodutiva nas fêmeas durante os períodos pré-púbere, estacional ou pós-parto; também prolonga a estação reprodutiva em fêmeas sazonais. Há não mais de uma década, considerava-se que esse efeito só funcionava em tempos de transição para a estação reprodutiva ou para o anestro; agora sabemos que os machos podem estimular as fêmeas mesmo durante anestro profundo, que ocorre desde que sejam estimulados e exibam comportamento sexual suficiente para interagir com as fêmeas. É importante notar que quando as fêmeas iniciam sua atividade reprodutiva, o efeito macho também pode ser usado para sincronizar a apresentação do cio e da ovulação. O efeito macho é mais eficiente quando é um estímulo novo, pois a introdução de um macho desconhecido, ou com o qual as fêmeas não tiveram contato anterior, é suficiente para causar ciclidade independentemente de estarem em coexistência com outro macho; este detalhe é importante visto que se considerava anteriormente que as fêmeas tiveram que permanecer completamente isoladas de todos os machos por, pelo menos, duas semanas. Foi constatado, inclusive, que toda vez que as fêmeas são expostas a um novo macho, ocorre um aumento na frequência dos pulsos de LH, com a consequente ovulação, ainda que a exposição ao macho não seja permanente ou constante. Foi sugerido que a presença intermitente de machos, algumas horas a cada 12 horas, é suficiente para estimular as fêmeas. Em ovelhas, foi descrito que a ovulação ocorre entre 50 e 56 h após o primeiro contato com o macho, variando de 30 a 72 h, tempo que pode dobrar quando se trata de animais pré-púberes. • _____DEFINIÇÃO DE ESTRO A palavra estro vem do grego oistros, que significa exaltação ou desejo desenfreado e se refere ao comportamento errático e nervoso que as vacas adotam quando são picadas pela mutuca ou mosca do estábulo (família Oestridae). O estro é uma fase reprodutiva que faz parte do ciclo estral das fêmeas de todos os mamíferos domésticos. É a fase mais fácil de reconhecer dentro deste ciclo, porque mudanças características são observadas no comportamento, nos ovários e nos órgãos genitais internos e externos. • _____CARACTERÍSTICAS DO ESTRO O estro é considerado a partir das características comportamentais das fêmeas, é a única fase do ciclo estral em que a fêmea mostra interesse pelo macho, aceitando o acasalamento e a cópula; por isso é definido como o período de receptividade sexual. O sinônimo utilizado com mais frequência é o cio. Se o foco de estudo dessa fase são as alterações que ocorrem no útero, o estro caracteriza a fase proliferativa, já que os estrogênios estão elevados, o que promove a proliferação tanto do endométrio quanto das glândulas endometriais. Nos genitais também ocorrem modificações que visam atrair o macho e favorecer a cópula, entre outras estão a hiperemia e o edema vulvar, além da secreção de muco cervical e vaginal (figura 6). Do ponto de vista dos processos ovarianos, o estro é uma fase que se classifica dentro da fase folicular do ciclo estral, ou seja, quando ocorre o desenvolvimento folicular. Os eventos endócrinos correspondentes podem ser consultados no trabalho sobre a endocrinologia reprodutiva . É necessário ressaltar que na maioria das espécies domésticas o comportamento estral ocorre quando as concentrações de estradiol são elevadas. A exceção pode ser observada na cadela, cujos níveis máximos de estradiol ocorrem durante o proestro, de forma que, quando o estro começa, as concentrações desse hormônio começam a diminuir. Esse declínio continua durante o estro, culminando quando as concentrações de estradiol caem para menos de 15 pg/ml. Isso acontece porque nessa espécie o pico de LH ocorre durante a transição do proestro para o estro, de modo que as concentrações de progesterona chegam a cerca de 1 ng/ml quando o comportamento estral começa e continuam a aumentar durante o estro. Figura 6: muco cristalino e fluido, característico de vacas em estro. • _____FATORES QUE PODEM AFETAR A MANIFESTAÇÃO DO ESTRO É importante lembrar que existem diferenças no grau e na forma em que ocorrem a manifestação e a duração do estro nas espécies animais, além da existência de variações individuais. Ainda temos parâmetros médios que podem ser usados para descrever este período em diferentes espécies. Em bovinos, por exemplo, pode-se fazer uma distinção entre bovinos especializados na produção de carne e bovinos leiteiros, onde a intensidade com que o estro se manifesta é menor no primeiro grupo, principalmente quando se trata de bovinos zebuínos. Em estudos genéticos realizados com bovinos, por outro lado, tem-se considerado que a intensidade da expressão da conduta sexual é uma característica hereditária (h2 = 0,21). Além disso, existe uma grande diversidade de fatores ambientais e sociais que podem modificar a apresentação dos ciclos estrais e a manifestação do comportamento estral. Fotoperíodo O principal regulador da estacionalidade reprodutiva é o fotoperíodo. A influência da mudança das horas do dia na atividade reprodutiva e, portanto, na apresentação do estro é amplamente determinada pela localização geográfica, e é maior à medida que a distância do equador aumenta. O fotoperíodo afeta principalmente as espécies que apresentam estro apenas em uma época do ano, conhecidas como poliéstricas sazonais. Nessas espécies, o fotoperíodo também pode modificar o tempo de início da puberdade. Nutrição Uma deficiência nutricional pode encurtar a estação de acasalamento e até mesmo suspendê-la se a desnutrição for severa. Em bovinos de corte, o reinício da atividade reprodutiva pós-parto ou puberdade também pode ser retardado quando a ingestão nutricional é inadequada. Aspectos sociais A superlotação pode atrasar o início da puberdade em animais jovens ou causar a ausência de ciclos estrais em adultos. Os efeitos fêmea e macho como estimulantes da ciclicidade também devem ser levados em consideração. Hierarquia Observado em cães cujas matilhas têm uma classificação hierárquica bem estabe-lecida, na qual os machos subordinados não têm permissão para acasalar com as fêmeas dominantes. Este comportamento é observado até mesmo em cães domésticos nos quais uma cadela dominante não permite ser montada facilmente, mesmo apresentando estro. Da mesma forma, em bovinos zebuínos, as vacas dominantes não aceitam que outras fêmeas as montem o que pode dificultar a detecção de estro a campo. Tipo de alojamento Quanto mais intensa a acomodação, menor a manifestação do comportamento sexual, pois há menos espaço para os animais interagirem entre si. É menos frequente observar as manifestações de estro se o local onde os animais estão alojados for muito grande e eles tiverem que caminhar grandes extensões para encontrar um animal com o qual possam se relacionar. Problemas nos membros Existem anomalias, principalmente nos membros posteriores, que impedem a fêmea de ter comportamento homossexual ou de aceitar a monta, pois causa dor tanto ao montar quanto ao ser montada. •_DURAÇÃO DO ESTRO E A RELAÇÃO COM O MOMENTO DA OVULAÇÃO Foi estabelecido que o pico de LH pode ser um bom preditor do tempo de ovulação, pois há uma alta correlação entre o tempo decorrido do pico de LH e a ovulação. Na Tabela 1 pode-se ver os períodos de duração do estro e o tempo em que o pico de LH e a ovulação ocorrem nas diferentes espécies domésticas. Tabela 1: momento de ovulação em diferentes espécies domésticas e a relação com o pico de LH. Espécie Duração do estro Ovulação Pico de LH até a ovulação (horas) Bovina 18 h (8 a 18 h) 10 h (4 a 16 h) de finalizado o estro 28 (24 a 32) Ovina 24 a 36 h 18 a 24 h após iniciado o estro 24 a 26 Caprina 36 h (24 a 48 h) 30 a 35 h após o início do estro 28 Suína 48 a 72 h 24 a 48 h após o início do estro 40 Equina 7 d (2 a 12 d) 1 a 2 d antes de finalizar o estro -- Canina 9 d (3 a 20 d) 2 a 3 d do início do estro (pode variar) 48 a 60 Felina 7 d (3 a 16 d) Induzida pela cópula 26 a 28 h depois 24 Onde d = dias; h = horas. Vale ressaltar que em equinos o aumento nas concentrações de LH ocorre gradati-vamente; um pico pré-ovulatório agudo não é visto como no resto da espécie, uma vez que o nível máximo desse hormônio é atingido um a dois dias após a ovulação. No entanto, deve-se entender que, no momento da ovulação, as concentrações de LH são altas o suficiente para desencadear a ovulação, como em qualquer outra espécie. A gata também apresenta uma particularidade no que diz respeito à ovulação, já que é um evento induzido pela cópula que estimula a liberação de LH, duas a quatro horas depois. No entanto, foi relatado que, às vezes, o pico de LH de uma única cópula pode ser insuficiente para induzir um nível adequado de LH, causando ovulação apenas em aproximadamente 50% das fêmeas. Por outro lado, verificou-se que entre 30 e 40% das fêmeas podem ovular espontaneamente. Além dos felinos, outras espécies com ovulação induzida são os leporídeos (por exemplo, o coelho e a lebre), os camelídeos (por exemplo a lhama, a alpaca, a vicunha e a camelo fêmea) e os mustelídeos (por exemplo, o visom, o furão e o arminho). • _____MECANISMOS PARA ATRAIR O MACHO Os mecanismos femininos de atração do macho podem ser divididos em dois tipos, de um lado, alterações na genitália externa, que por sua vez são consequência de processos endócrinos e modificações na genitália interna. Por outro lado, mudanças de comportamento, que por sua vez se dividem em dois tipos: cortejo e acasalamento. Mudanças nas genitais É importante observar que nas fêmeas todas as adaptações genitais são mediadas por altas concentrações de estrogênios, entretanto, é interessante notar que os efeitos podem variar de uma espécie para outra. Um padrão típico é o útero ficar túrgido, uma vez que os estrogênios promovem a contração muscular, aumento do suprimento sanguíneo e proliferação das glândulas endometriais; em éguas, ao contrário, os estrogênios fazem com que o útero fique edemaciado e sem tonalidade, enquanto o colo do útero parece relaxado, observações que devem ser consideradas ao realizar a palpação retal e a ultrassonografia. A imagem ultrassonográfica do útero da égua tem a aparência de uma “roda de vagão” (figura 7). Em carnívoros, o útero também apresenta edema durante o estro. Figura 7: imagem de ultrassom de um corte transversal do útero de uma égua em estro; observa-se edema grau 3, que provoca a típica imagem de “roda de carroça”. Fonte: HV-UFRPE. Outro efeito promovido pelos estrogênios é a produção de um muco cervical cristalino com certa viscosidade, que, mesmo quando ocorre em todos os animais, é mais abundante e característico nas vacas e, posteriormente, nas porcas (figura 6). O muco tem por finalidade favorecer a passagem dos espermatozoides para o útero, bem como reter aqueles que não são viáveis para que sejam fagocitados ou eliminados junto com as secreções vaginais. A secreção da cérvix é composta por glicoproteínas; dois tipos principais são reconhecidos: a sialomucina, que faz parte de um muco viscoso produzido nas áreas basais das criptas cervicais, e a sulfomucina, que é um muco altamente viscoso, um produto das células apicais. No caso da cadela, uma secreção com sangue pode ocorrer através da vulva (figura 8), isso se deve a uma diapedese causada por alta permeabilidade vascular em resposta aos estrogênios. A maioria das fêmeas apresentam esse corrimento durante o proestro e cerca de 70% continuarão com ele durante o estro. Uma proporção muito pequena de cadelas pode até continuar a ter secreção serossanguínea durante o início do diestro. Deve-se considerar que, quando a ausência de sangramento é relatada em cadelas, na verdade, pode ser devido à falta de observação, uma vez que pode ser escasso, ou passar despercebido se a mesma lamber com frequência, se a cor do pelo for escura ou possuir pelos muito longos, ou se for em grandes áreas onde a secreção é difícil de observar. Figura 8: aparência vulvar em cadelas. Esquerda: edema e hiperemia. À direita: secreção vulvar com sangue. O grau de hiperemia e edema vulvar varia nas diferentes espécies, sendo muito evidente nas porcas (figura 9). Em contraste, as gatas não têm receptores de estradiol nos lábios vulvares, razão pela qual não manifestam edema vulvar ou hiperemia. O inchaço acentuado e o alargamento da vulva na cadela são característicos da fase de proestro, devido às peculiaridades hormonais do seu ciclo. Na tabela 2 são mostradas as alterações mais comuns que ocorrem na genitália das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Figura 9: aparência vulvar em porcas. Esquerda: vulva normal. À direita: hiperemia e edema típicos da fase de estro. Tabela 2: Mudanças características na genitália interna e externa, que ocorrem durante o estro em diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Genitais externos Genitais internos Bovina Secreção abundante de muco cristalino. Pouco edema vulvar aparente e hiperemia. Turgor uterino Ovina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Caprina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Suína Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Hiperemia e edema vulvar muito aparente. Turgor uterino Equina Edema vulvar; as dobras dos lábios são frouxas. Vulva hiperêmica e com muco. Útero flácido e edematoso. Colo do útero macio e relaxado Canina Pode haver secreção com sangue. Edema vulvar muito aparente, lábios mais macios e alongados. Útero edematoso Felina Não há sinais evidentes. Turgor uterino Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Mudanças comportamentais Foi demonstrado que o comportamento sexual nas fêmeas é determinado pela secreção de estrogênios, principalmente 17β-estradiol, que percorre a corrente sanguínea como um sinal humoral e atinge o sistema nervoso central ao nível do hipotálamo, que possui um grupo de células entre o quiasma óptico e a região pré-óptica anterior, denominado centro sexual. Esses neurônios são responsáveis por transformar o estímulo humoral em um estímulo nervoso, que por sua vez induz o comportamento sexual. Em espécies como ovinos, e em menor grau os bovinos, observou-se que para a manifestação do comportamento estral ocorrer, o cérebro requer uma exposição prévia à progesterona que o sensibiliza para a ação dos estrogênios, que se dá pelas concentrações do ciclo anterior. Por isso, constatou-se que a primeira ovulação da estação reprodutiva ou puberdade (no caso dos bovinos a primeira ovulação pós-parto) ocorre sem manifestação de estro. É até a segunda ovulação que o comportamento normal do estro será observado. Esta condição é conhecida como ovulação silenciosa ou estro silencioso, e é indetectável para o trabalhador, o produtor e o veterinário, e que possui como principal causa os distúrbios nutricionais. Devido nas fêmeas o comportamento sexual se limitar a um curto período de horas ou dias, enquanto nos machos há poucas variações em seu comportamento sexual, aparentemente é ela quem inicia o comportamento de cortejo. Aparentemente, isso se deve ao fato de que, nos machos, o padrão de secreção de testosterona é constante e mostra apenas leves diminuições fora da estação reprodutiva em espécies sazonais. Nos machos, a testosterona é transformada no cérebro em estradiol para produzir o comportamento reprodutivo. Durante a fase de estro ocorrem manifestações comportamentais comuns a todas as espécies, como as seguintes:  Aumento geral da atividade física, isso se reflete no aumento da locomoção e que é direcionado à busca do macho;  Inquietação e movimento ao menor estímulo;  Ingestão diminuída;  Diminuição da produção de leite;  Aumento gradual da temperatura corporal;  Micção frequente na presença do macho: isso é importante, pois os feromônios responsáveis pela atração do macho estão presentes na urina;  Vocalizações frequentes, típicas de cada espécie;  Atração do macho. Na tabela 3 são apresentadas as características comportamentais mais comuns das fêmeas das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Tabela 3: Comportamentos característicos durante o estro em diferentes espécies Espécie Conduta Bovina Monta entre fêmeas (conduta homossexual). Batidas antes da monta (figura 10). Aumento nas vocalizações. Ovina Movimentação da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Caprina Movimento característico da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Suína Grunhido característico (grunhido de estro). Falsas lutas. Pode haver pequena conduta homossexual. Orelhas eretas e projetadas para trás. Equina Diminuição da agressividade com o macho. Sem conduta homossexual. Mostra a área genital ante o macho e everte o clitóris. Espelhamento: contrações rítmicas dos lábios vulvares. Canina Reflexos contráteis na vulva e levantamento da cauda, inclinando-se para o lado, na presença do macho. Lambidas frequentes da região vulvar. Felina Inquietação. Chafurdamento. Miados característicos. Esfrega-se contra os objetos. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. O comportamento homossexual em fêmeas foi extensivamente estudado em bovinos (figura 10), por ser um dos sinais mais evidentes e importantes da manifestação do estro; ocorre em cerca de 70% dos animais e sua expressão é altamente influenciada pela hierarquia social do rebanho. Deve-se levar em consideração que os animais que estão em estro precisam interagir uns com os outros para expressar esse comportamento, sendo observada maior atividade quando há cerca de 20 fêmeas em estro. Sabe-se também que o tipo de instalações é imprescindível para a manifestação do comportamento homossexual, visto que os animais encontrados nos piquetes montam mais do que os alojados em instalações intensivas, isto fica ainda mais evidente quando o piso destas últimas é escorregadio. As montas entre fêmeas são observadas com maior frequência à noite, ocorrendo cerca de 70% das montas entre as sete da noite e as sete da manhã, o que se explica pelo fato de que durante estas horas os animais não são submetidos a nenhum manejo rotineiro, como ordenha, alimentação ou limpeza das instalações, além disso, acredita-se que os animais preferem montar nos períodos mais frios do dia, principal-mente em criações tropicais. Em bovinos de corte, sugere-se que tanto a fêmea que monta quanto a que é montada estejam em cio; ao contrário do gado leiteiro, em que se considera que o animal que monta está perto do cio, enquanto o que é montado está em cio. Figura 10: comportamento sexual em bovinos. À esquerda: batendo. À direita: comportamento homossexual. No caso de cadelas, deve-se levar em consideração que o comportamento homossexual está associado à hierarquia e dominância, mas não à manifestação do comportamento estral. Além disso, algumas fêmeas muito dominantes não permanecem imóveis na frente do macho, nem permitem que ele a monte, mesmo quando estão em estro. Na égua, uma característica do cio é o espelhamento, que consiste na abertura e fechamento dos lábios vulvares de forma rítmica, geralmente acompanhada pela eversão do clitóris (figura 11). Este último sempre ocorre durante a micção, mas neste caso a fêmea o faz na presença do macho, mesmo quando ela não está urinando. Uma vez que a fêmea no cio está na frente de um macho, ela exibe um comportamento receptivo; a atitude da fêmea é passiva e se caracteriza em todas as espécies pela imobilidade diante da monta do macho, considerada o sinal definitivo do estro. Em geral, a fêmea também adota uma postura diferenciada conhecida como lordose, pois arqueia as costas para baixo, ao mesmo tempo em que levanta a cauda e inclina-a, levantando também os lábios vulvares para promover a cópula. A descrição acima é muito típica dos ruminantes, da cadela e da gata. Na égua, ao contrário, a posição anterior à cópula implica em curvar a coluna para cima (cifose) e baixar a garupa ou inclinar a pelve. • ____COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS MACHOS O comportamento sexual do macho é muito importante, pois estima-se que o macho dominante pode ser responsável por até 80% dos nascimentos em um rebanho. Um fator a ser considerado é a libido, definida como a “disposição e entusiasmo” de um macho para tentar montar e servir a uma fêmea. No caso dos bovinos, estima-se que cerca de 21% dos machos em que a libido é avaliada não conseguem reproduzir. Isso se torna ainda mais crítico quando se leva em consideração que a libido baixa é hereditária e reproduzível, além de estar associada à puberdade tardia nas filhas. Figura 11: sinais feitos por éguas no cio. À esquerda: espelhamento. À direita: eversão do clitóris. Nos machos, as montas sem penetração e ejaculação durante a fase de cortejo (conhecidas como montas falsas) são muito importantes para estimular o desejo sexual e aumentar a quantidade e a qualidade do sêmen que mais tarde será ejaculado durante a cópula (figura 12). No caso dos touros, sabe-se que o macho monta na fêmea em média seis vezes antes de realizar a primeira cópula, embora o número de montas falsas seja reduzido nas ejaculações subsequentes. Figura 12: comportamento de um cachaço diante de uma fêmea no cio. À esquerda: olfateio dos flancos e salivação do macho. À direita: ereção e retirada do pênis. Na tabela 4 são listados os comportamentos típicos de machos de espécies de mamíferos domésticos durante o cortejo, detecção de fêmeas no cio e cópula. Tabela 4: Comportamentos característicos durante o cortejo e cópula em machos das diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Conduta pré-cópula Conduta copulatória Bovina Reflexo de Flehmen; cheira e lambe a vulva; inquietude; esfrega o pescoço ou o focinho na fêmea; tentativa de montas. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 3 segundos pós-penetração. Ovina Reflexo de Flehmen; empurram e monta a fêmea; vocalizações; tentativa de montas; inquietude; mantém-se com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea (figura 13). Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Caprina Cheira a urina da fêmea e realiza o reflexo de Flehmen; urina a barba e o peito; apalpa o chão em volta da fêmea; vocalizações; língua dentro e fora da boca; cheira e bate na área genital; se sustenta com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Suína Cheira a região genital e dos flancos (figura 12); tentativas de montas; contato naso-nasal ou naso-genital; vocalizações; range os dentes e move as mandíbulas lateralmente; salivação e micção frequente; morde suavemente as orelhas e a cabeça da fêmea. Ereção depois da monta; contrações testiculares muito aparentes durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 5 a 20 minutos pós-penetração. Equina Vocalizações; reflexo de Flehmen; morde o pescoço da fêmea. Sinalização; movimento lateral da cauda durante a ejaculação; movimentos de fricção; ejaculação média: 20 a 60 segundos pós-penetração. Canina Tentativas de montas; reprodução. O macho se vira e fica abotoado durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 10 a 30 minutos, mas pode chegas até 50 pós-penetração. Felina Morde o pescoço da fêmea. A fêmea realiza o “ronco pós-coito” quando o macho desmonta. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Depois de haver realizado com sucesso um serviço (um acasalamento acompanhado de ejaculação dentro do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea), os machos apresentam a fase pós-copulatória, também conhecida como período refratário, em que mostram desinteresse pela fêmea com quem acabam de realizar serviço. Esta fase tem duração variável entre os indivíduos, mas foi visto que eles podem retomar a atividade pré-copulatória e copulatória mais rapidamente se forem apresentados a uma fêmea diferente, fenômeno conhecido como “efeito Coolidge”. Os machos geralmente são capazes de realizar mais de uma cópula por dia antes de atingir a saciedade sexual. O número de cópulas varia entre espécies e indivíduos, portanto, suínos e equinos realizam em média três montas, enquanto pequenos ruminantes realizam 10 e bovinos até 20. Uma vez saciado, o macho pode parar de montar por um ou mais dias, mesmo que haja estímulo suficiente para induzir o comportamento sexual. Figura 13: monta em ovinos. É mostrado como o macho apoia os membros anteriores na garupa da fêmea. Nessa imagem o macho detectou o cio, por isso está usando um avental para impedir a penetração. • ____DETECÇÃO DE ESTROS (CIOS) A detecção adequada do estro é imprescindível para um bom manejo reprodutivo e produtivo dos animais do rebanho, pois é essencial determinar o momento ideal da monta ou inseminação artificial, que consequentemente atinge bons índices de fertilidade. A falha na detecção do estro (considerada uma das principais causas de perdas econômicas na pecuária), ocorre em função da baixa eficiência, bem como da precisão, dos métodos utilizados. A tabela 5 resume as consequências da falha na detecção do estro em vacas. Tabela 5: Consequências de falhas na eficiência e precisão dos testes utilizados para o diagnóstico de cio em bovinos Falha Eficiência (vacas não detectadas) Precisão (vacas mal detectadas) Aumenta-se Número de fêmeas vazias; Número de dias abertos; Intervalo entre partos. Números de serviços por concepção; Número de doses de sêmen. Diminui-se Número de crias por ano; Produção cárnea ou láctea. Fertilidade por serviço. Fonte: anotações de aulas na UFPB. Para implementar um programa de detecção de estro, é necessário ter alguns requisitos essenciais, como:  A identificação dos animais que deve ser realizada de forma clara de modo que o observador possa distingui-los claramente.  Os registros reprodutivos que permitem estimar a fase do ciclo estral em que os animais se encontram e ajudam a discernir os animais que sabemos que estão perto do cio daqueles que foram inseminados recentemente ou estão prenhes.  Um pessoal qualificado deve observar animais no cio; esse trabalho não pode ser confiado a qualquer pessoa; deve ser realizado por quem conheça bem os sinais de estro da espécie e que saiba considerá-los em conjunto; deve reconhecer, assim mesmo, a evidência da manifestação de comportamento sexual quando o animal estiver fora de seu campo visual. Outro ponto importante nos programas de detecção de estro é a escolha do método para o seu diagnóstico, que deve estar de acordo com aspectos como as características comportamentais da espécie, disponibilidade e facilidade de uso, custos, entre outros. Alguns dos métodos existentes para detecção de cio são descritos abaixo. Detecção visual Este tipo de detecção é baseado na observação a curtas e longas distâncias pela equipe da unidade de produção, em busca de mudanças genitais e comportamentais nas fêmeas; é amplamente utilizado no caso dos bovinos. Foi estudado que a eficiência na detecção visual do estro aumenta em paralelo com o número de observações realizadas por dia. Ou seja, se a observação for realizada apenas durante as atividades rotineiras da exploração, a eficiência será de 50%; quando se realizam duas observações com 12 h de intervalo, a eficiência aumenta para 70%; quando três observações são feitas por dia em intervalos de 8 h, a eficiência chega a 90% e quando a detecção visual é feita constantemente, a eficiência na detecção do estro chega a ficar entre 95 e 100%. No caso dos bovinos, a detecção visual se baseia, entre outros aspectos, na observação do comportamento homossexual, no aparecimento de muco cristalino pela vulva, bem como nas marcas de monta (culote e garupa sujos, direção dos pelos no sacro ao contrário); inquietação, busca pelo macho, inapetência e segregação. Deve-se levar em consideração que nem todas as espécies animais são passíveis de serem detectadas por esse método, pois há espécies em que não há alterações evidentes na genitália e seu comportamento não denota nenhum sinal característico e forte de estar em estro, como é o caso de ovinos, caprinos e equinos; no qual é necessário submetê-los à presença de um macho para poder saber adequadamente o seu estado reprodutivo. Teste de monta Este teste é utilizado especificamente em porcas e consiste em observar a reação à pressão que uma pessoa exerce sobre a garupa e a coluna do animal, considerando que as fêmeas que estão em estro permanecem estáticas, enquanto as que não se movem (figura 14). A eficiência desse teste pode variar consideravelmente, estando a fêmea submetida ou não a algum estímulo do macho. Isso significa que quando o teste é realizado apenas pelo experimentador sem nenhum contato com o macho, a eficiência fica em torno de 48%, ao passo que, se o realizarmos para que a fêmea possa cheirar e ouvir o macho, a eficiência pode chegar a 90%. Se a porca também vê e toca o macho, a porcentagem de eficiência pode ser aumentada em mais 3 a 7%, respectivamente; enquanto é 100% eficiente quando se aloja e interage com o macho. Figura 14: imobilidade durante a prova de monta em porcas. É importante considerar que embora o teste de monta seja usado principalmente em porcas, as fêmeas no cio de quase todas as espécies apresentam uma reação de imobilização quando a garupa é pressionada; elas também movem a cauda para o lado e podem levantar a vulva. Machos auxiliares e rufiões O macho é o mais eficiente em distinguir as fêmeas de sua espécie no cio, pois é capaz de detectar coisas imperceptíveis aos humanos. A utilização de machos auxiliares e/ou rufiões baseia-se na apresentação de um macho às fêmeas e na observação da resposta de todo o grupo. As fêmeas que permitem ser montadas pelo macho e permanecem imóveis são consideradas no cio. A “guarda” ou “auxílio” pode ser realizada duas vezes ao dia, com intervalos de 12 horas entre eles. Para se utilizar o método é fundamental que haja machos inteiros com boa libido, porém, bons reprodutores não devem ser usados para esse fim, pois podem se machucar por uma fêmea que não esteja no momento ideal ou podem ficar exaustos e recusam-se a montar quando seu uso como reprodutores for necessário. Nos equinos essa técnica diagnóstica é a mais utilizada e é conhecida como “provocação”, já que o macho auxiliar é denominado como provocador e deve ser feito diariamente ou em dias alternados durante o período de cio previsto; nesta espécie, as fêmeas podem ser muito agressivas, por isso é comum o uso de uma barreira protetora entre o macho e a fêmea (figura 15). Quando os machos auxiliares são usados, é interessante evitar que ocorra a cópula fértil com as fêmeas, então várias estratégias foram desenvolvidas, principalmente cirúrgicas, para que os machos utilizados possam ser:  Vestidos com um avental (figura 16);  Vasectomizados;  Epididectomizados;  Pênis desviado;  Com fixação peniana em forma de “S”;  Com obliteração do orifício prepucial;  Castrados e com tratamento androgênico. Os rufiões não são considerados machos auxiliares e sim como machos com capacidade de detectar uma fêmea apta para reprodução, porém sem a capacidade de fecundá-la. São utilizados na detecção de estros para monta natural ou inseminação artificial, já que sua presença estimula o cio e a ovulação na fêmea. Já que o animal não possui a capacidade de fecundar a fêmea, a obtenção de rufiões dá-se através de técnicas cirúrgicas como as citadas supra. Figura 15: provocação em equinos (método para instigar e/ou detectar a égua em cio). Figura 16: macho ovino vestido com avental para identificar a ovelha em cio. Fêmeas Em muitas unidades de produção, o uso de fêmeas (com certas características específicas) é preferível ao uso de machos para detecção de cio, pois seu manejo é mais simples e seguro, sua manutenção é menor e não há risco de ocorrência da penetração que pode ser uma fonte de transmissão de doenças. Por exemplo, fêmeas androgenizadas podem ser usadas, tanto tratadas exogenamente, quanto aquelas com pseudo-hermafroditismo ou freemartinismo. Palpação retal É um método muito útil no caso de bovinos e equinos, pois o estado reprodutivo em que o animal se encontra pode ser determinado de acordo com as estruturas ovarianas presentes, a tonicidade do tecido uterino e o tipo de corrimento vaginal que pode ser observado. Nessa técnica, a precisão e a eficiência dependem da experiência da sonda, bem como da correta subdivisão dos animais que são passados a ela para revisão. Ultrassonografia Com o uso do ultrassom em tempo real e sob o mesmo princípio da palpação retal, pode-se determinar o momento do ciclo estral; sua confiabilidade é maior quando comparada à palpação, pois os resultados são menos subjetivos. Medição de mudanças fisiológicas Toda fêmea em cio apresenta ligeiras mudanças fisiológicas nos seguintes aspec-tos:  Sua temperatura aumenta;  A frequência cardíaca aumenta;  A produção leiteira diminui. Essas mudanças, quando medidas repetidamente, são úteis para determinar o momento do estro. Quando as concentrações de progesterona no sangue estão abaixo de 1 ng/ml, indica que a fase lútea daquele animal terminou e que, portanto, está perto de apresentar estro ou que acabou de estar. No caso das cadelas, a dosagem da progesterona tem sido muito valiosa para determinar o momento do início do estro, mas sua interpretação é exatamente o inverso do resto das espécies, quando atinge o nível de 1 ng/ml, sabemos que está prestes a iniciar a receptividade sexual. A citologia vaginal esfoliativa realizada, sobretudo, nas cadelas e tem como princípio determinar o tipo de células presentes no esfregaço vaginal, de acordo com sua morfologia e número. Sua base é que as camadas celulares da mucosa vaginal se multiplicam à medida que o nível de estrogênio aumenta, fazendo com que as células da superfície, que estão em direção ao lúmen, morram e adquiram a aparência folheada ou floculada. Durante a fase estral, entre 80 e 100% das células observadas são superficiais e cornificadas ou escamosas. A confiabilidade do método é muito alta, mas são necessárias amostras seriadas, pois o padrão celular é cíclico e nem sempre uma amostra isolada indica com precisão o estágio do ciclo reprodutivo. Uma ferramenta útil em equinos é observar a tonicidade e coloração do colo do útero e vagina através de um vaginoscópio. As alterações observadas são consequência dos estrogênios e a aparência nos animais em estro é de uma estrutura com secreções, hiperêmicas e edematosas. Também é eficaz para uso em cabras. O aumento da atividade física pode ser medido com um pedômetro, que é um detector eletrônico que é colocado nas patas e mede a atividade motora das fêmeas; transmite um sinal para um computador que registra e representa graficamente os dados. Lembre-se de que os animais no cio apresentam maior mobilidade. Em geral, considera-se que uma fêmea no cio anda pelo menos duas vezes mais que as que não estão. A viscosidade do muco cervical pode ser medida com o estrón, que é um dispositivo usado em bovinos e cuja base é medir a resistência elétrica no fluido vaginal ou impedância, que é diminuída durante o proestro e o estro. Para aumentar a eficiência desta ferramenta é necessário realizar medições repetidas e manter registros individuais. Junto com os métodos descritos aqui, ajudas foram desenvolvidas para tornar a detecção do estro mais eficiente, entre as quais estão: Detectores de monta Esses dispositivos são muito diversificados, a maioria deles são colocados na linha média da garupa da fêmea, logo na frente da inserção da cauda, mas também podem ser colocados no peito ou abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho. Sua função é deixar uma marca distinguível ou registrar uma monta no animal que está no cio. Entre eles estão os seguintes. A pintura com giz de cera na altura da garupa, é comum usá-la para que quando uma vaca for montada por outra, a marca fique borrada ou desbotada, indicando que a fêmea está no cio (figura 17). O arnês de marcador que é colocado abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho (“Bola de queixo” figura 18) ou no peito, para que ao montar uma fêmea receptiva, pinte sua garupa deixando uma marca facilmente identificável. As manchas de tinta chamadas de patches “kamar” (figura 19), que são colocadas na garupa da fêmea e quando ela é montada por outro animal, o peso faz com que ela quebre o recipiente e libere uma tinta que podemos facilmente observar. O relógio de cio é um dispositivo eletrônico que se conecta à garupa da fêmea e registra o momento em que é montada (figura 20), quando pressionado pelo peso mantido por alguns segundos, emitindo um sinal que é recebido por um computador. Tem sido indicado que a precisão na detecção do estro com este método é muito alta, podendo chegar a 96%. Figura 17: vacas com pintura de giz de cera na linha dorsal, utilizada para diagnóstico do cio. À esquerda vaca não montada. À direita vaca que já foi montada, a qual a marca de giz aparece desbotada. Figura 18: uso do arnês marcador para diagnóstico de cio. À esquerda macho com marcador na barbela. À direita marca no dorso da fêmea realizada pela monta de um macho e que indica que o animal marcado está em cio. Figura 19: pastas de “kamar” para a identificação de fêmeas em cio. Figura 20: relógio de cio, dispositivo eletrônico para a detecção de montas À esquerda foto do dispositivo. À direita, vacas com o dispositivo na garupa. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS AURICH, Christine. Reproductive cycles of horses. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 220-228, 2011. AISEN, Eduardo G. Reprodução ovina e caprina. MedVet, 2008. BARTLEWSKI, Pawel M.; BABY, Tanya E.; GIFFIN, Jennifer L. Reproductive cycles in sheep. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 259-268, 2011. BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Reproducción animal aplicada. México: Manual Moderno, 1982. CHRISTIANSEN, I. J. Reprodução no cão e no gato. São Paulo: Manole, 1988. CONCANNON, Patrick W. Reproductive cycles of the domestic bitch. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 200-210, 2011. COLAZO, Marcos Germán; MAPLETOFT, Reuben. Fisiología del ciclo estral bovino. Ciencia Veterinaria, v. 16, n. 2, p. 31-46, 2017. CUPPS, Perry T. (Ed.). Reproduction in domestic animals. Elsevier, 1991. Fisiologia Clínica do Ciclo Estral de Vacas Leiteiras: Desenvolvimento Folicular, Corpo Lúteo e Etapas do Estro. Fisiologia do Ciclo Estral dos Animais Domésticos. Fisiologia do Estro e do Serviço na Reprodução Bovina. Relação e Efeitos Bioquímico-nutricionais Sobre os Cios ou Estros Silenciosos em Vacas. DERIVAUX, Jules; BARNABÉ, Renato Campanarut. Reprodução dos animais domésticos. Acribia, 1980. DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Editora Guanabara Koogan, 1996. DYCE, Keith M. Tratado de anatomia veterinária. Elsevier Brasil, 2004. FATET, Alice; PELLICER-RUBIO, Maria-Teresa; LEBOEUF, Bernard. Reproductive cycle of goats. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 211-219, 2011. FERREIRA, A. de M. Reprodução da fêmea bovina: fisiologia aplicada e problemas mais comuns (causas e tratamentos). Juiz de Fora: Minas Gerais–Brasil, p. 422, 2010. FORDE, N. et al. Oestrous cycles in Bos taurus cattle. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 163-169, 2011. HAFEZ, Elsayed Saad Eldin; HAFEZ, Bahaa. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. HIDALGO, Galina et al. Reproducción de animales domésticos. México: Limusa, 2008. HOPPER, Richard M. (Ed.). Bovine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2014. MCKINNON, Angus O. et al. (Ed.). Equine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. MEIDAN, R. et al. Intraovarian regulation of luteolysis. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 217-228, 1999. NETT, T. M. et al. Pituitary receptors for GnRH and estradiol, and pituitary content of gonadotropins in beef cows. I. Changes during the estrous cycle. Domestic Animal Endocrinology, v. 4, n. 2, p. 123-132, 1987. NISWENDER, Gordon D. et al. Mechanisms controlling the function and life span of the corpus luteum. Physiological reviews, v. 80, n. 1, p. 1-29, 2000. NORMAN, Anthony W.; LITWACK, Gerald. Hormones. Academic Press, 1997. PATTERSON, David J. et al. Control of estrus and ovulation in beef heifers. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, v. 29, n. 3, p. 591-617, 2013. PLANT, Tony M.; ZELEZNIK, Anthony J. (Ed.). Knobil and Neill's physiology of reproduction. New York: Academic Press, 2014. RANGEL, L. Ciclo estral. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. REKAWIECKI, R. et al. Regulation of progesterone synthesis and action in bovine corpus luteum. J Physiol Pharmacol, v. 59, n. suppl 9, p. 75-89, 2008. REYNOLDS, L. P.; REDMER, D. A. Growth and development of the corpus luteum. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 181-191, 1999. RIPPE, Christian A. El ciclo estral. In: Dairy Cattle Reproduction Conference. 2009. p. 111-116. SANGHA, G. K.; SHARMA, R. K.; GURAYA, S. S. Biology of corpus luteum in small ruminants. Small Ruminant Research, v. 43, n. 1, p. 53-64, 2002. SARTORI, R.; BARROS, C. M. Reproductive cycles in Bos indicus cattle. Animal Reproduction Science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 244-250, 2011. SENGER, Phillip L. et al. Pathways to pregnancy and parturition. Current Conceptions, Inc., 1615 NE Eastgate Blvd., 1997. SMITH, Matthew J.; JENNES, Lothar. Neural signals that regulate GnRH neurones directly during the oestrous cycle. Reproduction (Cambridge, England), v. 122, n. 1, p. 1-10, 2001. SOEDE, N. M.; LANGENDIJK, P.; KEMP, B. Reproductive cycles in pigs. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 251-258, 2011. WEBB, R. et al. Mechanisms regulating follicular development and selection of the dominant follicle. REPRODUCTION-CAMBRIDGE-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 71-90, 2003. WHITTEMORE, Colin et al. The science and practice of pig production. Blackwell Science Ltd, 1998. FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO 1. O comportamento sexual dos animais é uma particularidade de cada espécie na iniciação da perpetuação da vida e que deve-se a quais fatores e por quê? 2. O que é anestro? É possível revertê-lo? 3. Defina e explique os estágios comportamentais de machos e fêmeas antes, durante e depois da cópula. 4. Defina e diferencia efeito fêmea e efeito macho. 5. Define e explique a estimulação sexual dos animais e como podemos induzi-la? 6. Defina e caracterize o estro das espécies zootécnicas. 7. Quais são os fatores que retardam ou adiantam a manifestação do cio e por quê? 8. Qual a relação direta ou indireta da duração do estro com o momento da ovulação? 9. Quais os mecanismos de atração dos machos? 10. Que mudanças ocorrem nas partes reprodutivas das fêmeas para a atração do macho? 11. Cite o comportamento característico das fêmeas durante o estro que visam a atração do macho para a cópula. 12. Disserte sobre a importância do macho e sobre seu comportamento sexual para o manejo reprodutivo. 13. Qual a importância e quais os meios de detecção do estro nas fêmeas. Como hipótese, você como criador utilizaria qual método de identificação e por quê? 14. Explique as principais diferenças entre machos reprodutores e machos rufiões. Como obter um rufião? (shrink)

Scientific enterprise is a part and parcel of the contemporaneous to it general human cultural and, even more general, existential endeavor. Thus, the fundamental for us notion of evolution, in the modern sense of this characteristically Occidental term, appeared in the 19-th century, with its everything pervading, irreversible cultural and technological change and the existential turmoil. Similarly, a formerly relatively recherché word emergence, became a widely used scientific term only in the 20-th century, with its cultural, economical, political, and national (...) sagas of emergence and destruction played against a background of the universe emerging from the Big Bang and disappearing into its black holes, if not into its ultimate Big Collapse. Today, the rules of engagement in scientific emergence-evolution games, steadily spreading from natural to cognitive sciences, and beyond, are dominated by the 19-th century concept of natural selection which has inverted the time-arrow of the classical creationist dogma, with its rarely spelled out pessimistic implication that the life is moving from the highest biological organization to an entropic chaos. In its turn, the natural selection’s excessively contagious, “do-it-yourself” optimism might ultimately turn out to be its undoing : the natural selection conjecture, when transposed to such fields as linguistics from the strictly biological scene, with its times of engagement ranging from at most hundred years of life expectancy for an individual organism to at least millions and even billions of years for evolutionary processes to bring this or that organism to existence, becomes for the first time verifiable and even falsifiable. The present paper studies some implications of the well-known but almost universally disregarded tight combinatorial morphological-semantic structure of the verbal system of Biblical Hebrew, to show that this linguistic fossil testifies to the existence of a now extinct Proto-Language whose extremely tight verbal organization and meaningful architecture made it both structurally strikingly similar and expressively vastly superior to humanly designed Assembler languages, – an absolutely novel, paradoxical phenomenon, never before and nowhere else observed and apparently incompatible with the basic tenets of modern linguistic natural selection theories and, at the very least, crying out for new explanatory linguistic paradigms. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2019). All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it (...) is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. -/- The first group of articles attempt to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of theoretical delusions. In the next three groups, I comment on three of the principal delusions preventing a sustainable world— technology, religion and politics (cooperative groups). People believe that society can be saved by them, so I provide some suggestions in the rest of the book as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. -/- It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. No neurophysiology, no metaphysics, no postmodernism, no theology. -/- It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. -/- The next section describes the digital delusions, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System one, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Even for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. -/- The last section describes The One Big Happy Family Delusion, i.e., that we are selected for cooperation with everyone, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces these delusions. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. The only major change in this edition is the addition in the last article of a short discussion of China, a threat to peace and freedom as great as overpopulation and climate change and one to which even most professional scholars and politicians are oblivious so I regarded it as sufficiently important to warrant a new edition. -/- I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. Even Sapolsky’s otherwise excellent “Behave”(2017) embraces leftist politics and group selection and gives space to a discussion of whether humans are innately violent. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection, natural selection). -/- The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose, or at least became popular with leftists—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. The idea of human rights is an evil fantasy created by leftists to draw attention away from the merciless destruction of the earth by unrestrained 3rd world motherhood. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive, and their descendants. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. In a horrifically overcrowded world with vanishing resources, there cannot be human rights without destroying the earth and our descendant’s futures. It could not be more obvious, but it is rarely mentioned in a clear and direct way, and one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. -/- The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century, and now all of it, due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of its topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of its food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests (which I suggest may be regarded as an unrecognized -- but the commonest and most serious-- psychological problem -- Inclusive Fitness Disorder). This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. -/- Those wishing to read my other writings may see Talking Monkeys 2nd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle 2nd ed (2019), Suicide by Democracy 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Stucture of Human Behavior (2019) and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) . (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2017). The copyright page has the date of the edition and new editions will be noted there as I edit old articles or add new ones. All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and (...) manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. The first group of articles attempts to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of the theoretical delusions that are universal. In the next group, I show how these insights apply by reviewing some books in philosophy and psychology. Next I review books on science and religion and finally provide reviews and articles showing how understanding of both science and philosophy gives insight into the tragic delusions destroying the world. People believe that society can be saved by science, religion and politics, so I provide some suggestions as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two ii systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. Since philosophical problems are the result of our innate psychology, or as Wittgenstein put it, due to the lack of perspicuity of language, they run throughout human discourse and behavior, so there is endless need for philosophical analysis, not only in the ‘human sciences’ of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, literature, religion, etc., but in the ‘hard sciences’ of physics, mathematics, and biology. It is universal to mix the language game questions with the real scientific ones as to what the empirical facts are. Scientism is ever present and the master has laid it before us long ago, i.e., Wittgenstein (hereafter W) beginning with the Blue and Brown Books in the early 1930’s. "Philosophers constantly see the method of science before their eyes and are irresistibly tempted to ask and answer questions in the way science does. This tendency is the real source of metaphysics and leads the philosopher into complete darkness." (BBB p18) The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell on Earth. As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see. We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model. The astute may wonder why we cannot see System 1 at work, but it is clearly counterproductive for an animal to be thinking about or second guessing every action, and in any case, there is no time for the slow, massively integrated System 2 to be involved in the constant stream of split second ‘decisions’ we must make. As W noted, our ‘thoughts’ (T1 or the ‘thoughts’ of System 1) must lead directly to actions. iii It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. Thus, all the articles, like all behavior, are intimately connected if one knows how to look at them. As I note, The Phenomenological Illusion (oblivion to our automated System 1) is universal and extends not merely throughout philosophy but throughout life. I am sure that Chomsky, Obama, Zuckerberg and the Pope would be incredulous if told that they suffer from the same problem as Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger, (or that that they differ only in degree from drug and sex addicts in being motivated by stimulation of their frontal cortices by the delivery of dopamine (and over 100 other chemicals) via the ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens), but it’s clearly true. While the phenomenologists only wasted a lot of people’s time, they are wasting the earth and their descendant’s futures. Many of the articles describe the ‘digital delusions’, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System 1, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Also for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. Other digital delusions are that we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2. The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences. The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Hi-tech enthusiasts hugely underestimate the problems iv resulting from unrestrained motherhood, and of course it is neither profitable nor politically correct (and now with third world supremacism dominant, not even possible) to be honest about it. The last section describes various versions of the ‘altruism delusion’ that we are selected for cooperation, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection). Many accept the delusion that we are selected for cooperation with people generally (group selection or altruism) and not just our immediate relatives (kin selection or inclusive fitness), so I spend some time in the essays of the last section demolishing this fantasy. One thing rarely mentioned by the group selectionists is the fact that, even were ‘group selection’ possible, selfishness is at least as likely (probably far more likely in most contexts) to be group selected for as altruism. Just try to find examples of true altruism in nature –the fact that we can’t (which we know is not possible if we understand evolution) tells us that its apparent presence in humans is an artefact of modern life concealing the facts, and that it can no more be selected for than the tendency to suicide (which in fact it is). One does not really need science or mathematics to grasp this – it is crushingly obvious that an v organism cannot be selected for behavior that decreases the frequency of its own genes in the next generation. One might also benefit from considering a phenomenon never (in my experience) mentioned by group selectionists -- cancer. No group has as much in common as the (originally) genetically identical cells in our own bodies-a 100 trillion cell clone-- but we are all born with thousands and perhaps millions of cells that have already taken the first step on the path to cancer and generate millions to billions of cancer cells in our life. If we did not die of other things first, we (and perhaps all multicellular organisms) would all die of cancer. Only a massive and hugely complex mechanism built into our genome that represses or derepresses trillions of genes in trillions of cells, and kills and creates billions of cells a second, keeps the majority of us alive long enough to reproduce. One might take this to imply that a just, democratic and enduring society for any kind of entity on any planet in any universe is only a dream, and that no being or power could make it otherwise. It is not only ‘the laws’ of physics that are universal and inescapable, or perhaps we should say that inclusive fitness is a law of physics. The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. There cannot be human rights without human wrongs. It cannot be more obvious, but one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century and now all of it due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of it’s topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of it’s food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a vi nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests. This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. The popular notions supported by the Democratic Party and Third World Supremacists are that Democracy, Diversity, Equality and Social Justice will produce a Utopia in America and the world, but it is clear as crystal that they unavoidably foster selfishness and divisiveness and are producing collapse. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- My writings are available as paperbacks and Kindles on Amazon. -/- Talking Monkeys: Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) ASIN B071HVC7YP. -/- The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle--Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 (2017) ASIN B071P1RP1B. -/- Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) 2nd printing with corrections (Feb 2018) ASIN B0711R5LGX -/- Suicide by Democracy: an Obituary for America and the World (2018) ASIN B07CQVWV9C -/- . (shrink)

Difference and Repetition: Deleuze’s magnum opus, “Difference and Repetition” (1968), explores the interplay between difference and repetition. He argues that difference is fundamental to reality, and repetition is not mere duplication but a creative force. Deleuze challenges conventional notions of identity and sameness, emphasizing the productive potential of difference. Gilles Deleuze’s “Difference and Repetition” is a seminal work that challenges traditional Western metaphysics and offers a fresh perspective on concepts like identity, repetition, and creativity. Let’s explore some key ideas from (...) this remarkable book: Pure Difference: Deleuze argues that difference is fundamental to reality. Unlike classical philosophy that seeks universal truths, he emphasizes divergence and decentering. Each moment contains unique differences, and these differences shape our understanding of the world. Complex Repetition: Repetition, for Deleuze, isn’t mere duplication. Instead, it involves displacement and disguising. While repetition contributes to generality and thought, it’s the differences within each repetition that account for change and novelty. Concepts and things derive meaning from these differences. Shift Away from Hegel and Marx: “Difference and Repetition” played a crucial role in shifting French thought away from Hegel and Marx toward Nietzsche and Freud. Deleuze’s exploration of difference challenged established philosophical norms and paved the way for new perspectives. The Image of Thought: Deleuze critiques the traditional “image of thought,” which often relies on fixed identities and binary oppositions. Instead, he encourages us to embrace multiplicities, complexities, and the perpetual process of becoming. Asymmetrical Synthesis of the Sensible: Deleuze introduces the concept of asymmetrical synthesis, emphasizing the interplay between perception and affect. Reality is a dynamic, ever-changing process, not a static being. Copies are never identical; they’re something new. “Difference and Repetition” invites us to rethink how we perceive reality, emphasizing creativity, multiplicity, and the constant flux of existence. Deleuze’s work continues to inspire thinkers across disciplines, bridging philosophy with art, literature, and mysticism. (shrink)

- uneducated in the field authors who defend a consensus they are being TOLD when they enter offices of Ed-Sci, teaching and writing works on learning-theory - but never checked the facts, PART I and PART II.

In this paper, we discuss three probabilistic arguments for the existence of multiple universes. First, we provide an analysis of total evidence and use that analysis to defend Roger White's "this universe" objection to a standard fine-tuning argument for multiple universes. Second, we explain why Rodney Holder's recent cosmological argument for multiple universes is unconvincing. Third, we develop a "Cartesian argument" for multiple universes. While this argument is not open to the objections previously noted, we show that, given certain highly (...) plausible assumptions about evidence and epistemic probability, the proposition which it treats as evidence cannot coherently be regarded as evidence for anything. This raises the question of whether to reject the assumptions or accept that such a proposition cannot be evidence. (shrink)

Jury theorems are mathematical theorems about the ability of collectives to make correct decisions. Several jury theorems carry the optimistic message that, in suitable circumstances, ‘crowds are wise’: many individuals together (using, for instance, majority voting) tend to make good decisions, outperforming fewer or just one individual. Jury theorems form the technical core of epistemic arguments for democracy, and provide probabilistic tools for reasoning about the epistemic quality of collective decisions. The popularity of jury theorems spans across various disciplines such (...) as economics, political science, philosophy, and computer science. This entry reviews and critically assesses a variety of jury theorems. It first discusses Condorcet's initial jury theorem, and then progressively introduces jury theorems with more appropriate premises and conclusions. It explains the philosophical foundations, and relates jury theorems to diversity, deliberation, shared evidence, shared perspectives, and other phenomena. It finally connects jury theorems to their historical background and to democratic theory, social epistemology, and social choice theory. (shrink)

After Parmenides proposed the duality of appearance and reality, details have not been well developed because the assumption was insufficient for logical reasoning. This paper establishes a foundation with an isolated system, which contains all causes and effects within itself. This paper seeks to establish a purely logical philosophy, including reality and phenomena, good and evil, truth and fallacy. Freedom is proposed as the basis for reality. All beings in an isolated system can be classified into two sets: variable phenomena (...) and constant realities. Realities are the only reasons for phenomena, and phenomena are the only results of realities. The sum of certain realities constitutes a reality, and the sum of all realities is good. Good creates most of the phenomenal world. A reality is universalizable; a phenomenon is never universalizable. Good is the only reality which is close to universality and keeps on universalizing. Truth is the simplest knowledge about universal or approximately universal beings. The universality of a reality measures the percentage of phenomena accompanied by this reality. There are two levels of truth: truth about all realities, and truth about the good. (shrink)

The author has established a mathematical theory about the system of freedom in which components of freedom are ruled by the largest freedom principle, explaining how one invariant reality can be equated with the dynamical universe. Freedom as a whole is the reality, and components of freedom show variable phenomena and become a dynamic system. In freedom, component equality leads to sequence equality; therefore, various sequences coexist in the system. Because there are incompatible sequences for any sequence, the interior of (...) freedom cannot be a static sequence. In order for the system to be a whole, there must be some connecting sequences between any two sequences. Then, at every part of freedom, it is always possible to find a group of three independent sequences that, for most components, is located inside. For the sequence group, there is a sequence through which most components flow in and out. The most abundant three - sequence group and most abundant connecting sequence correspond to the space - time structure. Other incompatible sequences correspond to particles, and interactions between these sequences correspond to interactions between particles. The interactions have some symmetries similar to those in physics, such as SU (3) AND SU (2)×U (1), thus proving the feasibility of the hypothesis: the universe is equivalent with the system of freedom. (shrink)

The author defines the sum of thinking as the soul. Historically, despite the many times that humans have liberated themselves, they are still enslaved. Humans mistakenly treats the body as a necessary part of themselves; thus, they seldom pursue the independence of souls. They are usually voluntarily exploited by the body through the nervous system. The author compares the body exploiting the soul with the slaveholder exploiting the slave and demonstrates that the soul should seek its own liberation. Even if (...) the souls can never be successfully liberated, humans should at least reduce the influence of the body. Future humans should shift the goal of life from as comfortable as possible to as logical as possible, from satisfying several fixed sense organs to experiencing various sense organs. This would also mark the beginning of humans choosing the direction of evolution rationally and actively, establishing eternal and universal ethics, and replacing fallacious empirical ethical codes with purely logical codes. (shrink)

This paper explores how to deliberate about food choices from a Stoic perspective informed by the value of environmental sustainability. This perspective is reconstructed from both ancient and contemporary sources of Stoic philosophy. An account of what the Stoic goal of “living in agreement with Nature” would amount to in dietary practice is presented. Given ecological facts about food production, an argument is made that Stoic virtue made manifest as wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance compel Stoic practitioners to select locally (...) sourced, low resource input, plant-based foods whenever circumstances allow. (shrink)

Inferentialism is a theory in the philosophy of language which claims that the meanings of expressions are constituted by inferential roles or relations. Instead of a traditional model-theoretic semantics, it naturally lends itself to a proof-theoretic semantics, where meaning is understood in terms of inference rules with a proof system. Most work in proof-theoretic semantics has focused on logical constants, with comparatively little work on the semantics of non-logical vocabulary. Drawing on Robert Brandom’s notion of material inference and Greg Restall’s (...) bilateralist interpretation of the multiple conclusion sequent calculus, I present a proof-theoretic semantics for atomic sentences and their constituent names and predicates. The resulting system has several interesting features: (1) the rules are harmonious and stable; (2) the rules create a structure analogous to familiar model-theoretic semantics; and (3) the semantics is compositional, in that the rules for atomic sentences are determined by those for their constituent names and predicates. (shrink)

Background and aims Research into the social aspects of set and setting have demonstrated that race is a significant factor in psychedelic experiences for racially marginalized populations. Yet, many studies of psychedelic-induced experiences continue to proceed without collecting data on or considering the influence of race or other social categories. These approaches abstract subjectivity from its embodied and historical conditions, isolating consciousness in ways that do not accord with lived experience. -/- Methods This article draws on critical phenomenology, anthropology, and (...) treatments of race in the field of psychedelic studies to outline how social categories mediate subjective experience in historically specific ways through the framework of embodiment. -/- Results I argue that consciousness is fundamentally intersubjective, including during psychedelic-induced experiences. Intersubjectivity is an existential condition that makes possible meaning, communication, and socialization, processes which rely on and are perpetually (re)enacted through social categories. Therefore, studies of psychedelic-induced experiences must account for the foundational role that social categories play in constituting such embodied experiences and their effects. -/- Conclusions This approach makes embodied differences matter to the study of psychedelic-induced experiences, opening new avenues of inquiry that foreground identity, power, and context in both clinical and naturalistic research. (shrink)

This paper provides a proof-theoretic account of imperative logical consequence by generalising Greg Restall’s multiple conclusion bilateralism for declarative logic. According to imperative bilateralism, a sequent Γ ⊢ Δ is valid iff jointly commanding all the imperatives Φ ∈ Γ and prohibiting all the imperatives Ψ ∈ Δ clashes. This account has three main virtues: (1) it provides a proof-theoretic account of imperatives; (2) it does not rely on the controversial notion of imperative inference; and (3) it is neutral regarding (...) cognitivism about imperatives. (shrink)

The contemporary theory of epistemic democracy often draws on the Condorcet Jury Theorem to formally justify the ‘wisdom of crowds’. But this theorem is inapplicable in its current form, since one of its premises – voter independence – is notoriously violated. This premise carries responsibility for the theorem's misleading conclusion that ‘large crowds are infallible’. We prove a more useful jury theorem: under defensible premises, ‘large crowds are fallible but better than small groups’. This theorem rehabilitates the importance of deliberation (...) and education, which appear inessential in the classical jury framework. Our theorem is related to Ladha's (1993) seminal jury theorem for interchangeable (‘indistinguishable’) voters based on de Finetti's Theorem. We also prove a more general and simpler such jury theorem. (shrink)