Background Neuroimaging and lesion studies suggested that the dorsolateral prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices mediate visual metacognitive awareness. The causal evidence provided by non-invasive brain stimulation, however, is inconsistent. -/- Objective/hypothesis Here we revisit a major figure discrimination experiment adding a new Kanizsa figure task trying to resolve whether bilateral continuous theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation (cTBS) over these regions affects perceptual metacognition. Specifically, we tested whether subjective visibility ratings and/or metacognitive efficiency are lower when cTBS is applied to these two (...) regions in comparison to an active control region. -/- Methods A within-subjects design including three sessions spaced by one-week intervals was implemented. In each session, every participant was administered bilateral cTBS to either prefrontal, control or parietal cortices. Two concurrent tasks were performed, a real and an illusory figure task, stabilising objective performance with use of an adaptive staircase procedure. -/- Results When performing the replicated task, cTBS was found insufficient to disrupt neither visibility ratings nor metacognitive efficiency. However, with use of Kanizsa style illusory figures, cTBS over the dorsolateral prefrontal, but not over the posterior parietal cortex, was observed to significantly diminish metacognitive efficiency. -/- Conclusion(s) Real and illusory figure tasks demonstrated different cTBS effects. A possible explanation is the involvement of the prefrontal cortex in the creation of expectations, which is necessary for efficient metacognition. Failure to replicate previous findings for the real figure task, however, cannot be said to support, conclusively, the notion that these brain regions have a causal role in metacognitive awareness. This inconsistent finding may result from certain limitations of our study, thereby suggesting the need for yet further investigation. (shrink)

Despite countless anecdotes and the historical significance of insight as a problem solving mechanism, its nature has long remained elusive. The conscious experience of insight is notoriously difficult to trace in non-verbal animals. Although studying insight has presented a significant challenge even to neurobiology and psychology, human neuroimaging studies have cleared the theoretical landscape, as they have begun to reveal the underlying mechanisms. The study of insight in non-human animals has, in contrast, remained limited to innovative adjustments to experimental designs (...) within the classical approach of judging cognitive processes in animals, based on task performance. This leaves no apparent possibility of ending debates from different interpretations emerging from conflicting schools of thought. We believe that comparative cognition has thus much to gain by embracing advances from neuroscience and human cognitive psychology. We will review literature on insight and discuss the consequences of these findings to comparative cognition. (shrink)

PUERPÉRIO EM BOVINOS -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- O puerpério é definido como o período entre o parto e a apresentação do primeiro estro fértil. Dois processos ocorrem durante o puerpério: a involução uterina e o início da atividade ovariana pós-parto. Em vacas leiteiras, os cuidados médicos pós-parto são essenciais nos programas de manejo, uma vez que as patologias uterinas são diagnosticadas e tratadas nesse período para que a vaca esteja em ótimas condições para ser inseminada, uma vez terminado o período de (...) espera voluntário. -/- 4.1 Involução uterina -/- O útero após o parto sofre modificações macroscópicas e microscópicas, até atingir as características de um útero não gestante, o que leva de 30 a 45 dias. O peso e o tamanho pós-parto diminuem rapidamente como consequência da atrofia das fibras musculares; por necrose das carúnculas e por eliminação de líquidos. Ao mesmo tempo em que o útero diminui de tamanho, o endométrio passa por um processo regenerativo para poder hospedar uma nova gestação. -/- A involução é promovida pelas contrações uterinas, que facilitam a eliminação de fluidos e dejetos e reduzem o tamanho do útero. As contrações são causadas pela secreção contínua de PGF2α, de origem uterina, e pela ocitocina secretada durante a amamentação. A PGF2α é secretada durante as primeiras 3 semanas pós-parto e seu envolvimento é considerado necessário para que a involução uterina ocorra normalmente. -/- Durante a involução uterina, as secreções conhecidas como lóquios, que são formadas por restos de membranas, carúnculas, fluidos fetais e sangue, são derramadas pela vagina. Essas secreções variam da cor vermelha ao marrom, têm consistência viscosa e são inodoras. A maioria dos lóquios é descartada durante os primeiros 15 dias após o parto e, em seguida, praticamente desaparece, exceto em casos de involução uterina anormal, quando o útero continua a derramar fluidos de consistência, cor e odor diferentes (figura 1). -/- Figura 1: O útero após o parto sofre alterações macroscópicas e microscópicas, até atingir as características de um útero não grávido, o que leva de 30 a 45 dias. -/- Antes do parto, o útero é estéril, pois é protegido da contaminação bacteriana pelo colo do útero ou cérvix. Durante e após o parto, essa barreira física desaparece e o útero é invadido por bactérias que se encontram no meio ambiente, pele e fezes, ou que são introduzidas durante a assistência ao parto. Além disso, a capacidade funcional dos fagócitos uterinos é baixa após o parto, o que contribui para o estabelecimento de infecções. Cerca de 95% das vacas desenvolvem infecções uterinas durante a involução, e uma alta porcentagem de vacas as eliminam por meio de mecanismos naturais. -/- Os mecanismos de defesa uterinos são constituídos pelas barreiras anatômicas (vagina, vulva e cérvix); fatores fisiológicos (produção de muco na vagina e cérvix); fagocitose promovida por neutrófilos, que migram da circulação geral para o útero; pela produção de substâncias inespecíficas, que inibem o crescimento bacteriano e favorecem a eliminação de microrganismos. A capacidade de eliminar bactérias do útero é determinada pelos hormônios ovarianos (progesterona e estrogênios); durante o diestro, a progesterona reduz a migração de neutrófilos, suprime o sistema imunocompetente, fecha o colo do útero e causa atonia uterina, resultando em aumento da suscetibilidade à infecção. Ao contrário, durante a fase folicular do ciclo estral (proestro e estro), o estradiol promove a migração de neutrófilos, abre a cérvix e aumenta o tônus uterino, o que facilita a eliminação de agentes infecciosos. Além disso, a atividade dos neutrófilos é afetada pelas deficiências antioxidantes e pela profundidade do balanço energético negativo. -/- 4.2 Anormalidades do puerpério -/- Após o parto, ocorrem algumas patologias que retardam a involução uterina e, consequentemente, afetam o intervalo entre o parto e o primeiro serviço. -/- 4.2.1 Retenção da placenta -/- A placenta é eliminada dentro de 12 horas após o parto; a retenção da placenta por mais de 24 horas é considerada uma patologia. A retenção placentária (RP) é uma alteração frequente do puerpério, que deve ser considerada como um sinal clínico de várias condições que podem ter origem infecciosa (aborto), metabólica (hipocalcemia, cetose, síndrome do vaca gorda), deficiências nutricionais (selênio e vitamina E) e erros de manejo (demasiada intervenção no parto). -/- A incidência de RP varia de 5 a 15% e depende, em grande parte, do estado de saúde e do manejo do rebanho. A RP é o principal fator de risco para infecções uterinas (metrite puerperal, metrite, endometrite e endometrite subclínica); também causa atraso no período entre o parto e a concepção e está associada à redução do percentual de concepção no primeiro serviço. -/- Em termos econômicos, determinou-se que a RP causa perdas significativas principalmente devido aos custos de serviços médicos, aumento da taxa de eliminação e diminuição da fecundidade. Além disso, vacas com retenção placentária produzem 355 kg a menos de leite durante os primeiros 60 dias do que vacas que não apresentam esta patologia (figuras 2 e 3). -/- 4.2.2 Patogenia -/- A placenta está ligada ao endométrio pelas vilosidades coriônicas, que estão ligadas às carúnculas (junção carúncula-cotilédone). A união entre essas estruturas é favorecida por um fluido adesivo formado por colágeno e outras proteínas. Antes e durante o trabalho de parto, observa-se um aumento da atividade das enzimas proteolíticas (colagenase, talvez a mais importante), que são responsáveis por separar o cotilédone da carúncula. Posteriormente, a placenta é removida mecanicamente por contrações uterinas após o parto do feto. -/- A etiologia e patogênese da retenção placentária não são conhecidas. Uma explicação proposta é que isso se deve a uma falha dos mecanismos proteolíticos responsáveis pela separação do cotilédone da carúncula. Foi observado que a atividade da colagenase no cotilédone é maior em vacas que não retêm placenta do que naquelas que a retêm. Propõe-se que alguns fatores de risco para retenção placentária possam estar atuando na redução da atividade da colagenase. Por outro lado, as condições inflamatórias na junção carúncula-cotilédone de origem infecciosa também impedem a separação da placenta. -/- Figura 3: Vaca com retenção placentária. -/- Figura 2: Vaca com retenção placentária. Em rebanhos comerciais, 5 a 15% das vacas retêm a placenta. -/- 4.2.3 Tratamento -/- Existem vários tratamentos, como a remoção manual da placenta em combinação com a aplicação local de antibióticos (infusões intrauterinas) e a administração de produtos hormonais (ocitócicos e PGF2α). A eficácia desses tratamentos é discutível. -/- A remoção manual da placenta é o tratamento mais popular; entretanto, não é a melhor, pois causa danos ao endométrio, que variam de leve sangramento a hematomas, mesmo quando não há evidências externas. Além disso, a remoção manual diminui a capacidade fagocítica dos leucócitos uterinos, resultando em metrite mais grave, maior atraso na involução uterina e baixo desempenho reprodutivo. -/- Outro tratamento consiste em cortar a placenta ao nível da vulva. Posteriormente, quando a placenta se separa das carúnculas, devido ao processo de decomposição do tecido, uma leve tração da vulva é suficiente para retirá-la, sem consequências. Essas vacas devem ser observadas quanto à febre e imediatamente integradas ao programa de check-up pós-parto, pois certamente desenvolverão metrite ou endometrite. A administração de antibióticos, tanto nos casos de retirada manual como naqueles em que a placenta é cortada, depende do estado geral da vaca. Deve-se sempre ter em mente que a RP é o principal fator de risco para metrite, portanto as vacas devem ser observadas para detectar prontamente aquelas que apresentam febre. Os antibióticos devem ser considerados para inibir a putrefação das membranas fetais, o que pode atrasar sua expulsão. No caso de opção pela administração de antibióticos, deve-se optar pela via parenteral em vez da intrauterina, pois esta causa irritação do endométrio, que está associada à baixa fertilidade (figura 4). -/- Outros tratamentos são baseados na administração de hormônios que estimulam a mobilidade uterina (ocitocina, estrogênios e PGF2α); entretanto, não há evidências clínicas que demonstrem sua eficácia; além disso, a causa menos frequente de RP é a incapacidade mecânica do útero de expelir a placenta. -/- 4.2.4 Prevenção -/- As estratégias de prevenção dessa patologia devem ter como objetivo reduzir a influência dos fatores de risco para RP. Assim, a incidência de abortos deve ser reduzida por meio de programas eficazes de vacinação e biossegurança; deve-se evitar períodos de seca muito longos para que as vacas não cheguem obesas ao parto; intervir o mínimo possível nos partos, e se atendido, deve ser feito com medidas de higiene rígidas; oferecer sais minerais de boa qualidade e administrar antioxidantes antes do parto (vitamina E, selênio e betacarotenos; tabela 1). -/- Figura 4: A placenta não deve ser removida inserindo a mão na vagina. É aconselhável aguardar a autólise (48 horas) e removê-la por leve tração. -/- Tabela 1: Incidência de retenção na membrana fetal (RMF), metrite hemorrágica (HM), metrite purulenta (PM) e puerpério anormal (PA) em vacas leiteiras tratadas com selênio e vitamina E nos dias 60, 21 antes do parto e 30, 90 pós-parto (grupo pré-pós-parto) e 21 dias pré-parto (grupo pré-parto) e testemunhas. -/- Laterais diferentes na mesma coluna indicam diferença estatística (P < 0,05). Adaptado de RUIZ et al., 2008. -/- 4.3 Infecções uterinas -/- Cerca de 95% das vacas desenvolvem infecção uterina durante os primeiros dias pós-parto; no entanto, a maioria elimina infecções por meio de seus mecanismos de defesa e apenas 30 a 50% delas desenvolvem metrite ou endometrite nas primeiras três semanas. As bactérias mais frequentes encontradas em processos inflamatórios no útero são: Arcanobacterium pyogenes (antes Actinomyces pyogenes), Fusobacterium necrophorum e Escherichia coli. Essas três bactérias agem sinergicamente. -/- 4.3.1 Metrite puerperal -/- A metrite puerperal é comum em vacas com retenção placentária. Essa patologia é observada nas três primeiras semanas pós-parto e é caracterizada pela presença de secreções abundantes na luz uterina que são vermelhas ou marrons, aquosas, fétidas e com involução retardada. As vacas afetadas mostram sinais de doença sistêmica (toxemia e febre > 39,5 °C) e diminuição da produção de leite (figura 5). -/- Figura 5: Vaca com metrite puerperal; vacas afetadas apresentam sinais de doença sistêmica. -/- 4.3.2 Metrite clínica -/- Metrite é o processo inflamatório que envolve as diferentes camadas do útero (mucosa, muscular e serosa). Esta condição se apresenta nos primeiros 21 dias pós-parto e é caracterizada por atraso na involução uterina e secreção purulenta, e não há sinais de doença sistêmica (figura 6). -/- 4.3.3 Endometrite clínica -/- Endometrite se refere à inflamação do revestimento uterino; clinicamente, caracteriza-se por retardo na involução uterina e eliminação de exsudato purulento ou mucopurulento. Pode surgir nos primeiros 21 dias pós-parto ou mais, sem apresentar qualquer afetação no estado geral. -/- Figura 6: Vaca com exsudato mucopurulento. Na prática, é difícil estabelecer um diagnóstico diferencial entre endometrite e metrite. Uma vaca com essa secreção pode ser tratada com cefalosporinas intrauterinas ou, se ela já estiver em ciclo, a administração de PGF2a é eficaz. -/- 4.3.4 Endometrite subclínica -/- Apresenta-se entre 21 e 40 dias pós-parto, não apresenta sinais externos e só é diagnosticada pela citologia uterina. Essa condição afeta entre 20 e 30% das vacas. Os fatores de risco identificados são retenção placentária e metrite. -/- 4.4 Diagnóstico -/- O diagnóstico é baseado na avaliação uterina por palpação retal, na qual são verificados o grau de involução e as características das secreções. Além disso, é necessária uma avaliação clínica geral, uma vez que vacas com metrite nos primeiros 10 dias pós-parto desenvolvem febre. Outra forma de estabelecer o diagnóstico é avaliando as secreções uterinas sem palpação retal. Pode ser feito introduzindo a mão por via vaginal, após a limpeza da região; embora este método possa parecer arriscado, a experiência em campo indica que é um método seguro e rápido. Outra possibilidade é por meio da vaginoscopia, esse método permite a avaliação da cérvix e das secreções uterinas. Existe um instrumento (Metricheck) que é inserido pela vagina e possui uma campânula atraumática na extremidade que permite a coleta das secreções uterinas (figuras 7 e 8). -/- 4.5 Impacto das infecções uterinas na reprodução e produção -/- As infecções uterinas (metrite e endometrite) prolongam o período do parto até a concepção; diminuem a porcentagem de concepção no primeiro serviço; a porcentagem de resíduos aumenta; a taxa de vacas inseminadas diminui e a produção diminui (300 kg a menos que vacas não afetadas). Além disso, eles afetam o período do parto à primeira ovulação; em vacas com puerpério anormal, os folículos dominantes são menores em diâmetro e produzem menos estradiol do que vacas saudáveis. Também uma proporção menor dos folículos da primeira onda ovula em comparação com as vacas com puerpério anormal. -/- A endometrite subclínica diminui a taxa de concepção no primeiro serviço e aumenta os dias abertos. Além disso, a metrite ou endometrite pode afetar os ovidutos e causar inchaço, obstrução e aderências (esse processo é mais frequente em vacas que recebem injeções de estrogênio). -/- Figura 8: Outra forma de diagnosticar infecções uterinas é por meio da introdução de um instrumento que possui em sua extremidade uma campânula atraumática que permite a coleta de secreções uterinas (Metricheck). -/- Figura 7: O diagnóstico de infecções uterinas pode ser estabelecido com a introdução da mão por via vaginal, após limpeza da região. -/- 4.6 Tratamentos -/- Para evitar o efeito negativo das infecções uterinas na eficiência reprodutiva, é necessário um diagnóstico e tratamento oportunos. Existem diversos tratamentos para a metrite ou endometrite, como o uso de antibióticos sistêmicos ou intrauterinos, infusões intrauterinas de antissépticos e a administração de hormônios. -/- 4.6.1 Antibióticos -/- Os tratamentos com antibióticos intrauterinos são usados há muitos anos e são uma opção, desde que alguns aspectos sejam considerados: que o útero é um ambiente anaeróbio; que há a presença de exsudatos e tecidos em decomposição e a existência de uma grande diversidade de bactérias, algumas das quais até produzem enzimas que inativam alguns antibióticos. -/- Como o útero é um ambiente anaeróbio, os antibióticos do grupo dos aminoglicosídeos não são ativos, pois precisam de oxigênio. Por outro lado, o acúmulo de exsudato purulento e restos de tecido no útero inibe a atividade das sulfonamidas. Os nitrofuranos são eficazes contra A pyogenes, somente quando doses extremamente altas são usadas; as doses usuais nunca atingem a concentração inibitória mínima no endométrio; além disso, não são ativos na presença de sangue ou exsudato purulento, são irritantes e estão associados a problemas de fertilidade. -/- A penicilina intrauterina ou parenteral é eficaz na cura de infecções entre os dias 25 e 30 após o parto; ou seja, quando for observada uma diminuição na diversidade de espécies bacterianas (menor probabilidade de que algumas bactérias produzam penicilinase) e predomina A pyogenes, que é sensível a este antibiótico. As formulações intrauterinas de cefalosporinas (cefapirina benzatina) são eficazes em vacas com endometrite entre os dias 15-20 pós-parto e não é necessário retirar o leite do mercado. -/- A tetraciclina é o antibiótico mais utilizado devido ao seu amplo espectro e por manter sua atividade nas condições do útero pós-parto; porém, a probabilidade de resistência bacteriana é alta devido ao seu uso contínuo por muitos anos, também causa danos ao endométrio e reduz a fertilidade (figura 9). -/- Em testes de campo, a administração de uma única infusão intrauterina de cefapirina benzatina, em vacas com endometrite entre os dias 15 a 20 pós-parto, produz uma maior taxa de recuperação e não afeta a fertilidade, em comparação com aquelas que foram tratadas com infusões de oxitetraciclina. -/- O problema mais importante na terapia com antibióticos é estabelecer um critério de quais animais realmente precisam. Nos casos de metrite puerperal não há dúvida, essas vacas precisam de tratamento com antibióticos por via sistêmica e intrauterina. Porém, em casos de metrite e endometrite a decisão é difícil, pois muitas vacas se curam sem nenhum tratamento. Na prática, antes que os antibióticos sejam administrados às vacas, deve-se considerar alguns dos fatores: características das secreções uterinas, dias após o parto, início da atividade ovariana, presença de febre e condição corporal. -/- Figura 9: As infusões de oxitetraciclina causam irritação do endométrio e diminuem a fertilidade. -/- 4.6.2 Tratamento com infusões de substâncias antissépticas -/- Tratamentos baseados na administração intrauterina de substâncias antissépticas também são usados. O tratamento mais frequente consiste na infusão de soluções de iodo; no entanto, os resultados com esta terapia não são positivos e estão associados a uma diminuição subsequente da fertilidade. Deve-se ter cautela no uso de antissépticos intrauterinos, pois todos causam irritação, afetam os mecanismos de defesa do útero e, em alguns casos, chegam a causar necrose do endométrio. -/- 4.6.3 Tratamentos hormonais -/- Na prática, a administração de estrogênio é comum em casos de metrite, principalmente quando o útero retém muito líquido. Sabe-se que os estrógenos em condições fisiológicas favorecem a contratilidade uterina e auxiliam na eliminação de infecções, porém, em doses farmacológicas o efeito é negativo. A administração de estrogênios pode contribuir para infecções que ascendem aos ovidutos e causam salpingite, aderências ovarianas e infertilidade. -/- A PGF2α desempenha um papel importante no parto e durante a involução uterina. Em vacas com puerpério normal, a duração dos níveis elevados de PGF2α está negativamente correlacionada com o tempo de involução uterina; portanto, quanto mais tempo duram os níveis elevados de PGF2α, menor é o tempo de involução uterina. Além disso, a administração de PGF2α a cada 12 horas, dos dias 3 a 10 pós-parto, encurta o período de involução uterina. Ao contrário, em vacas com puerpério anormal, foi observada uma correlação positiva entre as concentrações de PGF2α e o tempo de involução uterina; portanto, vacas com retenção placentária ou endometrite apresentam níveis mais elevados de PGF2α. -/- Algumas evidências envolvem a PGF2α como parte do mecanismo de eliminação da placenta; ou seja, foi observado que as vacas que normalmente eliminam a placenta apresentaram maiores concentrações de PGF2α na placenta, em comparação com as vacas com retenção placentária. Foi proposto que a falha do processo que leva à separação do cotilédone da carúncula está associada a uma alteração no metabolismo da prostaglandina, resultando em uma diminuição na PGF2α e um aumento na PGE2. Por outro lado, a inibição da síntese de PGF2α após o parto, por meio da injeção de ácido acetilsalicílico (aspirina), causa retenção da placenta. Esse conhecimento motivou estudos nos quais o tratamento com PGF2α após o parto foi avaliado para prevenir a retenção placentária ou reduzir o tempo de involução em vacas com retenção placentária ou metrite. Em alguns estudos, uma única injeção de PGF2α foi administrada nas primeiras horas após o parto com resultados conflitantes. Em outros estudos, a injeção de PGF2α entre os dias 20 a 30 pós-parto foi avaliada e não foi observado um efeito favorável na involução uterina. Porém, a injeção sistemática de PGF2α, a cada 14 dias a partir do 25º dia pós-parto, aumenta a proporção de vacas inseminadas, o que aumenta a taxa de prenhez. A PGF2α causa contrações uterinas e favorece a eliminação de secreções; entretanto, um efeito favorável da PGF2α na involução uterina, sem envolver um corpo lúteo, é questionável. -/- Na prática, um programa é usado com base na administração sistemática de PGF2α a todas as vacas a cada 14 dias, do 25º ao 30º dia pós-parto. Esse tratamento é baseado no encurtamento das fases lúteas, o que favorece a eliminação das infecções. Deve-se observar que cerca de 30% das vacas desenvolvem corpos lúteos longevos (21 a 50 dias) nos primeiros ciclos pós-parto, nessas condições a injeção de PGF2α, a cada 14 dias, encurta o ciclo estral e diminui o risco de persistência de infecções uterinas. -/- 4.7 Piometra -/- Esta patologia se desenvolve em vacas que ovulam nos primeiros 20 dias pós-parto e, concomitantemente, sofrem de infecção uterina. Nessas condições, a progesterona promove a proliferação bacteriana e fecha o colo do útero, causando acúmulo de exsudato purulento no útero. As alterações causadas no endométrio alteram a secreção de PGF2α, resultando na persistência do corpo lúteo e anestro. Vacas com piometra respondem muito bem ao tratamento com PGF2α; uma segunda injeção desse hormônio, 14 dias depois, encurta o período de recuperação (figura 10). -/- Figura 10: A piometra é caracterizada pelo acúmulo de exsudato purulento no útero, colo uterino fechado e presença de corpo lúteo. O diagnóstico é feito por palpação retal e tratado com PGF2α. -/- 4.8 Vaginite em fêmeas gestantes -/- A vaginite em fêmeas grávidas ocorre com baixa frequência; porém, quando há um caso, causa alarme porque é confundido com um aborto. Nesses casos, o veterinário deve fazer um exame retal para determinar se o produto está vivo e se a cérvix está aberta. O diagnóstico é concluído com o exame vaginal com vaginoscópio ou diretamente à mão com luva limpa. -/- No caso de um aborto, o produto geralmente está morto e a cérvix está aberta; nestes casos, o produto deve ser extraído. Ao contrário, se a cérvix estiver fechada e o feto estiver vivo, o prognóstico é favorável e o problema diminui com o tratamento com antibióticos sistêmicos. -/- RESUMO -/- < >O útero após o parto pesa 13 kg e no dia 21 pós-parto, 1 kg. A regeneração do epitélio uterino leva 25 dias. A regeneração das camadas profundas do endométrio leva 42 a 56 dias. 95% das vacas desenvolvem alguma infecção uterina. 30 a 50% das vacas desenvolvem metrite nas primeiras duas semanas após o parto. 15 a 20% persistem como endometrite clínica > 3 semanas após o parto. 18 a 20% têm metrite com efeitos sistêmicos. 20 a 30% das vacas têm endometrite subclínica. 5 a 15% das vacas retêm a placenta. 355 kg de leite são perdidos em vacas com retenção placentária. Em vacas que sofrem de puerpério anormal, a proporção de vacas prenhes é reduzida em 10 por cento no 90º dia pós-parto. No Reino Unido, 192 euros são gastos por cada vaca que tem um puerpério anormal. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ANDREWS, Anthony H. et al. (Ed.). Bovine medicine: diseases and husbandry of cattle. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. -/- AZAWI, O. I. Postpartum uterine infection in cattle. Animal reproduction science, v. 105, n. 3-4, p. 187-208, 2008. -/- BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Applied animal reproduction. Reston Publishing Company, Inc., 1984. -/- HOLY, Lubos; MARTÍNEZ JÚSTIZ, G. Colab. Biología de la reproducción bovina. Havana: Revolucionária, 1975. -/- HOPPER, Richard M. (Ed.). Bovine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2014. -/- HORTA, António Eduardo Monteiro. Fisiologia do puerpério na vaca. Jornada Internales de Reproductión Animal, v. 8, p. 73-84, 1995. -/- KOZICKI, Luiz Ernandes. Aspectos fisiológicos e patológicos do puerpério em bovinos. Archives of Veterinary Science, v. 3, n. 1, 1998. -/- LEBLANC, S. J. et al. Defining and diagnosing postpartum clinical endometritis and its impact on reproductive performance in dairy cows. Journal of dairy science, v. 85, n. 9, p. 2223-2236, 2002. -/- LEBLANC, S. J. et al. The effect of treatment of clinical endometritis on reproductive performance in dairy cows. Journal of dairy science, v. 85, n. 9, p. 2237-2249, 2002. -/- MARTINS, T. M.; BORGES, A. M. Avaliação uterina em vacas durante o puerpério. Rev. Bras. Reprod. Anim, Belo Horizonte, v. 35, n. 4, p. 433-443, 2011. -/- RADOSTITS, Otto M. et al. Clínica Veterinária: um tratado de doenças dos bovinos, ovinos, suínos, caprinos e eqüinos. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2002. -/- RISCO, CARLOS A.; YOUNGQUIST, ROBERT S.; SHORE, M. DAWN. Postpartum uterine infections. In: Current therapy in large animal theriogenology. WB Saunders, 2007. p. 339-344. -/- SHELDON, I. M. et al. Influence of uterine bacterial contamination after parturition on ovarian dominant follicle selection and follicle growth and function in cattle. REPRODUCTION-CAMBRIDGE-, v. 123, n. 6, p. 837-845, 2002. -/- SHELDON, I. M. et al. Mechanisms of infertility associated with clinical and subclinical endometritis in high producing dairy cattle. Reproduction in domestic animals, v. 44, p. 1-9, 2009. -/- SHELDON, I. Martin et al. Uterine diseases in cattle after parturition. The Veterinary Journal, v. 176, n. 1, p. 115-121, 2008. -/- TIXI, C. et al. Factores que afectan el porcentaje de vacas gestantes en el día 90 posparto. In: Memorias del XXXIII Congreso Nacional de Buiatría. Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chiapas. México. pp. 2009. (shrink)

In response to its current crisis, scholars call for the revitalisation of democracy through democratic innovations. While they make ample use of life metaphors describing democracy as a living organism, no comprehensive understanding of ‘life’ has been established within democratic theory. The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement articulates the urgency of refocusing on life and its meaning through radical democratic practice. This article employs a grounded theory approach, enriched with participatory methods, to develop a radical democratic concept of life in (...) conversation with BLM. It conceptualises life as the existence of a perspective that constantly transforms through its fundamental interconnectedness. Building on this concept, the article outlines four principles of a living democracy that go beyond the revitalisation discourse. A living democracy (1) safeguards the existence of all humans and nonhumans, (2) nurtures a diversity of perspectives, (3) fosters social and planetary connectivity, and (4) enables self- and collective transformation. (shrink)

Il discorso della guerra e i racconti della resistenza.

We present a new metaphysical framework for physics that is conceptually clear, ontologically parsimonious, and empirically adequate. This framework relies on the notion of self-subsisting structure, that is, a set of fundamental physical elements whose individuation and behavior are described in purely relational terms, without any need for a background spacetime. Although the specification of the fundamental elements of the ontology depends on the particular physical domain considered---and is thus susceptible to scientific progress---, the empirically successful structural features of the (...) framework are preserved through theory change. The kinematics and dynamics of these self-subsisting structures are technically implemented using the theoretical framework of Pure Shape Dynamics, which provides a completely relational physical description of a system in terms of the intrinsic geometry of a suitably defined space called shape space. (shrink)

Linguaggio, verità, dicibile e indicibile in Wittgenstein, ai confini tra logica, scienza, etica e poesia.

By Martin Roderick & Jacquelyn Allen-Collinson -/- To date, no sociological studies of professional athletes have investigated the lived experiences of sportspeople in highly publicly-visible occupations that provide relatively few opportunities for back-stage relaxation from role demands. Drawing on findings from a British Academy-funded project examining high-profile sports workers, and employing Goffman’s dramaturgical insights, this article provides a novel examination of high-profile athletes who work in highly publicly visible contexts. This working context can render them ‘open’ persons in interactional situations. (...) To explore this sociologically significant occupational domain, interviews were conducted with 26 UK-based professional athletes (female and male) from seven different sports. For these athletes, dramaturgical demands were found to be relentless and unremitting, as back-stage regions proved so challenging to access. -/- . (shrink)

There is something puzzling about statistical evidence. One place this manifests is in the law, where courts are reluctant to base affirmative verdicts on evidence that is purely statistical, in spite of the fact that it is perfectly capable of meeting the standards of proof enshrined in legal doctrine. After surveying some proposed explanations for this, I shall outline a new approach – one that makes use of a notion of normalcy that is distinct from the idea of statistical frequency. (...) The puzzle is not, however, merely a legal one. Our unwillingness to base beliefs on statistical evidence is by no means limited to the courtroom, and is at odds with almost every general principle that epistemologists have proposed as to how we ought to manage our beliefs. (shrink)

In ‘The normative role of knowledge’ (2012), Declan Smithies defends a ‘JK-rule’ for belief: One has justification to believe that P iff one has justification to believe that one is in a position to know that P. Similar claims have been defended by others (Huemer, 2007, Reynolds, forthcoming). In this paper, I shall argue that the JK-rule is false. The standard and familiar way of arguing against putative rules for belief or assertion is, of course, to describe putative counterexamples. My (...) argument, though, won’t be like this – indeed I doubt that there are any intuitively compelling counterexamples to the JK-rule. Nevertheless, the claim that there are counterexamples to the JK-rule can, I think, be given something approaching a formal proof. My primary aim here is to sketch this proof. I will briefly consider some broader implications for how we ought to think about the epistemic standards governing belief and assertion. (shrink)

Is attention both necessary and sufficient for consciousness? Call this central question of this treatise, “Q.” We commonly have the experience of consciously paying attention to something, but is it possible to be conscious of something you are not attending to, or to attend to something of which you are not conscious? Where might we find examples of these? This treatise is a quest to find an answer to Q in two parts. Part I reviews the foundations upon which the (...) discourse on Q is built. Different inputs to Q produce different answers. After consideration of the many ways “attention” and “consciousness” have been defined, I settle upon phenomenal consciousness and Executive Attention (defined as a suite of strategies for structuring cognition for further processing implemented by the executive of working memory) as the most interesting inputs to Q, and the ones on which Part II focuses. Attention without consciousness seems relatively easy to establish empirically, but consciousness without attention is much harder. The putative candidates all seem to have major problems, but I build a strong abductive case for the hitherto ignored case of foveal phenomenal overflow. We consciously see far more detail in our foveal fields than we can Executively Attend, although there is a serious obstacle to our ever confirming that empirically—identifying conscious content relies on Executive Attentional report. Triangulating the capacity limitations of attention, consciousness, and working memory strengthens this case for consciousness without attention, and suggests that cognition must work something like my “Witches’ Hat Model,” on which content can become conscious outside of Executive Attention or working memory. I conclude with some reflections on the implications of my arguments for the discourse on Q, and for other discourses such as the ontologies of attention and consciousness, theories of consciousness, some other cognitive concepts, and ethical considerations in humans, animals, and machines. A conclusive answer to Q continues to elude us. It may perhaps be an ultimately insoluble conundrum. But it is the very essence of humanity to seek an answer, and in so doing, to improve our understanding of our own nature: “The proper study of mankind is man.”1. (shrink)

Persuasive technologies can adopt several strategies to change the attitudes and behaviors of their users. In this work I synthesize the lessons learned from three empirical case studies on automated persuasion that have been carried out in the last decade in the contexts of: persuasive news recommendations, social robotics, and e-commerce, respectively. In particular, such studies have assessed, in the technological domain, the effects of nudging techniques relying on well known persuasive argumentation schemas and on framing strategies. In discussing the (...) main findings, I will argue that the obtained persuasive effects are due to the fact that such techniques leverage on cognitive mechanisms that refer to the “system 1” types of automatic processes hypothesized in the context of the dual process theory of reasoning. As a consequence of this state of affairs, any automated persuasive systems (used for ethical purposes: e.g. suggesting good health habits) should be able to re-use these types of system 1 strategies in order to gradually take the users in an argumentation territory where system 2 processes can take place. -/- . (shrink)

The term attention has been used to mean so many different things that some have despaired of it being useful at all. This paper is devoted to bringing a modicum of order to the chaos through the time-honored device of categorization. The chief purpose of this paper is to introduce a comprehensive descriptive taxonomy of the nuanced ways the term attention may be employed. It is presented in table form, followed by elucidations and illustrations of each of its items. But (...) first, I offer reasons why a taxonomy of attention is needed and explore some of its possible benefits. After presenting the taxonomy, I sketch by way of example how it might be applied to two interesting questions: is the umbrella term attention still useful?; and, what is it that ties the subdefinitions of attention together yet distinguishes them from other kinds of cognition? (shrink)

The epistle 49 by Peter Damian contains an original allegorical interpretation of the Jewish Sabbath as a day of rest, enriched by a mystical exegesis of the biblical Hexameron, in which the six days of creation correspond to the inner journey of man called to intimately unite with God. Peter Damian expresses this process of deification through the two images of man as microcosm and sovereign of creation and man as temple of God. The main source of Damian’s text seems (...) to be the De natura hominis by Nemesius of Emesa, which he knows thanks to the translation of Alfanus I of Salerno, one of the recipients of the epistle: this is confirmed by textual evidences, but also by a preliminary historical and historiographic reconstruction of the clue of friendship that binds Peter Damian to the archbishop of Salerno. (shrink)

According to a captivating picture, epistemic justification is essentially a matter of epistemic or evidential likelihood. While certain problems for this view are well known, it is motivated by a very natural thought—if justification can fall short of epistemic certainty, then what else could it possibly be? In this paper I shall develop an alternative way of thinking about epistemic justification. On this conception, the difference between justification and likelihood turns out to be akin to the more widely recognised difference (...) between ceteris paribus laws and brute statistical generalisations. I go on to discuss, in light of this suggestion, issues such as classical and lottery-driven scepticism as well as the lottery and preface paradoxes. (shrink)

In this paper I draw attention to a peculiar epistemic feature exhibited by certain deductively valid inferences. Certain deductively valid inferences are unable to enhance the reliability of one's belief that the conclusion is true—in a sense that will be fully explained. As I shall show, this feature is demonstrably present in certain philosophically significant inferences—such as GE Moore's notorious 'proof' of the existence of the external world. I suggest that this peculiar epistemic feature might be correlated with the much (...) discussed phenomenon that Crispin Wright and Martin Davies have called 'transmission failure'—the apparent failure, on the part of some deductively valid inferences to transmit one's justification for believing the premises. (shrink)

Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in metaphysical explanation, and philosophers have fixed on the notion of ground as the conceptual tool with which such explanation should be investigated. I will argue that this focus on ground is myopic and that some metaphysical explanations that involve the essences of things cannot be understood in terms of ground. Such ‘essentialist’ explanation is of interest, not only for its ubiquity in philosophy, but for its being in a sense an ultimate (...) form of explanation. I give an account of the sense in which such explanation is ultimate and support it by defending what I call the inessentiality of essence. I close by suggesting that this principle is the key to understanding why essentialist explanations can seem so satisfying. (shrink)

I argue that The Metaethical Moral Relativism has been being used as a form of support in order to commit desire–belief actions against Human Biology Principia. The lacking of Moral Epistemology allows me illustrate and explain practical downsides in the Ontological part of Moral Knowledge. I recommend a departure from The Biological Basis of Morality in favor to avoid contemporary misuses in the Justification of The Metaethical Moral Relativism.

On the fog of the misunderstanding of the truth, the choking with the will begin. We can use the above sentence in order to generalize the terms werra (Frankish–German), bellum (Latin) and polemos (Greek), whose meanings hints in the draw of fighting. On the early stage of the beginning of all the times, this fog has blinded in the driving (i.e. conscious) between the movement of the natural human being and the actions of the man, making many generations believe that (...) the human psychology is not based in any summum bonum but in some summum malum, as Thomas Hobbes does on his book Leviathan [Ho]. (shrink)

According to the principle of Conjunction Closure, if one has justification for believing each of a set of propositions, one has justification for believing their conjunction. The lottery and preface paradoxes can both be seen as posing challenges for Closure, but leave open familiar strategies for preserving the principle. While this is all relatively well-trodden ground, a new Closure-challenging paradox has recently emerged, in two somewhat different forms, due to Backes :3773–3787, 2019a) and Praolini :715–726, 2019). This paradox synthesises elements (...) of the lottery and the preface and is designed to close off the familiar Closure-preserving strategies. By appealing to a normic theory of justification, I will defend Closure in the face of this new paradox. Along the way I will draw more general conclusions about justification, normalcy and defeat, which bear upon what Backes :2877–2895, 2019b) has dubbed the ‘easy defeat’ problem for the normic theory. (shrink)

There are a number of debates that are relevant to questions concerning objectivity in science. One of the eldest, and still one of the most intensely fought, is the debate over epistemic relativism. —All forms of epistemic relativism commit themselves to the view that it is impossible to show in a neutral, non-question-begging, way that one “epistemic system”, that is, one interconnected set of epistemic standards, is epistemically superior to others. I shall call this view “No-metajustification”. No-metajustification is commonly taken (...) to deny the objectivity of standards. In this paper I shall discuss two currently popular attempts to attack “No-metajustification”. The first attempt attacks no-metajustification by challenging a particular strategy of arguing in its defence: this strategy involves the ancient Pyrrhonian “Problem of the Criterion”. The second attempt to refute No-metajustification targets its metaphysical underpinning: to wit, the claim that there are, or could be, several fundamentally different and irreconcilable epistemic systems. I shall call this assumption “Pluralism”. I shall address three questions with respect to these attempts to refute epistemic relativism by attacking no-metajustification: Can the epistemic relativist rely on the Problem of the Criterion in support of No-metajustification? Is a combination of Chisholmian “particularism” and epistemic naturalism an effective weapon against No-metajustification? And is Pluralism a defensible assumption? (shrink)

The focus in the literature on scientific explanation has shifted in recent years towards model-based approaches. In recent work, Alisa Bokulich has argued that idealization has a central role to play in explanation. Bokulich claims that certain highly-idealized, structural models can be explanatory, even though they are not considered explanatory by causal, mechanistic, or covering law accounts of explanation. This paper focuses on Bokulich’s account in order to make the more general claim that there are problems with maintaining that a (...) structural criterion can capture the way that highly-idealized models explain. This paper examines Bokulich’s claim that the structural model explanation of quantum wavefunction scarring, featuring semiclassical mechanics, is deeper than the explanation provided by the local quantum model. The challenge for Bokulich is to show that the semiclassical model answers a wider range of w-questions, as this is her method of assessing structural information. I look at two reasonable approaches employing w-questions, and I argue that neither approach is ultimately satisfactory. Because structural similarity has preferences for more fundamental models, I argue that the local quantum model provides explanations that at least as deep as the semiclassical ones. The criterion either wrongly identifies all models as explanatory, or prefers models from fundamental theory. Either way, it cannot capture the way that highly-idealized models explain. (shrink)

I muri mentali e fisici che ci separano e contrappongono all'Altro.

Theories of epistemic justification are commonly assessed by exploring their predictions about particular hypothetical cases – predictions as to whether justification is present or absent in this or that case. With a few exceptions, it is much less common for theories of epistemic justification to be assessed by exploring their predictions about logical principles. The exceptions are a handful of ‘closure’ principles, which have received a lot of attention, and which certain theories of justification are well known to invalidate. But (...) these closure principles are only a small sample of the logical principles that we might consider. In this paper, I will outline four further logical principles that plausibly hold for justification and two which plausibly do not. While my primary aim is just to put these principles forward, I will use them to evaluate some different approaches to justification and (tentatively) conclude that a ‘normic’ theory of justification best captures its logic. (shrink)

Any explanation of one fact in terms of another will appeal to some sort of connection between the two. In a causal explanation, the connection might be a causal mechanism or law. But not all explanations are causal, and neither are all explanatory connections. For example, in explaining the fact that a given barn is red in terms of the fact that it is crimson, we might appeal to a non-causal connection between things’ being crimson and their being red. Many (...) such connections, like this one, are general rather than particular. I call these general non-causal explanatory connections 'laws of metaphysics'. In this paper I argue that some of these laws are to be found in the world at its most fundamental level, forming a bridge between fundamental reality and everything else. It is only by admitting fundamental laws, I suggest, that we can do justice to the explanatory relationship between what is fundamental and what is not. And once these laws are admitted, we are able to provide a nice resolution of the puzzle of why there are any non-fundamental facts in the first place. (shrink)

Is it right to convict a person of a crime on the basis of purely statistical evidence? Many who have considered this question agree that it is not, posing a direct challenge to legal probabilism – the claim that the criminal standard of proof should be understood in terms of a high probability threshold. Some defenders of legal probabilism have, however, held their ground: Schoeman (1987) argues that there are no clear epistemic or moral problems with convictions based on purely (...) statistical evidence, and speculates that our aversion to such convictions may be nothing more than an irrational bias. More recently, Hedden and Colyvan (2019, section VI) describe our reluctance to convict on the basis of purely statistical evidence as an ‘intuition’, but suggest that there may be no ‘in principle’ problem with such convictions (see also Papineau, forthcoming, section 6). In this paper, I argue that there is, in some cases, an in principle problem with a conviction based upon statistical evidence alone – namely, it commits us to a precedent which, if consistently followed through, could lead to the deliberate conviction of an innocent person. I conclude with some reflections on the idea that the criminal justice system should strive to maximise the accuracy of its verdicts – and the related idea that we should each strive to maximise the accuracy of our beliefs. (shrink)

A de minimis risk is defined as a risk that is so small that it may be legitimately ignored when making a decision. While ignoring small risks is common in our day-to-day decision making, attempts to introduce the notion of a de minimis risk into the framework of decision theory have run up against a series of well-known difficulties. In this paper, I will develop an enriched decision theoretic framework that is capable of overcoming two major obstacles to the modelling (...) of de minimis risk. The key move is to introduce, into decision theory, a non-probabilistic conception of risk known as normic risk. (shrink)

I survey the philosophical literature on grounding explanation and its connection to metaphysical ground.

In "Individuals", Peter Strawson talks about identifying, discriminating and picking out particular objects, regarding discriminating and picking out as ways of identifying. I object that, strictly speaking, identification means to say of two things that they are the same. In contrast, discriminating an object from all others can be done by just ascribing some predicate to it that does not apply to the others. Picking out an object does not even seem to require to distinguish it from all others. The (...) object picked is distinct in that it is the picked one, but it is not clear - even in the context of sensorily picking out - that I have to be aware of this in order to do the picking. (shrink)

In this paper I respond to Marcello Di Bello’s criticisms of the ‘normic account’ of the criminal standard of proof. In so doing, I further elaborate on what the normic account predicts about certain significant legal categories of evidence, including DNA and fingerprint evidence and eyewitness identifications.

This essay is dedicated to the memory of Katherine Hawley.1Bitcoin was invented to serve as a digital currency that demands no trust in financial institutions, such as commercial and central banks. This paper discusses metaphysical aspects of bitcoin, in particular the view that bitcoin is socially constructed, non-concrete, and genuinely exists. If bitcoin is socially constructed, then one may worry that this reintroduces trust in the communities responsible for the social construction. Although we may have to rely on certain communities, (...) I argue that social construction doesn’t imply a demand for trust because the relevant communities don’t take on any relevant commitments. Bitcoin is indeed trust-free. (shrink)

A ‘lottery belief’ is a belief that a particular ticket has lost a large, fair lottery, based on nothing more than the odds against it winning. The lottery paradox brings out a tension between the idea that lottery beliefs are justified and the idea that that one can always justifiably believe the deductive consequences of things that one justifiably believes – what is sometimes called the principle of closure. Many philosophers have treated the lottery paradox as an argument against the (...) second idea – but I make a case here that it is the first idea that should be given up. As I shall show, there are a number of independent arguments for denying that lottery beliefs are justified. (shrink)

_ Source: _Volume 6, Issue 2-3, pp 120 - 142 This paper aims to contribute to the debate over epistemic versus non-epistemic readings of the ‘hinges’ in Wittgenstein’s _On Certainty_. I follow Marie McGinn’s and Daniele Moyal-Sharrock’s lead in developing an analogy between mathematical sentences and certainties, and using the former as a model for the latter. However, I disagree with McGinn’s and Moyal-Sharrock’s interpretations concerning Wittgenstein’s views of both relata. I argue that mathematical sentences as well as certainties are (...) true and are propositions; that some of them can be epistemically justified; that in some senses they are not prior to empirical knowledge; that they are not ineffable; and that their primary function is epistemic as much as it is semantic. (shrink)

One of the most intriguing claims in Sven Rosenkranz’s Justification as Ignorance is that Timothy Williamson’s celebrated anti-luminosity argument can be resisted when it comes to the condition ~K~KP—the condition that one is in no position to know that one is in no position to know P. In this paper, I critically assess this claim.

Leibniz has long faced a challenge about the coherence of the distinction between necessary and contingent truths in his philosophy. In this paper, I propose and examine a new way to save genuine contingency within a Leibnizian framework. I conclude that it succeeds in formally solving the problem, but at unbearable cost. I present Leibniz’s challenge by considering God’s choice of the best possible world (Sect. 2). God necessarily exists and necessarily chooses to actualise the best possible world. The actual (...) world therefore could not be different, for if it were different it would be a distinct and inferior world and hence would not be created. In Sect. 3 I defend Leibniz from this challenge. I argue that while it is necessary for God to choose to create the best possible world, it is not necessary for any world to be the best possible. This is because the criterion for judging perfection can itself be contingent. Different criteria will judge different worlds as the best. Thus it is necessary for God to create the best, but not necessary which is the best. Distinguishing between possible worlds in Leibniz’s sense and in the modern sense allows a fuller exposition of this position. There are worries that can arise with the claim that the criterion of perfection is contingent. I consider two of the most pressing (Sect. 4). The first argues that the criterion is in God’s understanding and hence is necessary; the second alleges that a contingent criterion of perfection violates Leibniz’s cherished Principle of Sufficient Reason. These worries are well-grounded, and examining them reveals a deep incompatibility between this solution and Leibniz’s metaphysical views. I conclude that there is a real solution available, but that it is unacceptable to Leibniz or a Leibnizian. The search for a genuine solution that is genuinely Leibnizian goes on. (shrink)

Reasons for action is a widely employed methodology in practical philosophy, and especially in moral philosophy. Reasons are facts that explain and justify actions. But, conceptually, if reasons were causes, incontinent actions would be impossible. When an agent ranks an evaluation about what to do as his best judgement, it entails that he has a reason for acting as that judgement prescribes. But when an agent acts incontinently, he acts in accordance to an intention that is not aligned with his (...) best evaluative judgement. Yet, if the agent’s best evaluative judgement provides him a reason for action, this reason should also be his strongest reason, and therefore, the strongest cause. How then can it be possible that an agent incontinently acts according to a reason of inferior causal strength? In this paper, I analyze how Davidson’s argument for the possibility of incontinent actions interacts with his causal theory of actions. I argue that Davidson’s proposal does not fully respect the two principles of intentional rationality, that he himself claims to be compelling. Lastly, I sketch some initial steps that might be helpful to drawing more precise conceptual distinctions in terms of the rationality of incontinent actions. (shrink)

A moral requirement R1 is said to be lexically prior to a moral requirement R2 just in case we are morally obliged to uphold R1 at the expense of R2 – no matter how many times R2 must be violated thereby. While lexical priority is a feature of many ethical theories, and arguably a part of common sense morality, attempts to model it within the framework of decision theory have led to a series of problems – a fact which is (...) sometimes spun as a ‘decision theoretic critique’ of lexical priority. In this paper, I develop an enriched decision theoretic framework that is capable of modelling lexical priority while avoiding all extant problems. This will involve introducing several new ingredients into the standard decision theoretic framework, including multidimensional utilities, de minimis risks, and the means to represent two different conceptions of risk. (shrink)

In this paper I propose a new solution to the problem of change: situationalism. According to this view, parts of reality fundamentally disagree about what is the case and reality as a whole is unsettled (i.e. metaphysically indeterminate). When something changes, parts of the world irreconcilably disagree about what properties it has. From this irreconcilable disagreement, indeterminacy arises. I develop this picture using situations, which are parts of possible worlds; this gives it the name situationalism. It allows a B-theory endurance (...) view on which there is genuine incompatibility when things change. There are costs to the view, which are explored, but it is a novel approach which offers a distinct explanation of what happens when things exist through change. (shrink)

Our understanding of subjunctive conditionals has been greatly enhanced through the use of possible world semantics and, more precisely, by the idea that they involve variably strict quantification over possible worlds. I propose to extend this treatment to ceteris paribus conditionals – that is, conditionals that incorporate a ceteris paribus or ‘other things being equal’ clause. Although such conditionals are commonly invoked in scientific theorising, they traditionally arouse suspicion and apprehensiveness amongst philosophers. By treating ceteris paribus conditionals as a species (...) of variably strict conditional I hope to shed new light upon their content and their logic. (shrink)

In a recent paper in this journal Duncan Pritchard responds to an objection to the modal account of risk pressed by Ebert, Smith and Durbach ( 2020 ). In this paper, I expand upon the objection and argue that it still stands. I go on to consider a more general question raised by this exchange – whether risk is ‘objective’, or whether it is something that varies from one perspective to another.

I develop a puzzle, the resolution of which, I argue, requires an unfamiliar distinction between two forms or senses of metaphysical modality, each bearing a different relationship to time. In one sense of ‘metaphysically possible’, it is metaphysically possible for it to be a time other than the time it is now; in another sense, this is not metaphysically possible.

Philosophers have observed that metaphysical necessity appears to be a true or real or genuine form of necessity while epistemic necessity does not. Similarly, natural necessity appears genuine while deontic necessity does not. But what is it for a form of necessity to be genuine? I defend an account of genuine necessity in explanatory terms. The genuine forms of necessity, I argue, are those that provide what I call necessitarianexplanation. I discuss the relationship of necessitarian explanation to ground.

In their 2010 book, Biology’s First Law, D. McShea and R. Brandon present a principle that they call ‘‘ZFEL,’’ the zero force evolutionary law. ZFEL says (roughly) that when there are no evolutionary forces acting on a population, the population’s complexity (i.e., how diverse its member organisms are) will increase. Here we develop criticisms of ZFEL and describe a different law of evolution; it says that diversity and complexity do not change when there are no evolutionary causes.

This article aims to bring some work in contemporary analytic metaphysics to discussions of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. I will show that some unusual claims of the Real Presence doctrine exactly parallel what would be happening in the world if objects were to time-travel in certain ways. Such time-travel would make ordinary objects multiply located, and in the relevantly analogous respects. If it is conceptually coherent that objects behave in this way, we have a model for (...) the behaviour of the Eucharist which shows the doctrine to be coherent, at least with respect to the issues discussed. (shrink)

In this paper I investigate whether there are any cases in which it is rational for a person to hold inconsistent beliefs and, if there are, just what implications this might have for the theory of epistemic justification. A number of issues will crop up along the way – including the relation between justification and rationality, the nature of defeat, the possibility of epistemic dilemmas, the importance of positive epistemic duties, and the distinction between transitional and terminal attitudes.

I will present the rationale followed for the conceptualization and the following development the Dual PECCS system that relies on the cognitively grounded heterogeneous proxytypes representational hypothesis [Lieto 2014]. Such hypothesis allows integrating exemplars and prototype theories of categorization as well as theory-theory [Lieto 2019] and has provided useful insights in the context of cognitive modelling for what concerns the typicality effects in categorization [Lieto, 2021]. As argued in [Lieto et al., 2018b] a pivotal role in this respect is played (...) by the use of the conceptual spaces framework and by its integration with a symbolic knowledge representation layer. (shrink)

Many epistemologists have responded to the lottery paradox by proposing formal rules according to which high probability defeasibly warrants acceptance. Douven and Williamson present an ingenious argument purporting to show that such rules invariably trivialise, in that they reduce to the claim that a probability of 1 warrants acceptance. Douven and Williamson’s argument does, however, rest upon significant assumptions – amongst them a relatively strong structural assumption to the effect that the underlying probability space is both finite and uniform. In (...) this paper, I will show that something very like Douven and Williamson’s argument can in fact survive with much weaker structural assumptions – and, in particular, can apply to infinite probability spaces. (shrink)

The paper by Fritz Hamm, Hans Kamp and Michiel van Lambalgen (in what follows abbreviated as ‘HKL’) is a very rich one. Not only does it contain a wealth of empirical and formal insights concerning the analysis of tense and aspect, planning and causality, and other phenomena, it also contains some penetrating remarks concerning the scope and method of semantic theory. It is the latter aspect of the paper that I want to make a few comments on in what follows.