İdrak ve niteliği felsefenin en önemli problemlerinden biridir. İbn Sînâ hissî, hayalî, vehmî ve aklî olmak üzere dört farklı idrak mertebesi dillendirir. Buna göre insan nefsi nesnelerin suretlerini duyu yetileriyle algılar. Daha sonra bu suretleri hayal yetisine teslim eder. Akabinde akıl bu sureti barındırdığı maddî eklentilerden arındırarak aklî suretlerin oluşumu için gerekli zeminleri hazırlar. Daha sonra faal akıl insan nefsine aklî suretleri verir. İnsan zihninde duyularla algılanan bu kavramlardan başka kavramlar da vardır. Bu küllî kavramların yeri nesnel âlem değil öznel (...) âlemdir. İslam felsefesi geleneğinde Fârâbî ilk defa bu ayırımı yapar ve ma‘kūlleri birinci ve ikinci ma‘kūller diye iki kısma ayırır. İbn Sînâ da bu sınıflandırmayı benimser ve konu hakkında yeni açıklamalar getirir. İbn Sînâ, ikinci ma‘kūllerin sonraki dönemlerde yapılan felsefî ve mantıkî ayırımını her ne kadar dillendirmese de eserlerinden bu iki ma‘kūl türünün farklılığına teveccüh eder. Bu çalışmada İbn Sînâ felsefesinde idrak olgusunun gerçekleşme niteliği ele alınacak ve daha sonraki dönemlerde dillendirilen ikinci felsefî ma‘kūl anlamların İbn Sînâ felsefesindeki yeri açıklanacaktır. (shrink)

In this short paper it is aimed to show that the concept of the “function”(the ergon) is such a concept that beyond its use in everyday language as a process or functioning, it can be considered as a mathematical function, and rather than modeling the phenomenon that is thought (by Aristotle)to correspond to reality, it models the derivative of this phenomenon, therefore it can be likened to a derivative function and the function obtained through its integration would better explain the (...) actual phenomenon, and interestingly, existentialists, who often reject the function argument, approach this more closely. (shrink)

Objective: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common cardiac arrhythmia in adults. Anticoagulation significantly reduces stroke and related mortality in AF patients. This study conducted a bibliometric analysis of the top 50 most-cited articles in the literature on dabigatran, the first new-generation oral anticoagulant. -/- Methods: We searched the Web of Science for articles with dabigatran in the title. The top 50 most cited articles (T50) were selected. Characteristics of the articles (such as author, source, institution, country, scientific category, number (...) of citations, citation density, and citations per article) were analyzed. -/- Results: T50 had a total of 33,301 citations. The average number of citations per article was 666. The United States of America (USA) was the most prolific country in T50, with 36 papers and 26,043 citations. Wallentin Lars from Uppsala University was the most prolific author, with 14 articles and 13,532 citations. Circulation was the most prolific journal, with 11 articles. -/- Conclusions: We analyzed the classic publications on dabigatran, the first new-generation oral anticoagulant. The most prolific country was the USA, author was Wallentin, and journal was Circulation. Researchers and clinicians can easily access influential publications by reviewing our study. (shrink)

Divine intention is an important problem for both philosophy and Kalam. This problem has two aspects as the subject and action of the intention. The intention of the subject occurs for the motion or the action itself. The intention of the action is to reach the motion or the action itself. According to this, when a person travels to Mecca to visit Kaaba, the visit is the intention of the subject and the journey is the intention of the action. In (...) this context, does Allah have an intention? And what are the intentions of the actions aris-ing from him? In the Islamic philosophy, the first question is handled as "intention of the sub-ject/divine intention” and the second question as "the intention of the actions/divine inten-tion of the actions". In order to answer the first question, we must examine all types of inten-tions. Each subject takes action to benefit them, to benefit others and to act for the sake of the goodness and kindness. Allah would be dependent being if he acted to benefit him and to make up for a flaw for the first of these intentions. In the second intention type, if Allah acted for someone else, this sit-uation would be on the degree of cause for the subject and he would be passive. For the third intention type which is to act to reach for perfection, it would deem Allah as a dependent being. The above-mentioned intentions are flawed. On the contrary, Allah is perfect and does not need any of these intentions to create. Thus, he is not subject to any of these possible inten-tions. These intentions are only used by imperfect subjects. Of course, it does not mean that Allah does not have intentions. According to Avicenna and Mulla Sadra, intention of Allah is the love towards his essence which is free from any flaw. According to this, all beings are entailed to the divine essence and they exist due to the love of essence of Allah. Allah has a direct intention as well as an indirect one. As mentioned before, Allah is in love with his essence. Allah loves the works and actions of his essence as well, according to the principal that one, who loves the essence, loves the works and actions of that essence as well. In this context, the love of essence of the Allah is a direct intention, while the love of his es-sence's works and actions is an indirect intention. After the divine intention is explained, we must also explain the intention of the divine ac-tions. According to both Mulla Sadra and Avicenna, since possible beings are flawed, their intention is to reach to certain perfections which are compatible with themselves. Mulla Sadra states that Allah bestows motivation to possible beings to advance towards the perfection and he claims that these beings make use of that motivation to be perfect. Therefore, possible beings try to make up their flaws and reach to perfection. Since Allah is the absolute perfect being, the final intention of the possible beings is Allah. In other words, all beings that seek for perfection, take example of him. The other intentions act as a primary tool to reach the final intention. How can flawed beings by essence reach to perfections compatible with them? Avicenna and Mulla Sadra stated different opinions on the search of perfection of the flawed beings in the Islam philosophy. According to Avicenna, beings change with extinction and creation. This change happens by accident and the substance stays constant. In accordance with this approach, this change and development is only possible with accidental motion. It occurs with the replacement between forms. But the theory of the Avicenna has some flaws. Because forms are not the intentions of each other and first hyle is not strong enough to have an intention. Thus, no form is superior to the other. It is also not possible to have substance development because the substance and es-sence of the material are constant. It only goes through changes in appearance with the acci-dental motion. It is clear that the changes in the appearance and the shape are not standards for perfection. On the other hand, Mulla Sadra's development theory, which is based on the fundamentality of existence, existential gradation and substantial motion, suggests that the material world is moving towards the perfection. The motion in the substance of material beings is reason of substantial and accidental developments. All beings try to promote themselves to a higher position by reaching perfection in accordance with their intentions. Thus, the theory of Avicenna focuses on the accidental and formal changes in the search of perfection of the material beings, while Mulla Sadra’s theory explains accidental changes as well as the essential ones. Mulla Sadra does not limit the explanation of which Allah is the intention of possible beings to ontological dimension. According to him, Allah is an intention of possible beings as well. He points out the Hadith Qudsi "I was a hidden treasure, I desired to be recognized so I created the creature" and states that "This (Hadith Qudsi) indicates that he is the subject and the in-tention of the universe in an ontological manner as well as the intention of the universe in an epistemological manner." Thus, according to Mulla Sadra, possible beings have two inten-tions, to reach to and understand Allah. (shrink)

Öz: İslam dünyasında Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un varlığını ispatlayan birçok burhan zikredilmiştir. Bu burhanlardan biri pek bilinmeyen nefs burhanıdır. Bu burhanın tam olarak gelişmemiş formları Meşşâî filozoflar tarafından dile getirilmiş olsa da tam ve kâmil olarak ifadesini Sühreverdî’de bulmaktayız. Sühreverdî’den sonra ve onun etkisiyle Mîr Dâmâd başka bir nefs burhanı açıklar. İslam düşünce geleneğinde nefs vesilesiyle Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un varlığını ispatlayan bir diğer filozof da Molla Sadrâ’dır. O, bu iki filozofun nefs burhanlarını benimsememiş ve Hikmet-i Müte’âliye ekolünün ilkeleri çerçevesinde yeni burhanlar dile getirmiştir. İlk burhanında (...) nefsin kuvveden fiile yani heyûlânî akıldan bilfiil akla doğru hareket etmesini ikinci burhanında ise nefsin hudûsunu orta terim kılar. Mefatihü’l-Gayb adlı eserinde de bu iki burhanı birleştirir ve tek bir burhan olarak ifade eder. Molla Sadrâ, Allah’ın varlığını ispatlayan burhanları üç gruba ayırır ve nefs burhanının sıddıkîn burhanından sonra en önemli ve en üstün burhan olduğunu söyler. Molla Sadrâ’nın dillendirdiği nefs burhanlarının en önemli özelliği Allah’ın varlığını ispatlamakla beraber sıfatlarını ve fiillerini de ispatlamasıdır. Bu çalışmada Molla Sadrâ’nın nefs burhanı ile diğer nefs burhanlarının farkı ele alınacak ve Molla Sadrâ’nın bu burhan vesilesiyle Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’u ve sıfatlarını nasıl ispatladığı ve konu hakkında ne gibi yenilikler getirdiği açıklanacaktır. (shrink)

Muslim philosophers separated the material cause and formal cause as essential, and the efficient cause and intention cause as existential, which are the four causes stated by Aristoteles. Mulla Sadra addresses the efficient cause in two parts which are natural and emanative (creative) causes. Natural perpetrator is preparatory perpetrator and the creative perpetrator is the perpetrator bestowing entity. According to a almohad, Allah is the perpetrator of everything. However, there are disputes concerning what kind of perpetrator Allah is. Muslim philosophers (...) dealt with all types of perpetrator to put forth the attributes of emanative perpetration. Agents by Intentional, Agreement, Providence, Manifestation are perpetrators who have knowledge and will. Agents by intentional perform their actions by the virtue of a purpose. Their knowledge is detailed in their actions. The knowledge of agent by agreement is collective before creation and detailed after creation. The knowledge of agents by providence on their entity is presential and their knowledge on their actions is conceptual and detailed. On the other hand, agents by manifestation have a detailed presential knowledge on their actions. This study addresses all the perpetrator types which may be attributed to Allah and identifies the perpetrator type which can possibly be attributed to Allah. (shrink)

Mulla Sadra mentions two definitions about evil, one of them is that something lacking of essence or lacking of its a perfection and the other one is that all possible living creatures may have deficiencies. In order not to fall into the paradox of some existence are evils, he describes evils in terms of two ways that are by itself evil and relative evil. By itself evil is absolute non-existence so that it doesn’t need perpetrator. Mulla Sadra describes the evil (...) as four categories that metaphysical, natural, moral and perceptual. He utilizes Aristotle's finest universe theory to solve the problem of relation between evilness and spiritual creation. Mulla Sadra he explains five universes with the example of absolute goodness, much goodness then less evil, goodness and evil are equal, less goodness much evil, and certain evil. He proves the most beautiful universe as much goodness then les evilness. Then he solves the problem of evil in terms of recognition divine decree and destiny. (shrink)

ابن سينا در آثار مختلف خود به كتاب الحكمة المشرقية اشاره كـرده اسـت. برخـى متفكـران سلامى نيز به اين كتاب استشهاد كردهاند. وی در اين كتاب ديدگاههای خاص خود را با صراحت بيان كرده است. بنا بر روشى كه ابنسينا داشت، و برخى آثار خود را در آثار ديگر خلاصه مىكرد، اين كتاب نيز خلاصهای از كتاب شفاء است. درباره معنـا و مفهـوم «مشـرقى» در انديشـههـای ابن سينا نيز ديدگاههای مختلفى بيان شده است، ولى نگارنده معتقد است «مشـرقى» بـه معنـای (...) «اسلامى» است. در بخش ماهيت حكمت مشرقى هم بايـد گفـت كـه ابنسـينا، چنانكـه يـك فيلسوف مشايى به معنای ارسطويى نيست، همانطور كه هانری كربن و پيروان او معتقدند يـك فيلسوف خسروانى هم نيست. لذا منظور ابن سينا از حكمت مشرقى همان حكمت اسلامى بـودن آن است. (shrink)

Mümkün varlıkları aracı kılmadan Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un varlığını ispatlama çabalarının bir sonucu olan sıddıkîn burhanı ilk defa Müslüman filozoflar tarafından dillendirildi. İbn Sînâ (ö. 428/1037) da Fârâbî’nin etkisiyle yeni bir burhan açıkladı ve buna sıddıkîn adını verdi. Molla Sadrâ (ö. 1050/1641) varlığın asaleti ilkesini mutasavvıflardan, teşkîk ilkesini de Sühreverdî’den iktibas ederek yeni bir sıddıkîn burhanı dillendirdi. Bu burhanın, varlığın asaleti, basîtliği/yalınlığı, teşkîkî ve ma’lûlün illete ihtiyacı olmak üzere bazı öncülleri vardır. O, bu öncülleri açıkladıktan sonra teselsüle ihtiyaç duymadan Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un varlığını ispatlar. Onun (...) burhanı diğer sıddıkîn burhanlarına nispetle bazı üstün özelliklere sahiptir. Öncelikle bu burhan varlığın asaleti ilkesi üzerine bina edildiğinden dayanağı varlık kavramı değil, varlığın nesnel hakikatidir. İkincisi bu burhan Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un zâtını ispatlamakla birlikte Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un birliğini ve kemâlî sıfatlarını ispatlar. Üçüncüsü bu burhana göre mümkün varlıklar hiçbir aracı olmadan Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’a bağımlı olduklarından burhanın açıklanmasında teselsül ve kısır döngüden yararlanma ihtiyacı yoktur. Molla Sadrâ’nın teselsül ve kısır döngüden de yararlanarak Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un varlığını ispatladığı burhanlar da vardır. Molla Sadrâ bu burhanıyla hem Vâcibü’l-Vücûd’un varlığını ve hem de onun kemâlî sıfatlarını ispatladığını iddia eder. Bu çalışmada bu iddia incelecek ve ispat-ı vacip meselesinde Molla Sadrâ’nın ne gibi yenilikler getirdiği ele alınacaktır. ABSTRACT A result of the attempts to prove the existence of The Necessary Existence without the mediation of possible beings, proof of the truthful was first expressed by Muslim philosophers called it sıddıkin. Mullā Ṣadrā’s “proof” that he explains has certain premises such as the fundamental of existence, indivisibility of the existence, existential gradation, effect’s need for cause. After explanining these premises, Mullā Ṣadrā then proves the Necessary Existence without needing succession. Mullā Ṣadrā’s proof of the truthful has certain superior features tan the proofs of truthful expressed before him. First of all, as this proof is built upon the principle of the fundamental of existence, its foundation is the external truth of existence, not the concept of existence itself. Secondly, this proof proves the unity and perfection attributes of The Necessary Existence as well as proving the existence of the Necessary Existence. Thirdly, according to this proof, as all possible existences are dependent on The Necessary Existence without any mediation, there is no need to benefit from succession and vicious circle in explaining the proof. However, Mullā Ṣadrā proves the Necessary Existence by benefitting from succession and vicious circle in other proofs. Mullā Ṣadrā asserts that this proof demonstrates the presence of The Necessary Existence and its perfection attributions. This study examines this assertion and addresses what kind of innovations was brought by Mullā Ṣadrā in terms of proving The Necessary Existence. (shrink)

“The issue of obligation and free determination had been subject to polemics due to religious concerns. One group defended carbriyya on the basis of the absolute sovereignty of God. While others argued the idea of indetermination in terms of divine justice. After explaining and critizing these thoughts, Molla Sadra gave explanation to the opinions of the Ash’arites on the subject. And then he formed the basis of a new theory called “theory of ahl-i yakin” while getting inspired by the words (...) of Ali b. Ebu Talib who says “there is neither determination nor tawfiz, indeed it is between these” So to speak, human acts are related to both human beings and God.”. (shrink)

ابن‌سینا در آثار مختلف خود به کتاب الحکمة المشرقیة اشاره کرده است. برخی متفکران اسلامی نیز به این کتاب استشهاد کرده¬اند. وی در این کتاب دیدگاه¬های خاص خود را با صراحت بیان کرده است. بنا بر روشی که ابن‌سینا داشت، و برخی آثار خود را در آثار دیگر خلاصه می‌کرد، این کتاب نیز خلاصه‌ای از کتاب شفاء است. درباره معنا و مفهوم «مشرقی» در اندیشه¬های ابن‌سینا نیز دیدگاه‌های مختلفی بیان شده است، ولی نگارنده معتقد است «مشرقی» به معنای «اسلامی» است. (...) در بخش ماهیت حکمت مشرقی هم باید گفت که ابن‌سینا، چنان‌که یک فیلسوف مشایی به معنای ارسطویی نیست، همان‌طور که هانری کربن و پیروان او معتقدند یک فیلسوف خسروانی هم نیست. لذا منظور ابن‌سینا از حکمت مشرقی همان حکمت اسلامی بودن آن است. (shrink)

According to Mulla Sadra, the will is an existential phenomenon that is free from the essence. Therefore, there is no essential and correlational definition which contains its truth completely. As a matter of fact, the definition made by Mulla Sadra is a nominal definition. Mulla Sadra, unlike the former philosophers and the theologians, expressed that the will is homogeneous with existence for the first time. Moreover, he claims that characteristics of the will and the existence is the same. According to (...) this approach, the first feature of the will is that it has a shared meaning like existence. In other words, concept of the will involves the same signification when it is used about God and the creatures. The second feature of the will, like existence too, indicates varied existential grades. That is to say, the will is a single truth, but it has different existential grades and is manifested in a different way in every aspects of the being. Therefore, it has its own domination and is obligatory in some grades while it is only propable in others. In this way, Mulla Sadra solved the problems that would arise when the divine will has both essential and intellectual qualities. In addition, he explained that the will is eternal for God, temporal for the human beings. (shrink)

Although Theravada Buddhism and Roman Catholicism agree on the moral justification for palliative sedation, they differ on the premises underlying the justification. While Catholicism justifies palliative sedation on the ground of the Principle of Double Effect, Buddhism does so on the basis of the Third Noble Truth. Despite their theological differences, Buddhism and Catholicism both value the moral significance of the physician’s intent to reduce suffering and both respect the sanctity of life. This blurs the demarcation line between Buddhism and (...) Catholicism regarding the moral justification of palliative sedation. -/- . (shrink)

Saya sangat terbiasa dengan buku aneh dan khusus orang, tapi Hawkins berdiri keluar karena penggunaan teknik sederhana untuk menguji ketegangan otot sebagai kunci untuk "kebenaran" dari segala jenis pernyataan apa pun-i. e., bukan hanya untuk Apakah orang yang diuji percaya, tapi apakah itu benar-benar benar! Apa yang terkenal adalah bahwa orang akan menunjukkan otomatis, gangguan fisiologis dan psikologis pingsan untuk apa saja mereka terpapar-gambar, suara, sentuhan, bau, ide, orang. Jadi, membaca otot untuk mengetahui perasaan mereka yang sebenarnya tidak radikal sama (...) sekali, tidak seperti menggunakannya sebagai tongkat menyiram (lebih otot membaca) untuk melakukan "ilmu paranormal". Hawkins menjelaskan penggunaan penurunan ketegangan pada otot lengan dalam menanggapi peningkatan beban kognitif sehingga menyebabkan lengan turun dalam menanggapi tekanan konstan jari seseorang. Dia tampaknya tidak menyadari bahwa ada yang lama didirikan dan luas upaya penelitian yang berkelanjutan dalam psikologi sosial disebut dengan frase seperti ' implisit kognisi ', ' automatisitas ' dll, dan bahwa penggunaan ' Kinesiology ' adalah salah satu bagian kecil. Selain nada otot (jarang digunakan) psikolog sosial mengukur EEG, respon kulit galvanik dan respon yang paling sering verbal kata, kalimat, gambar atau situasi pada waktu yang bervariasi dari detik ke bulan setelah stimulus. Banyak, seperti bargh dan Wegner, mengambil hasilnya berarti kita automaton yang belajar dan bertindak sebagian besar tanpa kesadaran melalui S1 (sistem otomatis 1) dan banyak orang lain seperti kihlstrom dan Shanks mengatakan studi ini cacat dan kami adalah makhluk S2 (sistem musyawatif 2). Meskipun Hawkins tampaknya tidak tahu, seperti di bidang lain dari psikologi deskriptif pemikiran yang lebih tinggi, situasi mengenai "automatisitas" masih sebagai kacau seperti itu ketika Wittgenstein menggambarkan alasan untuk sterilitas dan kemandulan psikologi di 30 ' s. Namun demikian, buku ini adalah mudah dibaca dan beberapa terapis dan guru spiritual mungkin menemukan penggunaan. Mereka yang ingin komprehensif up to date kerangka perilaku manusia dari dua systems tampilan modern dapat berkonsultasi buku saya 'struktur Logis filsafat, psikologi, mind dan bahasa dalam Ludwig wittgenstein dan John Searle ' 2nd Ed (2019). Mereka yang tertarik pada tulisan saya lebih mungkin melihat 'berbicara monyet--filsafat, psikologi, ilmu, agama dan politik di planet yang ditakdirkan--artikel dan review 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) dan bunuh diri utopian delusi di 21st Century 4th Ed (2019). (shrink)

The practice of medicine frequently involves the unconsented restriction of liberty. The reasons for unilateral liberty restrictions are typically that being confined, strapped down, or sedated are necessary to prevent the person from harming themselves or others. In this paper, we target the ethics of chemical restraints, which are medications that are used to intentionally restrict the mental states associated with the unwanted behaviors, and are typically not specifically indicated for the condition for which the patient is being treated. Specifically, (...) we aim to identify the conditions under which chemical restraints are ethically permissible. It is wrong to assume that what is morally true of physical restraints is also true of chemical restraints. Our aim is thus to identify the conditions under which chemical restraints are permissible while distinguishing these conditions from those of the application of physical restraints. (shrink)

A simple definition of consciousness is sensory awareness of the body, the self, and the world. The fetus may be aware of the body, for example by perceiving pain. It reacts to touch, smell, and sound, and shows facial expressions responding to exter- nal stimuli. However, these reactions are probably preprogrammed and have a subcortical nonconscious origin. Furthermore, the fetus is almost continuously asleep and unconscious partially due to endog- enous sedation. Conversely, the newborn infant can be awake, exhibit sensory (...) awareness, and process memorized mental representations. It is also able to differentiate between self and nonself touch, express emotions, and show signs of shared feelings. Yet, it is unreflective, present oriented, and makes little reference to concept of him/herself. Newborn infants display features characteristic of what may be referred to as basic consciousness and they still have to undergo considerable maturation to reach the level of adult consciousness. The preterm infant, ex utero, may open its eyes and establish minimal eye contact with its mother. It also shows avoidance reactions to harmful stimuli. However, the thalamocortical connections are not yet fully established, which is why it can only reach a minimal level of consciousness. (shrink)

Midazolam, a benzodiazepine medication, is used for sedation during diagnostic and therapeutic medical procedures. Insufficient doses of sedatives, including midazolam, can result in patient anxiety and awareness during the procedure. Several brands of midazolam are available in the Libyan market. This study aims to identify and estimate the medication content of intravenous midazolam in various marketed products using different analytical methods. Product identity was confirmed using Infrared methods (IR) and retention times of High-Performance Liquid Chromatographic methods (HPLC). Quantification was performed (...) using a rapid reverse-phase HPLC method. Chromatographic analysis was conducted on a C18 column (250 mm×3.3 mm I.D., 5.0 μm particle size) with a mobile phase comprising acetonitrile, methanol, and 0.065 M ammonium acetate buffer (50: 20: 30, v/v/v), adjusted to a pH of 5.5±0.02 with orthophosphoric acid, at a flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. Ultraviolet (UV) detection was set at 220 nm. The identification results met British Pharmacopeia (BP) standards. However, the midazolam content in the Tunisian brand was shallow compared to the products from Germany and Switzerland. Thus, post-marketing testing is essential to assess the quality of critical drugs like midazolam, and further investigations, including clinical evaluations and regulatory follow-up, are necessary. (shrink)

The U.S. Supreme Court's majority opinion in Vacco v. Quill assumes that the principle of double effect explains the permissibility of hastening death in the context of ordinary palliative care and in extraordinary cases in which painkilling drugs have failed to relieve especially intractable suffering and terminal sedation has been adopted as a last resort. The traditional doctrine of double effect, understood as providing a prohibition on instrumental harming as opposed to incidental harming or harming asa side effect, must be (...) distinguished from other ways in which the claim that a result is notintended might be offered as part of ajustification for it. Although double effectmight appropriately be invoked as a constrainton ordinary palliative care, it is not clearthat it can be coherently extended to justifysuch practices as terminal sedation. A betterapproach would reconsider double effect'straditional prohibition on hastening death as ameans to relieve suffering in the context ofacute palliative care. (shrink)

Given the wide the range of legally available options for end-of-life care in recent decades: from aggressive, even experimental, treatment to active euthanasia, our ethical analysis struggles to keep pace with technology and law. In this essay I show that the principle of double effect (PDE) remains, and will continue to be, a useful tool for ethical analysis of end-of-life care. According to PDE, an agent may ethically perform an act that s/he foresees will have a significant bad effect (e.g., (...) death) in addition to a good effect (e.g., pain relief) only if s/he does not intend the bad effect, the act is not bad for reasons other than its causing the bad effect, and there is a proportionately serious reason to act. Following a brief explanation of PDE and preliminary considerations in favor of counting death as a bad effect, I analyze several end-of-life options in terms of the principle. I begin with those that enjoy significant consensus among proponents of PDE: active euthanasia, “passive euthanasia,” and palliative care. Then I consider the less-straightforward cases of drug provision, refusing food and water, and terminal sedation, arguing that participation in such actions is justifiable via PDE only under very limited conditions. (shrink)

Aku mulai dengan beberapa komentar terkenal oleh filsuf (psikolog) Ludwig Wittgenstein karena Pinker saham dengan kebanyakan orang (karena pengaturan default psikologi bawaan kita berevolusi) prasangka tertentu tentang fungsi pikiran, dan karena Wittgenstein menawarkan wawasan yang unik dan mendalam dalam cara kerja bahasa, pemikiran dan realitas (yang ia dipandang sebagai lebih atau kurang coekstensif) tidak ditemukan di tempat lain. TheRe adalah hanya referensi untuk Wittgenstein dalam volume ini, yang paling disayangkan mengingat bahwa ia adalah yang paling brilian dan asli analis bahasa. (...) -/- Dalam bab terakhir, menggunakan metafora terkenal dari gua Plato, ia dengan indah meringkas buku dengan gambaran tentang bagaimana pikiran (bahasa, berpikir, psikologi disengaja)-produk keegoisan buta, dimoderasi hanya sedikit oleh altruisme otomatis untuk kerabat dekat membawa salinan gen kita (inklusif Fitness)--bekerja secara otomatis, tetapi mencoba untuk mengakhiri pada catatan optimis dengan memberi kita harapan bahwa kita tetap dapat menggunakan kemampuan yang luas untuk bekerja sama dan membuat dunia menjadi tempat yang layak untuk hidup. -/- Pinker tentu sadar tetapi mengatakan sedikit tentang fakta bahwa jauh lebih banyak tentang psikologi kita ditinggalkan daripada yang disertakan. Di antara jendela ke dalam sifat manusia yang ditinggalkan atau diberi perhatian minimal adalah matematika dan geometri, musik dan suara, Gambar, peristiwa dan kausalitas, Ontologi (kelas hal atau apa yang kita tahu), sebagian besar Epistemologi (bagaimana kita tahu), disposisi (percaya, berpikir, menilai, berniat dll) dan sisanya psikologi disengaja tindakan, neurotransmiter dan entheogens, negara spiritual (misalnya, Satori dan pencerahan, otak stimulasi dan perekaman, kerusakan otak dan perilaku defisit dan gangguan, permainan dan olahraga, teori keputusan (termasuk. teori permainan dan perilaku ekonomi), perilaku hewan (sangat sedikit bahasa tetapi satu miliar tahun genetika bersama). Banyak buku telah ditulis tentang masing-masing bidang psikologi disengaja. Data dalam buku ini adalah deskripsi, bukan penjelasan yang menunjukkan mengapa otak kita melakukannya dengan cara ini atau bagaimana hal itu dilakukan. Bagaimana kita tahu untuk menggunakan kalimat dalam berbagai cara mereka (yaitu, tahu semua makna)? Ini adalah psikologi evolusi yang beroperasi pada tingkat yang lebih mendasar-tingkat di mana Wittgenstein paling aktif. Dan ada perhatian yang sangat minim pada konteks kata mana yang digunakan = sebuah arena yang dirintis Wittgenstein. -/- Namun demikian, ini adalah karya klasik dan dengan memperingatkan ini masih layak dibaca. -/- Mereka yang ingin komprehensif up to date kerangka perilaku manusia dari dua systEMS tampilan modern dapat berkonsultasi buku saya 'struktur Logis filsafat, psikologi, mind dan bahasa dalam Ludwig wittgenstein dan John Searle ' 2nd Ed (2019). Mereka yang tertarik pada tulisan saya lebih mungkin melihat 'berbicara monyet--filsafat, psikologi, ilmu, agama dan politik di planet yang ditakdirkan--artikel dan review 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) dan bunuh diri utopian delusi di 21st Century 4th Ed (2019) . (shrink)