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Critique of Pure Reason

Philosophy 59 (230):555-557 (1787/1998)

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  1. The analytic/synthetic distinction.Gillian Russell - 2007 - Philosophy Compass 2 (5):712–729.
    Once a standard tool in the epistemologist’s kit, the analytic/synthetic distinction was challenged by Quine and others in the mid-twentieth century and remains controversial today. But although the work of a lot contemporary philosophers touches on this distinction – in the sense that it either has consequences for it, or it assumes results about it – few have really focussed on it recently. This has the consequence that a lot has happened that should affect our view of the analytic/synthetic distinction, (...)
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  • Personality as equilibrium: fragility and plasticity in (inter-)personal identity.John Russon - 2017 - Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 16 (4):623-635.
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  • Kantian Self-Conceit and the Two Guises of Authority.Francey Russell - 2020 - Canadian Journal of Philosophy 50 (2):268-283.
    There is a debate in the literature as to whether Kantian self-conceit is intrapsychic or interpersonal. I argue that self-conceit is both. I argue that, for Kant, self-conceit is fundamentally an illusion about authority, one’s own and any authority one stands in relation to. Self-conceit refuses to recognize the authority of the law. But the law “shows up” for us in two guises: one’s own reason and other persons. Thus, self-conceit refuses to recognize both guises of the law. Hence self-conceit (...)
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  • Essencialismo, referência e o A posteriori necessário.Mihai Rusu - 2011 - Filosofia Unisinos 12 (3).
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  • Evolutionary Ethics and the Search for Predecessors: Kant, Hume, and All the Way Back to Aristotle?Michael Ruse - 1990 - Social Philosophy and Policy 8 (1):59.
    Hopes of applying the findings and speculations of evolutionary theorizing to the problems of ethics have yielded a program with a bad reputation. At the level of norms – substantival ethics – it has been a platform for some of the more grotesque socio-politico-economic suggestions of our times. At the level of justification – metaethics – it has opened the way to some of the more blatant fallacies in the undergraduate textbook. Recently, however, a number of people, philosophers and biologists, (...)
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  • A Minimalist Approach to the Development of Episodic Memory.James Russell & Robert Hanna - 2012 - Mind and Language 27 (1):29-54.
    Episodic memory is usually regarded in a Conceptualist light, in the sense of its being dependent upon the grasp of concepts directly relevant to the act of episodic recollection itself, such as a concept of past times and of the self as an experiencer. Given this view, its development is typically timed as being in the early school-age years. We present a minimalist, Non-Conceptualist approach in opposition to this view, but one that also exists in clear contrast to the kind (...)
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  • Re-reading Fichte’s Science of Knowledge after Castoriadis.John Rundell - 2013 - Thesis Eleven 119 (1):3-21.
    In many of his writings, Castoriadis argues that ‘the discovery of the imagination’ occurs in the works of Aristotle, Kant, Fichte, Freud, Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty. Although he has systematically encountered and interrogated the works of Aristotle, Kant, Freud, and Merleau-Ponty, the work of Fichte remains an enigmatic absence within the orbit of Castoriadis' work. This study is an attempt to address this enigma through a close reading of Fichte’s The Science of Knowledge.
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  • Husserl on Significance at the Core of Meaning.Jacob Rump - 2022 - Husserl Studies 38 (3):227-250.
    I reconstruct the notion of significance [_Sinnhaftigkeit_] in the later Husserl, with attention to his conceptions of judgment and transcendental logic. My analysis is motivated by the idea that an account of significance can help to connect analytic, Anglo-American conceptions of meaning as a precise, law-governed phenomenon investigated via linguistic analysis and Continental European conceptions of meaning in a broader “existential” sense. I argue that Husserl’s later work points to a transcendental-logical conception of a founding level of _significance_ [_Sinnhaftigkeit_] prior (...)
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  • The implied theodicy of Kant’s Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason : love as a response to radical evil.Matthew Rukgaber - 2019 - International Journal for Philosophy of Religion 85 (2):213-233.
    This article begins with a brief survey of Kant’s pre-Critical and Critical approaches to theodicy. I maintain that his theodical response of moral faith during the Critical period appears to be a dispassionate version of what Leibniz called Fatum Christianum. Moral rationality establishes the existence and goodness of God and translates into an endless and unwavering commitment to following the moral law. I then argue that Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason offers a revision of Kant’s 1791 conception of (...)
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  • Rethinking Kant on Individuation.Eric M. Rubenstein - 2001 - Kantian Review 5:73-89.
    In the section of the Critique of Pure Reason entitled The Amphiboly of Concepts of Reflection Kant writes:Suppose that an object is exhibited to us repeatedly but always with the same intrinsic determinations . In that case, if the object counts as object of pure understanding then it is always the same object, and is not many but only one thing . But if the object is appearance, then comparison of concepts does not matter at all; rather, however much everything (...)
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  • To imagine, to recollect, per chance to discover: The modern Socratic dialogue and the history of philosophy.Bernard Roy - 2005 - Philosophical Practice: Journal of the American Philosophical Practitioners Association 1 (3):159-170.
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  • The Paradox of Kant’s Transcendental Subject in German Philosophy in the Late Eighteenth Century.M. V. Rouba - 2020 - Kantian Journal 39 (2):7-25.
    The study of the “first wave” of reactions to the Critique of Pure Reason in Germany from the second half of the 1780s until the beginning of the nineteenth century reveals the paradoxical status of the Kantian transcendental subject. While the existence of the transcendental subject, whatever the term means, is not open to question since it arises from the very essence of critical philosophy, the fundamental status of the subject is sometimes questioned in this period. Although the meaning of (...)
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  • The choice of logical foundations: Non-classical choices and the ultralogical choice.Richard Routley - 1980 - Studia Logica 39 (1):77 - 98.
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  • Good Will: Cosmopolitan education as a site for deliberation.Klas Roth - 2011 - Educational Philosophy and Theory 43 (3):298-312.
    Why should we deliberate? I discuss a Kantian response to this query and argue that we cannot as rational beings avoid deliberation in principle; and that we have good reasons to consider the value and strength of Kant's philosophical investigations concerning fundamental moral issues and their relevance for the question of why we ought to deliberate. I also argue that deliberation is a wide duty. This means that it has to be set as an end, that it is meritorious, and (...)
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  • The Highest Good, The Social Character of Reason, and the Anthropological Enterprise of Kant’s “Critique”: A Response to the Symposium on The Ethical Commonwealth in History.Philip J. Rossi - 2021 - Philosophia 49 (5):1917-1942.
    In response to the five essays commenting on The Ethical Commonwealth in History, I provide an exploration of three themes—the character of the highest good, the possibility of attainment of the highest good, and the agency for its attainment—as a basis for dealing with the concerns these essays raise about my interpretation of Kant’s critical project. On my interpretation, Kant’s project of “critique” is primarily an anthropological one, with its central focus on the moral vocation to which finite reason calls (...)
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  • Real possibility and relation to an object. Remarks on Kant's Modal Metaphysics.Tobias Rosefeldt - 2018 - European Journal of Philosophy 26 (3):1148-1152.
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  • On the Formal Validity of Proof by Contradiction in Kant’s Logic.Davide Dalla Rosa - 2022 - History of Philosophy & Logical Analysis 25 (1):95-114.
    The paper provides a reconstruction of proof by contradiction in Kant’s pure general logic. A seemingly less-explored point of view on this topic is how apagogical proof can account for the formal truth of a judgement. Integrating the argument held by Kjosavik (2019), I intend to highlight how one can use proof by contradiction, conceived as a modus tollens, to establish the logical actuality (logical or formal truth) of a cognition. Although one might agree on the capacity of the proof (...)
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  • Architecture to Philosophy — The Postmodern Complicity.Gillian Rose - 1988 - Theory, Culture and Society 5 (2-3):357-371.
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  • Carry on thinking: Nurse education in the Corporate University.Gary Rolfe - 2019 - Nursing Philosophy 20 (4):e12270.
    It is widely acknowledged that the modern university can be traced back to the inauguration of the University of Berlin in 1810. In the subsequent two centuries, the idea of the university has taken on many forms, largely driven by the political concerns of the day and often in response to demands from the electorate for greater state regulation and accountability for public spending. Until recently, the responsibility for academic and social legitimation had shifted between the church, the state and (...)
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  • Sobre El Abuso de Lo Necesario A Posteriori.Rafael Miranda Rojas - 2017 - Trans/Form/Ação 40 (1):211-234.
    Resumen: El presente escrito argumenta cómo el denominado abuso de lo necesario a posteriori, propuesto en Beebee y Sabbarton-Leary, asume erróneamente que: a) los enunciados necesarios a posteriori requieren un compromiso metafísico con un esencialismo no trivial; y b) que el experimento mental de la tierra gemela cumple un rol evidencial en la determinación de lo necesario a posteriori. Contra a), se sostiene que lo necesario a posteriori no requiere un compromiso esencialista no trivial; a lo sumo, el esencialismo no (...)
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  • The Frege–Hilbert controversy in context.Tabea Rohr - 2023 - Synthese 202 (1):1-30.
    This paper aims to show that Frege’s and Hilbert’s mutual disagreement results from different notions of Anschauung and their relation to axioms. In the first section of the paper, evidence is provided to support that Frege and Hilbert were influenced by the same developments of 19th-century geometry, in particular the work of Gauss, Plücker, and von Staudt. The second section of the paper shows that Frege and Hilbert take different approaches to deal with the problems that the developments in 19th-century (...)
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  • Cognitive technology and the pragmatics of impossible plans — A study in cognitive prosthetics.Roger Lindsay - 1996 - AI and Society 10 (3-4):273-288.
    Do AI programs just make it quicker and easier for humans to do what they can do already, or can the range of do-able things be extended? This paper suggests that cognitively-oriented technology can make it possible for humans to construct and carry out mental operations, which were previously impossible. Probable constraints upon possible human mental operations are identified and the impact of cognitive technology upon them is evaluated. It is argued that information technology functions as a cognitive prosthetic enhancing (...)
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  • The unity of consciousness, within subjects and between subjects.Luke Roelofs - 2016 - Philosophical Studies 173 (12):3199-3221.
    The unity of consciousness has so far been studied only as a relation holding among the many experiences of a single subject. I investigate whether this relation could hold between the experiences of distinct subjects, considering three major arguments against the possibility of such ‘between-subjects unity’. The first argument, based on the popular idea that unity implies subsumption by a composite experience, can be deflected by allowing for limited forms of ‘experience-sharing’, in which the same token experience belongs to more (...)
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  • Hegelian Nihilism and the Christian Narrative: On Slavoj Ẑiẑek and John Milbank's Readings of Hegel's Philosophy of Religion.Ursula Roessiger - 2019 - Heythrop Journal 60 (2):244-259.
    My goal in this paper is to demonstrate that Milbank and Ẑiẑek's respective criticisms of Hegel's redescription of the Christian narrative are flawed because both identify Hegelian spirit as fully immanent. This misreading has enormous consequences, for it suggests that Hegel did not find a way to adequately support his project of reconciling the finite and the infinite. By contrast, I suggest that if Hegel's philosophy of religion is understood as both immanent and transcendent, or more precisely, as advancing a (...)
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  • Psychology, Physiology, Medicine: The Perspectivist Interpretation of Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morality.Daniel R. Rodríguez-Navas - 2022 - The Monist 105 (4):487-506.
    This article introduces the perspectivist interpretation of Nietzsche’s On the Genealogy of Morality, characterized by two core theses. According to the results thesis, the three treatises of GM introduce three types of critical results, respectively: psychological claims about the value of morality for the interests of various character types; physiological claims about its value for the ‘progress of the species’; and medical claims about its value for health. According to the distinction thesis, the critical results of GM are descriptive, while (...)
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  • Perceptual Experience and Aspect.Sebastián Sanhueza Rodríguez - 2018 - Acta Analytica 33 (1):103-120.
    A number of contemporary philosophers of mind have brought considerations from the study of aspect to bear on the ontological question how perceptual experiences persist over time. But, apart from rare exceptions, relatively little attention has been devoted to assess whether the way we talk about perceptual occurrences is of any relevance for discussions of ontological matters in general, let alone discussions about the ontological nature of perception. This piece examines whether considerations derived from the study of lexical aspect have (...)
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  • Do Automated Vehicles Face Moral Dilemmas? A Plea for a Political Approach.Javier Rodríguez-Alcázar, Lilian Bermejo-Luque & Alberto Molina-Pérez - 2021 - Philosophy and Technology 34:811-832.
    How should automated vehicles react in emergency circumstances? Most research projects and scientific literature deal with this question from a moral perspective. In particular, it is customary to treat emergencies involving AVs as instances of moral dilemmas and to use the trolley problem as a framework to address such alleged dilemmas. Some critics have pointed out some shortcomings of this strategy and have urged to focus on mundane traffic situations instead of trolley cases involving AVs. Besides, these authors rightly point (...)
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  • Charles Peirce’s Philosophy and the Intersection Between Biosemiotics and the Philosophy of Biology.Claudio Rodríguez Higuera - forthcoming - Biological Theory:1-11.
    Charles S. Peirce’s philosophy of signs, generally construed as the foundation of current semiotic theory, offers a theory of general perception with significant implications for the notion of subjectivity in organisms. In this article, we will discuss Peirce’s primary claims in semiotic theory, particularly focusing on their relevance to biosemiotics. We argue that these claims align with certain areas of the philosophy of biology, specifically epistemological and ontological considerations, despite the limited formal interaction between disciplines. This article serves as a (...)
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  • Beyond Realism and Moralism: A Defense of Political Minimalism.Javier Rodríguez-Alcázar - 2017 - Metaphilosophy 48 (5):727-744.
    What is the relationship between morals and politics? What is the relationship between moral philosophy and political philosophy? Defenders of political moralism postulate moral aims or constraints for politics, and hence they see political philosophy as a chapter of moral philosophy. Contrastingly, advocates of political realism describe politics as an independent endeavor aiming at providing order and security, and conceive of political philosophy as an autonomous discipline. This article claims that political moralism and political realism share the mistake of assuming (...)
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  • Otto Selz’s phenomenology of natural space.Klaus Robering - 2020 - Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 19 (1):97-121.
    In the 1930s Otto Selz developed a novel approach to the psychology of perception which he called “synthetic psychology of wholes”. This “synthetic psychology” is based on a phenomenological description of the structural relationships between elementary items building up integral wholes. The present article deals with Selz’s account of spatial cognition within this general framework. Selz Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 114, 351–362 argues that his approach to spatial cognition delivers answers to the long-discussed question of the epistemological status of the laws (...)
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  • Kant Walks Meillassoux: Finitude and Correlationism.E. J. Robin - 2021 - Journal of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research 38 (2):197-211.
    This paper analyses Quentin Meillassoux’s criticism of Kantian philosophy. The objective of the paper is to delineate the connection Meillassoux asserts between the problem of induction and Kant’s account of finitude. After examining Meillassoux’s elucidations on the connection between the two, I argue that Meillassoux’s characterization of Kantian philosophy as ‘weak correlationism’ is not only inaccurate but also undermines the novelty of Kantian philosophy, especially Kant’s (critical) response to the problem of induction. The paper concludes with the claim that Meillassoux’s (...)
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  • Postmodern Education and the Concept of Power.Thomas Aastrup Rømer - 2011 - Educational Philosophy and Theory 43 (7):755-772.
    This article presents a discussion of how postmodernist, poststructuralist and critical educational thinking relate to different theories of power. I argue that both Critical Theory and some poststructuralist ideas base themselves on a concept of power borrowed from a modernist tradition. I argue as well that we are better off combining a postmodern idea of education with a postmodern idea of power. To this end the concept of power presented by the works of Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe is introduced. (...)
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  • Imagination and Judgment in John Dewey's Philosophy: Intelligent transactions in a democratic context.Thomas Aastrup Rømer - 2012 - Educational Philosophy and Theory 44 (2):133-150.
    In this essay, I attempt to interpret the educational philosophy of John Dewey in a way that accomplishes two goals. The first of these is to avoid any reference to Dewey as a propagator of a particular scientific method or to any of the individualist and cognitivist ideas that is sometimes associated with him. Secondly, I want to overcome the tendency to interpret Dewey as a naturalist by looking at his concept of intelligence. It is argued that ‘intelligent experience’ is (...)
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  • Imagination and Judgment in John Dewey's Philosophy: Intelligent transactions in a democratic context.Thomas Aastrup Rømer - 2012 - Educational Philosophy and Theory 44 (2):133-150.
    In this essay, I attempt to interpret the educational philosophy of John Dewey in a way that accomplishes two goals. The first of these is to avoid any reference to Dewey as a propagator of a particular scientific method or to any of the individualist and cognitivist ideas that is sometimes associated with him. Secondly, I want to overcome the tendency to interpret Dewey as a naturalist by looking at his concept of intelligence. It is argued that ‘intelligent experience’ is (...)
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  • The Empirical Case Against Analyticity: Two Options for Concept Pragmatists.Bradley Rives - 2009 - Minds and Machines 19 (2):199-227.
    It is commonplace in cognitive science that concepts are individuated in terms of the roles they play in the cognitive lives of thinkers, a view that Jerry Fodor has recently been dubbed ‘Concept Pragmatism’. Quinean critics of Pragmatism have long argued that it founders on its commitment to the analytic/synthetic distinction, since without such a distinction there is plausibly no way to distinguish constitutive from non-constitutive roles in cognition. This paper considers Fodor’s empirical arguments against analyticity, and in particular his (...)
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  • On islands of truth in the Anthropocene: Kant, Rousseau and the loss of worlds.Virgilio Rivas - 2023 - Thesis Eleven 176 (1):3-23.
    Here I explore how the island was transformed into the site of the instrumentalization of evil, allowing Kant to expand its conception as a land of truth concerning its default genealogy in the homeland, lending purposiveness to evil to ensure this land of truth is protected from natural illusion. By contrast, Rousseau proposed the opposite course, which surprisingly bears important links to contemporary predicaments, in line with the idea of modern progress premised on a generalizing moral ecology. By the turn (...)
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  • From numerical concepts to concepts of number.Lance J. Rips, Amber Bloomfield & Jennifer Asmuth - 2008 - Behavioral and Brain Sciences 31 (6):623-642.
    Many experiments with infants suggest that they possess quantitative abilities, and many experimentalists believe that these abilities set the stage for later mathematics: natural numbers and arithmetic. However, the connection between these early and later skills is far from obvious. We evaluate two possible routes to mathematics and argue that neither is sufficient: (1) We first sketch what we think is the most likely model for infant abilities in this domain, and we examine proposals for extrapolating the natural number concept (...)
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  • Contingency inattention: against causal debunking in ethics.Regina Rini - 2020 - Philosophical Studies 177 (2):369-389.
    It is a philosophical truism that we must think of others as moral agents, not merely as causal or statistical objects. But why? I argue that this follows from the best resolution of an antinomy between our experience of morality as necessarily binding on the will and our knowledge that all moral beliefs originate in contingent histories. We can address this antinomy only by understanding moral deliberation via interpersonal relationships, which simultaneously vindicate and constrains morality’s bind on the will. This (...)
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  • Nietzsche on Tragedy: First and Last Thoughts.Aaron Ridley - 2019 - The Monist 102 (3):316-330.
    Nietzsche is often said to have started out as a Schopenhauerian metaphysician of some kind before leaving Schopenhauer behind him, and, by the end of his sane life, metaphysics too. His first and last thoughts about tragedy, however, sit uneasily with this narrative. The late thoughts are simply too close to the early ones for the story to accommodate them—not for their Schopenhauerianism, but for the strongly metaphysical flavour that they appear to share. The argument of the present paper is (...)
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  • Human Freedom and the Philosophical Attitude.Sharon Rider - 2015 - Educational Philosophy and Theory 47 (11):1185-1197.
    Attempts to describe the essential features of the Western philosophical tradition can often be characterized as ‘boundary work’, that is, the attempt to create, promote, attack, or reinforce specific notions of the ‘philosophical’ in order to demarcate it as a field of intellectual inquiry. During the last century, the dominant tendency has been to delineate the discipline in terms of formal methods, techniques, and concepts and a given set of standard problems and alternative available solutions. One vital feature of the (...)
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  • Toward a History of Scientific Philosophy.Alan Richardson - 1997 - Perspectives on Science-Historical Philosophical and Social 5 (3):418--451.
    Throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, philosophers of various sorts, including Helmholtz, Avenarius, Husserl, Russell, Carnap, Neurath, and Heidegger, were united in promulgating a new, “scientific” philosophy. This article documents some of the varieties of scientific philosophy and argues that the history of scientific philosophy is crucial to the development of analytic philosophy and the division between analytic and continental philosophy. Scientific philosophy defined itself via criticisms of old-fashioned systematic metaphysics and, in the twentieth century, of Lebensphilosophie. It (...)
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  • Seeing empty space.Louise Richardson - 2009 - European Journal of Philosophy 18 (2):227-243.
    Abstract: In this paper I offer an account of a particular variety of perception of absence, namely, visual perception of empty space. In so doing, I aim to make explicit the role that seeing empty space has, implicitly, in Mike Martin's account of the visual field. I suggest we should make sense of the claim that vision has a field—in Martin's sense—in terms of our being aware of its limitations or boundaries. I argue that the limits of the visual field (...)
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  • Nietzsche's Pluralism about Consciousness.Mattia Riccardi - 2016 - British Journal for the History of Philosophy 24 (1):132-154.
    In this paper I argue that Nietzsche's view on consciousness is best captured by distinguishing different notions of consciousness. In other words, I propose that Nietzsche should be read as endorsing pluralism about consciousness. First, I consider the notion that is preeminent in his work and argue that the only kind of consciousness which may fit the characterization Nietzsche provides of this dominant notion is self-consciousness. Second, I argue that in light of Nietzsche's treatment of perceptions and sensations we should (...)
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  • Nietzschean Monism? A Pandispositionalist Proposal.Mattia Riccardi - 2021 - The Monist 104 (1):108-124.
    I argue that Nietzsche puts forward a pandispositionalist view that can be seen as the conjunction of two basic claims: that powers are the basic constituents of reality, on the one hand, and that the only properties things possess are relational qua dispositional, on the other hand. As I believe that such a view is, at least in part, motivated by his rejection of Kant’s notion of things in themselves, I start by sketching the metaphysics of Kant’s transcendental idealism and (...)
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  • Logical idealism and Carnap's construction of the world.Alan W. Richardson - 1992 - Synthese 93 (1-2):59 - 92.
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  • Claude Bernard and life in the laboratory.Hans-Joerg Rheinberger - 2023 - History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 45 (2):1-14.
    Much has been written on Claude Bernard as a relentless promoter of the experimental method in physiology. Although the paper will touch Bernard’s experimental intuitions and his experimental practice as well, its focus is slightly different. It will address the laboratory, that is, the space in which experimentation in the life sciences takes place, and it will analyze the scattered remarks that Bernard made on the topic both in his books and in his posthumously published writings. The paper is divided (...)
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  • Sensational sentences switched.Georges Rey - 1992 - Philosophical Studies 68 (3):289 - 319.
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  • The Critique of Social Reason in the Popper-Adorno Debate.Iaan Reynolds - 2023 - History of the Human Sciences 36 (3-4):260-282.
    This paper examines the differences and affinities between Karl Popper’s critical rationalism and Theodor Adorno’s critical theory through renewed attention to the original documents of their 1961 debate. While commentaries often describe the Popper-Adorno encounter as a theoretical disappointment, I reveal a confrontation between conceptually opposed programs of social research. Though both theorists are committed to critique as a political and epistemological struggle for human freedom, their conceptions of this struggle are starkly different. In the original seminar papers, we find (...)
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  • Remembering Jerry Fodor and his work.Georges Rey - 2018 - Mind and Language 33 (4):321-341.
    This is a reminiscence and short biographical sketch of the late philosopher and cognitive scientist Jerry Fodor. It includes a summary of his main proposals about the mind: his “Language of Thought” hypothesis; his rejection of analyticity and conceptual role semantics; his “mad dog nativism”; his proposal of mental modules and—by contrast—his skepticism about a computational theory of central cognition; his anti‐reductionist, but still physicalist, views about psychology; and, lastly, his attacks on selectionism. I conclude with some discussion of his (...)
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  • The rebirth of rational morphology.David Resnik - 1994 - Acta Biotheoretica 42 (1):1-14.
    This paper examines a new challenge to neo-Darwinism, a movement known as process structuralism. The process structuralist critique of neo-Darwinism holds 1) that there are general laws in biology and that biologists should search for these laws; 2) that there are general forms of morphology and development and that biologists should attempt to uncover these forms; 3) that organisms are unified wholes that cannot be understood without adopting a holistic perspective; and 4) that no special, causal primacy should be given (...)
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