On an account of virtue as skill, virtues are acquired in the ways that skills are acquired. In this paper I focus on one implication of that account that is deserving of greater attention, which is that becoming more skillful requires learning from one’s failures, but that turns out to be especially challenging when dealing with moral failures. In skill acquisition, skills are improved by deliberate practice, where you strive to correct past mistakes and learn how to overcome your current (...) limitations. A similar story applies to virtue acquisition, as moral failures will be a part of anyone’s life, and we will all have to learn from these experiences. However, despite the importance of being able to learn from our mistakes, this is very difficult in practice, given that failure of any kind can be distressing, and especially so for moral failure. The distress created by a recognition of moral failure often prompts responses of anger, avoidance, or defensiveness; rather than attempts to make amends and when necessary to work on self-improvement. The most potentially distressing response to moral failure is shame, as it is often associated with defensiveness. It is here where emotion regulation will be important to manage that distress, and I focus on the skill of emotion differentiation. I argue that emotion differentiation is a promising strategy for distinguishing the emotions we may experience in the wake of failure, including shame, and to encourage those emotions that motivate self-improvement. Thus, emotion regulation is important for virtue acquisition. (shrink)

The assumption that positive affect leads to a better performance in simple cognitive tasks has become well established. We address the question whether positive and negative emotions differentially influence performance in complex problem-solving in the same way. Emotions were induced by positive or negative feedback in 74 participants who had to manage a computer-simulated complex problem-solving scenario. Results show that overall scenario performance is not affected, but positive and negative emotions elicit distinguishable problem-solving strategies: Participants with negative emotions are more (...) focused on the seeking and use of information. We discuss methodological requirements for investigating emotion influences in complex and dynamic cognitive tasks. (shrink)

Evaluative judgments imply positive or negative regard. But there are different ways in which something can be positive or negative. How do we tell them apart? According to Evaluative Sentimentalism, different evaluations (e.g., dangerousness vs. offensiveness) are grounded on different emotions (e.g., fear vs. anger). If this is the case, evaluation differentiation requires emotional awareness. Here, we test this hypothesis by looking at alexithymia, a deficit in emotional awareness consisting of problems identifying, describing, and thinking about emotions. The results (...) of Study 1 suggest that high alexithymia is not only related to problems distinguishing emotions, but also to problems distinguishing evaluations. Study 2 replicated this latter effect after controlling for individual differences in attentional impulsiveness and reflective reasoning, and found that reasoning makes an independent contribution to evaluation differentiation. These results suggest that emotional sensibilities play an irreducible role in evaluative judgment while affording a role for reasoning. (shrink)

A central thesis held by neo-Aristotelian virtue theories is that virtues require robust dispositions to have appropriate emotions. This thesis is challenged by a particular form of situationism, which suggests that human beings cannot develop this kind of emotional disposition because our integral emotions are too easily influenced by morally and epistemically irrelevant incidental affect. If the challenge stands, it implies that human beings cannot be virtuous. In response to the challenge, I propose an agential solution that’s grounded in the (...) affective sciences. Drawing from empirical evidence, I argue that agents can develop ameliorative abilities such as emotion differentiation to guard against the influence of incidental affect, thereby developing more robust emotional dispositions. My arguments thus defend the psychological plausibility of this key component of virtue. (shrink)

The assumption that positive affect leads to a better performance in simple cognitive tasks has become well established. We address the question whether positive and negative emotions differentially influence performance in complex problem-solving in the same way. Emotions were induced by positive or negative feedback in 74 participants who had to manage a computer-simulated complex problem-solving scenario. Results show that overall scenario performance is not affected, but positive and negative emotions elicit distinguishable problem-solving strategies: Participants with negative emotions are more (...) focused on the seeking and use of information. We discuss methodological requirements for investigating emotion influences in complex and dynamic cognitive tasks. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to propose a systematic classification of emotions which can also characterize their nature. The first challenge we address is the submission of clear criteria for a theory of emotions that determine which mental phenomena are emotions and which are not. We suggest that emotions as a subclass of mental states are determined by their functional roles. The second and main challenge is the presentation of a classification and theory of emotions that can account for (...) all existing varieties. We argue that we must classify emotions according to four developmental stages: 1. pre-emotions as unfocussed expressive emotion states, 2. basic emotions, 3. primary cognitive emotions, and 4. secondary cognitive emotions. We suggest four types of basic emotions (fear, anger, joy and sadness) which are systematically differentiated into a diversity of more complex emotions during emotional development. The classification distinguishes between basic and non-basic emotions and our multi-factorial account considers cognitive, experiential, physiological and behavioral parameters as relevant for constituting an emotion. However, each emotion type is constituted by a typical pattern according to which some features may be more significant than others. Emotions differ strongly where these patterns of features are concerned, while their essential functional roles are the same. We argue that emotions form a unified ontological category that is coherent and can be well defined by their characteristic functional roles. Our account of emotions is supported by data from developmental psychology, neurobiology, evolutionary biology and sociology. (shrink)

In this paper I try to clarify and systematize some contributions with regard to (a) the main aspects of crisis situations that impose the management of emotions, (b) the correlation of certain social emotions with the factors that trigger them and their related tendencies to act, (c) the essential elements of emotional experience, (d) the differentiation of appropriate emotional reactions to a crisis situation from the inappropriate ones; (e) the in-stances in which emotions can be managed, and (f) the (...) balance between rationality and affectivity in the organization’s response to the risks or crises which it faces. By means of logical correlations I arrived at the following conclusions. Regardless of the social sphere in which the crisis makes itself felt, regardless of its type, phase or damage control strategies, the rational control of emotions contributes significantly to overcoming the crisis situation. Beyond the specificities, crises involve digressions form the norms of rightful conduct, breaches of the social norms that support institutions (as spontaneous order structures) and maladaptive reactions to reality. They can be corrected through a good management of emotions, with the caveat that we are not dealing with a problem of knowledge, but rather with one of will and character. All people can identify the adaptive emotional responses to a crisis situation, but only a few prefer them and train assiduously to use them. (shrink)

I begin this article with an increasingly accepted claim: that emotions lend differential weight to states of affairs, helping us conceptually carve the world and make rational decisions. I then develop a more controversial assertion: that environments have non-subjective emotional qualities, which organize behavior and help us make sense of the world. I defend this from ecological and related embodied standpoints that take properties to be interrelational outcomes. I also build on conceptions of experience as a cultural phenomenon, one that (...) coheres around shared environmental contours and public emotional concerns, introducing normative constraints (or what might be called “world grammars”). Endorsing this outlook suggests an argument for the view that cultural spaces have affectively charged, non-subjective, normative openings and closures. These openings and closures engender selectively permeable barriers which cordon space without physically preventing entry, as seen with decorative half walls and elevation changes. An area with such barriers may look emotionally hostile to, say, the dispirited homeless who are in fact less welcome there. Outcomes like these might be thought of as “political affordances.” These affordances can be regarded as normative openings and closures that implicitly filter, and hence segregate, according to various social divisions. Although registering political affordances requires more than the detection of ambient arrays, the notion retains core Gibsonian ideas: that affordances are values, that these values are linked with how a space can be used, and that the existence and nature of such affordances is not a subjective matter. (shrink)

The author proposes a dimensional model of our emotion concepts that is intended to be largely independent of one’s theory of emotions and applicable to the different ways in which emotions are measured. He outlines some conditions for selecting the dimensions based on these motivations and general conceptual grounds. Given these conditions he then advances an 8-dimensional model that is shown to effectively differentiate emotion labels both within and across cultures, as well as more obscure expressive language. The (...) 8 dimensions are: (1) attracted—repulsed, (2) powerful—weak, (3) free—constrained, (4) certain—uncertain, (5) generalized—focused, (6) future directed—past directed, (7) enduring—sudden, (8) socially connected—disconnected. (shrink)

This study aimed to describe the levels of job satisfaction of 95 respondent- Secondary School Science teachers (SSST) in the Schools Division Office of Urdaneta City. Specifically, it dealt with the profile variables of the respondent-SST, namely: age, sex. civil status, relevant inservice trainings, teaching position, and years in service. It also determined the level of socioemotional, mental health, well-being of the respondent-SST in the areas of self-management, socialization, and teamwork. Moreover, the study determined whether or not there are significant (...) differences in the levels of socio-emotional, mental health, well-being of the respondent-SST across the profile variables. Finally, it determined whether or not there are significant relationships between the levels of and the profile variables levels of socio- emotional, mental health, well-being of the respondent-SST across the profile variables. The study showed that majority of the respondent-SST belong to the age bracket of 41 years old and above; predominantly females; most of whom are teacher III in position. Most of them had attended 1-8 relevant in-service trainings and majority of them are single and working in Department of Education (DepEd) for 6-10 years. The grand overall weighted mean (GWOM) obtained by the respondent-SST is 3.80, equivalent to Manageable (M), in transmuted rating. Moreover, an overall weighted of Manageable (M) was obtained by the areas of self-management (OWM=4.12) and socialization (OWM=3.80). However, teamwork obtained the lowest OWM (OWM=3.49) which is equivalent to Moderately Manageable(MM) in the transmuted rating. It was found out that there were no significant differences in the respondent-SST’s levels of socioemotional, mental health and well-being across the variables, age, teaching position, trainings and years in service. However, it was found out that there is significant differences in the area of teamwork across the variable sex and relevant trainings attended. Similarly, socialization and teamwork across the number of years in the service also had significant differences. There are significant relationships between the levels of socio-emotional, mental heath and wellbeing the respondent-SST in teamwork and the variable, sex. Likewise, there are significant relationship between their levels of socio-emotional, mental health and well-being in socialization and the variable, number of years in service. Based from the salient findings, it was concluded that the respondents are relatively young in the service as secondary science teachers, predominantly females, and majority of them is in Teacher III position. These science teachers have very low management in socio-emotional, mental health and well-being under teamwork particularly in working under pressure or stress. Their levels of socio-emotional, mental health and well-being are differentiated only by the variables, sex and number of years in the service, in specific areas, namely: socialization and teamwork. The levels of socio-emotional, mental health and well-being of the SST are associated only to the variables, sex, and number of years in the service, in the areas of socialization and teamwork. (shrink)

The original book chapter does not have an abstract. However, I have written an abstract for this repository: Religious life encompasses a wide diversity of situations for which the emotional tone is on a continuum from extreme euphoria to extreme dysphoria. In this book chapter, we propose the novel hypothesis that euphoria and dysphoria have distinctly separate functional consequences for religious evolution and survivability. This is due to the differential cognitive states that are created in euphoric and dysphoric situations. Based (...) on readings from religious studies and cognitive psychology, we propose that euphoria in religion is conducive to social bonding and situations needing lateral thinking and creativity; whereas dysphoria in religion is conducive to situations where precision and analogical reasoning are necessary. (shrink)

Background: Individuals with psychopathic traits demonstrate an attenuated emotional response to aversive stimuli. However, recent evidence suggests heterogeneity in emotional reactivity among individuals with psychopathic or callous-unemotional (CU) traits, the emotional detachment dimension of psychopathy. We hypothesize that primary variants of psychopathy will respond with blunted affect to negatively valenced stimuli, whereas individuals marked with histories of childhood trauma/maltreatment exposure, known as secondary variants, will display heightened emotional reactivity. To test this hypothesis, the present study examined fear-potentiated startle between psychopathy (...) variants while viewing aversive, pleasant, and neutral scenes. Method: 238 incarcerated adolescent (M age = 16.8, SD = 1.11 years) boys completed a picture-startle paradigm and self-report questionnaires assessing CU traits, antisocial-aggressive behavior, and maltreatment. Results: Latent profile analyses identified four classes; primary variants (high CU traits, high aggression, low maltreatment; n = 46), secondary variants (high CU traits, high aggression, high maltreatment; n = 42), and two nonpsychopathic groups differentiated on maltreatment experience (n = 148). Findings from an ANOVA comparing identified groups on startle amplitude difference scores (i.e., aversive-neutral) suggested a main effect for group, F(3,196)=8.91, p<.001, η2 = .12. Primary variants of juvenile psychopathy displayed reduced startle potentiation to aversive images (threat and victim scenes), whereas secondary variants distinguished by high levels of childhood maltreatment did not. Conclusions: Findings add to a rapidly growing body of literature supporting the possibility of multiple developmental pathways to psychopathy (i.e., equifinality), and extend it by finding support for divergent potential biomarkers between primary and secondary psychopathy variants. (shrink)

Although consolation is one of the classic religious subjects it plays no role in the current debate about religious emotions. One reason for this neglect could be that this debate is mostly based on classical emotions such as joy and fear, love and hope, and that consolation is not understood as an emotion. This paper tries to show that consolation in fact can and should be seen as an emotion. After naming and refuting some reasons that speak against (...) taking consolation to be an emotion, I will explain how consolation can be positively conceptualized as an emotion within a recent theory of emotions. It will be decisive to see that the experience of consolation can be understood not only hedonistically-qualitatively, but also intentionally. This structural conception allows for a differentiated description of various types of consolation as an emotion, also, in the tradition of William James, of a secular as well as a religious form of consolation. (shrink)

Music impinges upon the body and the brain and has inductive power, relying on both innate dispositions and acquired mechanisms for coping with the sounds. This process is partly autonomous and partly deliberate, but multiple interrelations between several levels of processing can be shown. There is, further, a tradition in neuroscience that divides the organization of the brain into lower and higher functions. The latter have received a lot of attention in music and brain studies during the last decades. Recent (...) developments in neuroimaging techniques, however, have broadened the field by encompassing the study of both cortical and subcortical processing of the sounds. Much is still to be investigated but some major observations seem already to emerge. The domain of music and emotions is a typical example with a major focus on the pleasure that can be derived from listening to music. Pleasure, however, is not the only emotion that music can induce and the mechanisms behind its elicitation are far from understood. There are also mechanisms related to arousal and activation that are both less differentiated and at the same time more complex than the assumed mechanisms triggering basic emotions. It is tempting, therefore, to bring together contributions from neuroscience studies with a view to cover the possible range of answers to the question of what pleasurable or mood-modifying effects music can have on human beings in real-time listening situations. (shrink)

Introduction: A general trend in the psychological literature suggests that guilt contributes to morality more than shame does. Unlike shame-prone individuals, guilt-prone individuals internalize the causality of negative events, attribute responsibility in the first person, and engage in responsible behavior. However, it is not known how guilt- and shame-proneness interact with the attribution of responsibility to others. -/- Methods: In two Web-based experiments, participants reported their attributions of moral culpability (i.e., responsibility, causality, punishment and decision-making) about morally ambiguous acts of (...) killing in different conditions. In Study 1 the vignettes were presented in the 1st person, while in Study 2 in the 3rd person. To test proneness to guilt and shame, we utilized the GASP scale, which differentiates between the affective and behavioral components of each emotion. Statistical analyses were performed in Matlab and R. -/- Results: We found that guilt- and shame-proneness were associated with the severity of attributions in both the first and the third person, but the effect was strong only in the guilt case (both subtypes) and shame-affect case, and not in the shame-behavior case. We call this the Moralizing Effect. -/- Discussion: We wonder whether our finding that guilt-prone people tend to attribute a higher degree of culpability to others is really consistent with the view that guilt motivates people to choose the “moral paths in life”. This echoes views about the harmful aspects of guilt, which have been expressed historically in philosophy, for example, by Friedrich Nietzsche. (shrink)

Emotions and feelings (i.e. affects) are a central feature of human behavior. Due to complexity and interdisciplinarity of affective phenomena, attempts to define them have often been unsatisfactory. This article provides a simple logical structure, in which affective concepts can be defined. The set of affects defined is similar to the set of emotions covered in the OCC model, but the model presented in this article is fully computationally defined, whereas the OCC model depends on undefined concepts. Following Matthis, affects (...) are seen as unconscious, emotions as preconscious and feelings as conscious. Affects are thus a superclass of emotions and feelings with regards to consciousness. A set of affective states and related affect-specific behaviors and strategies can be defined with unconscious affects only. -/- In addition, affects are defined as processes of change in the body state, that have specific triggers. For example, an affect of hope is defined as a specific body state that is triggered when the agent is becomes informed about a future event, that is positive with regards to the agent’s needs. -/- Affects are differentiated from each other by types of causing events. Affects caused by unexpected positive, neutral and negative events are delight, surprise and fright, respectively. Affects caused by expected positive and negative future events are hope and fear. -/- Affects caused by expected past events are as follows: satisfaction results from a positive expectation being fulfilled, disappointment results from a positive expectation not being fulfilled, fears-confirmed results from a negative expectation being fulfilled, and relief results from a negative expectation not being fulfilled. Pride is targeted towards a self-originated positive event, and shame towards a self-originated negative event. Remorse is targeted towards a self-originated action causing a negative event. Pity is targeted towards a liked agent experiencing a negative event, and happy-for towards a liked agent experiencing a positive event. Resentment is targeted towards a disliked agent experiencing a positive event, and gloating towards a disliked agent experiencing a negative event. An agent is liked/loved if it has produced a net utility greater than zero, and disliked/hated if the net utility is lower than zero. An agent is desired if it is expected to produce a positive net utility in the future, and disliked if the expected net utility is negative. -/- The above model for unconscious affects is easily computationally implementable, and may be used as a starting point in building believable simulation models of human behavior. The models can be used as a starting point in the development of computational psychological, psychiatric, sociological and criminological theories, or in e.g. computer games. -/- [please cite using the arXiv url below.]. (shrink)

This essay argues that trans philosophy - and perhaps philosophy more broadly - should be understood according to the interplay of social, material, and emotional circulations. It opens by bridging insights from underemployed library work during the COVID-19 pandemic with Sara Ahmed’s analysis of the circulation of emotions in relation to texts and archives. The first major section diagnoses Martha Nussbaum’s confusing analysis of “the new trans scholarship” to establish that trans philosophy is differentially circulated across the discipline of philosophy. (...) The second major section argues that trans philosophy can be understood through the interplay of four different circulations: (1) trans philosophy as creating a space; (2) trans philosophy as the trans question; (3) trans philosophy as the gender wars; and (4) trans philosophy as the trans cult. I conclude that trans philosophy is a field that has yet to clearly form as it continues to twist and multiply according to affect, professional dynamics, political intrigue, who gets thrown away, and who is granted the space, time, energy, and money to write and publish. (shrink)

Shun Kwong-loi argues that the distinction between first- and third-person points of view does not play as explanatory a role in our moral psychology as has been supposed by contemporary philosophical discussions. He draws insightfully from the Confucian tradition to better elucidate our everyday experiences of moral emotions, arguing that it offers an alternative and more faithful perspective on our experiences of anger and compassion. However, unlike the distinction between first- and third-person points of view, Shun’s descriptions of anger and (...) compassion leave unarticulated what would be necessary to differentiate these responses from non-moral responses. Here, I make a friendly suggestion on how this explanatory gap might be filled, providing complementary grounding for Shun’s observations by way of K. C. Bhattacharyya’s phenomenological analysis of feeling. It fills the gap by means of a gradation in the possible depth of emotional responses found in the a priori structure of a feeling experience for any subject. The payoff of such a comparison between Shun’s explication of Confucian moral psychology and Bhattacharyya’s explication of rasa theory is not only a possible phenomenological grounding for the former but also a potential way to articulate a missing ethics in Bhattacharyya’s thought. (shrink)

An elderly patient in a care home only wants human nurses to provide her care – not robots. If she selected her carers based on skin colour, it would be seen as racist and morally objectionable, but is choosing a human nurse instead of a robot also morally objectionable and speciesist? A plausible response is that it is not, because humans provide a better standard of care than robots do, making such a choice justifiable. In this paper, I show why (...) this response is incorrect, because robots can theoretically care as well as human nurses can. I differentiate between practical caring and emotional caring, and I argue that robots can match the standard of practical care given by human nurses, and they can simulate emotional care. There is growing evidence that people respond positively to robotic creatures and carebots, and AI software is apt to emotionally support patients in spite of the machine’s own lack of emotions. I make the case that the appearance of emotional care is sufficient, and need not be linked to emotional states within the robot. After all, human nurses undoubtedly ‘fake’ emotional care and compassion sometimes, yet their patients still feel adequately cared for. I show that it is a mistake to claim that ‘the human touch’ is in itself a contributor to a higher standard of care; ‘the robotic touch’ will suffice. Nevertheless, it is not speciesist to favour human nurses over carebots, because carebots do not suffer as the result of such a choice. (shrink)

As the opening line of Dickens' classic novel suggests, it is very often the case that people can imagine both better and worse alternatives to their present reality. Although Dickens was writing about events that occurred over two centuries ago, it remains just as true today that we clearly live in neither the best nor the worst of possible worlds. For instance, we can wish for the amelioration of present difficulties in the Middle East yet still take comfort in the (...) fact that the threat of nuclear war has been greatly reduced since the end of the Cold War. On a more mundane level, it is easy for us to imagine how various aspects of our lives, such as our jobs, marriages, or physical fitness, could be both better and worse. Undoubtedly due to the pervasiveness and intrinsically fascinating qualities of this phenomenon of imagining alternatives to reality, there has been a veritable explosion of research in recent years on what have been termed mental simulation and counterfactual thinking processes. This chapter speculates upon and provides evidence for the antecedents and consequences of two types of counterfactuals: upward (it could have been better) and downward (it could have been worse). The importance of studying the antecedents and consequences of counterfactual direction lie in the differential structures, emotions, intentions, inferences, and behavioral consequences of upward versus downward counterfactual thinking. (shrink)

British art historian Charles Harrison presumes the existence of a patriarchal world with power in the hands of men who dominate the representation of women and femininity. He applauds the ground-breaking work of feminist theorists who have questioned this imbalance of power since the 1970s. He stops short, however, of accepting their claims that all women have been represented by male artists as images of “utter passivity” (p. 4), routinely reduced by the male gaze to the status of exploited sexual (...) objects, or that women’s subjectivity is eroded by the visual treatment they receive at the hands of male artists such as Manet and Picasso. He wants to show that what is depicted in the picture plane by the (typically male) artist and enjoyed by the (typically male) spectator is more nuanced than just a simple privileged understanding between two men. He adds a third (and possibly fourth or more) party to the mix when he significantly redefines and expands our concept of the gaze: “A gaze may also be conceived of as a function of a painting’s represented content” (p. 9). In other words, a gaze may be “addressed outward by a represented figure,” and regardless of who and where, “the assumption conveyed by the term [‘gaze’] is that some differential and usually asymmetrical relation will be at stake in any exchange between one who directs the gaze and another at whom it is directed. In fact, it is just this difference—in age, in sex, in class, in interest, in power —that the operation of the gaze tends to mark” (p. 9). Referring to a woman depicted within the picture plane, he asks us to consider, “What does it feel like to look like this?” (p. 21) in order to entertain our many emotional responses and interpretations. When he adds, “What does it feel like to whom?” the sexual difference of the spectator also clearly comes into play. (shrink)

A simple definition of consciousness is sensory awareness of the body, the self, and the world. The fetus may be aware of the body, for example by perceiving pain. It reacts to touch, smell, and sound, and shows facial expressions responding to exter- nal stimuli. However, these reactions are probably preprogrammed and have a subcortical nonconscious origin. Furthermore, the fetus is almost continuously asleep and unconscious partially due to endog- enous sedation. Conversely, the newborn infant can be awake, exhibit sensory (...) awareness, and process memorized mental representations. It is also able to differentiate between self and nonself touch, express emotions, and show signs of shared feelings. Yet, it is unreflective, present oriented, and makes little reference to concept of him/herself. Newborn infants display features characteristic of what may be referred to as basic consciousness and they still have to undergo considerable maturation to reach the level of adult consciousness. The preterm infant, ex utero, may open its eyes and establish minimal eye contact with its mother. It also shows avoidance reactions to harmful stimuli. However, the thalamocortical connections are not yet fully established, which is why it can only reach a minimal level of consciousness. (shrink)

Although scholars acknowledged that Avicenna’s science of the soul stands at the crossroads between natural philosophy and metaphysics, thus combining an overall physical investigation of all sublunary souls with a trans-physical (or proto-metaphysical) inquiry into the human rational soul, this paper aims to show a further disciplinary entanglement within Avicenna’s science of the soul, which features in the aforementioned physical investigation and helps to frame it, that is, the interaction between natural philosophy and medicine. Despite the strict division between these (...) two disciplines in Avicenna’s system of science, medicine seems to decisively contribute to accounting for the bodily functions of living beings. For this reason, Avicenna refers to medicine several times in his exposition on the soul. This paper approaches the disciplinary entanglement between natural philosophy and medicine in psychology by focusing on the medical concept of pneuma (rūḥ), which prominently features in the exposition of three main issues in psychology, i.e., body ensoulment, powers differentiation, and emotions. (shrink)

I rapporti annuali su Gli italiani e lo stato, coordinati da Ilvo Diamanti, continuano a rilevare che i cittadini sono impegnati negli associazionismi ma disincantati dalla politica. Con le tipiche differenze nelle diverse aree del paese e a seconda del livello istituzionale, accanto alla sfiducia verso le istituzioni pubbliche c’è una propensione alla partecipazione. Come mostrano la diffusione delle primarie e le esperienze di democrazia partecipativa che si moltiplicano a livello locale, si riscontra, infatti, una disponibilità a sperimentare forme di (...) coinvolgimento differenti rispetto alla militanza politica che possono costituire un utile complemento della democrazia rappresentativa e degli strumenti di democrazia diretta. La partecipazione non solo richiede la possibilità legale di votare ma anche un contesto sociale che induca effettivamente il popolo a votare e ad esprimere i propri punti di vista elevando il livello di informazione e il confronto su argomenti alternativi, cercando di evitare nelle controversie pubbliche le valutazioni puramente opportunistiche o emotive. L’interesse qui si rivolge verso il “sondaggio deliberativo” di James S. Fishkin, una procedura molto diversa dal sondaggio d’opinione poiché rovescia la logica demoscopica. Le persone sondate dagli istituti di ricerca a volte non hanno indicazioni adeguate sul tema; altrettanto spesso non ci hanno riflettuto e non hanno confrontato le proprie preferenze, scelte o credenze con gli argomenti in contrasto in una libera e approfondita discussione. Renato Mannheimer, presidente dell’Istituto per gli studi sulla pubblica opinione (Ispo) è d’accordo con l’affermazione secondo cui le persone rispondono anche su ciò che non conoscono e, a suo parere, il problema si fa ancora più evidente a ridosso delle elezioni. Oggi, a suo avviso, la maggior parte della gente vota non per vera convinzione, ma sulla base di impressioni acquisite dalla TV durante le ultime settimane prima del voto. I sondaggi deliberativi, invece, sono diretti a migliorare la qualità del confronto pubblico, attraverso una procedura articolata che favorisce l’informazione,la riflessione e il dibattito, a partire, ovvio, dall’idea di creare un rapporto diverso tra i sondaggi e l’opinione pubblica intenso come misurazione di come muta l’opinione dopo che le persone hanno avuto l’opportunità di diventare più competenti e di confrontare in un dialogo aperto le loro idee. Nonostante alcune riserve di ordine metodologico e taluni rischi di strumentalizzazione politica, l’esame dei sondaggi deliberativi risveglia una viva ammirazione per uno studioso riuscito a riversare la passione civile e l'impegno politico in una pratica democratica concreta alla quale ha dedicato, quasi interamente, molti anni del suo lavoro. Rimane, certo, uno strumento insufficiente a rianimare e risollevare il momento deliberativo nelle democrazie contemporanee, ma nessuno può negare che indichi a tutti la direzione giusta. (shrink)

The feeling of being offended, as a moral emotion, plays a key role in issues such as slurs, the offense principle, ethics of humor, etc. However, no adequate theory of offense has been developed in the literature, and it remains unclear what questions such a theory should answer. This paper attempts to fill the gap by performing two tasks. The first task is to clarify and summarize the questions of offense into two kinds, the descriptive questions (e.g., what features (...) differentiate offense from similar moral states like anger?) and the normative questions (e.g., what are the conditions for taking offense to be apt?). The second task is to answer these questions by developing what I call ‘the violated norm theory of offense’. According to this theory, feeling offended entails that the norm one endorses is judged to be violated by the offender. Appealing to the violated norm enables this theory to answer the descriptive questions (e.g., taking offense differs from anger because of features like not requiring victims and the difficulty of animal offense) and the normative questions of offense (e.g., taking offense is apt only if the violated norm is universalizable). (shrink)

The aim of this work is to demarcate, develop, and defend the commitments and consequences of metaethical minimalism. Very roughly, this is the position that a commitment to objective moral truths does not require any accompanying ontological commitments. While there are few, if any, who call themselves “metaethical minimalists”, I endeavor to uncover existing articulations of metaethical minimalism which have been presented under different names, attempting to identify the common ground between them. As I interpret the position, all metaethical minimalists (...) are committed to the same positive pair of claims (what I call the Objectivity Thesis): “a) Moral truths are strongly mind-independent; b) there are moral truths.” Taken by itself, however, this pair of claims is not sufficient for differentiating their view from the moral realist’s. Consequently, the minimalist must also articulate that which they are denying about the non-minimalist approach, or what I call the “negative ontological thesis”. I offer my own version of this negative thesis and argue for its dialectical advantages. -/- In Chapters 3 and 4, I focus my attention on attacks on the viability of metaethical minimalism in the form of two “challenges” that aim to problematize a commitment to objective moral truths absent any accompanying ontological commitment. The big-picture takeaway from these chapters is that minimalism can defend itself by playing to the dialectical advantage I find for it in Chapter 2 as well as by being creative about minimalist constructions/reworkings of plausible principles/lines of reasoning that seem to contradict it. -/- The temptation to embrace quietism is strong among minimalists, but in Chapters 5, 6, and 7 I aim to show that there is a positive alternative available for the minimalist interested in developing a full picture of their position. Chapter 5 is aimed at providing an adequate understanding of the distinction between the objects of purely normative thoughts and objects of thoughts about reality. Building on this are Chapters 6 and 7, which argue in favor of an account of the relationship between emotion and evaluative knowledge that is consistent with metaethical minimalism. (shrink)

Objectives Practitioners in contemplative traditions commonly report experiencing an awareness that is distinct from sensory objects, thoughts, and emotions (“awareness itself”). They also report experiences of a void or underlying silence that is closely associated with this awareness. Subjects who carry out the Headless Way exercises frequently report an experience of emptiness or void at the same time as other contents (void-like experiences). The goals of this study were to (1) assess the reliability of these methods in eliciting the recognition (...) of awareness and void-like experiences in participants who had no prior exposure to these techniques, (2) investigate the prevalence of these experiences in these tasks, and (3) to differentiate these experiences from closely related and potential precursor experiences. -/- Method Twenty adults participated in in-depth individual interviews in which they were guided through the Headless Way exercises. A thematic analysis was conducted on the interview transcripts. -/- Results Twelve of the participants reported a void-like experience, and five participants reported an experience of awareness itself. These experiences were respectively categorized as subsets of the more general categories of perceptual absences and the sense of not being person-like. Another novel finding was the real-time reports of awareness and void-like experiences during the exercises. -/- Conclusions Our findings provide preliminary evidence that the Headless Way exercises can effectively induce experiences of emptiness and awareness in participants without prior experience. The findings suggest that such experiences can be elicited outside of a traditional meditation context, including in non-meditators. Furthermore, the experience of not being person-like and of perceptual absences may be precursors and more general forms of recognizing awareness itself and the void-like nature of the mind. (shrink)

Purpose This systematic review aims to identify factors that influence parents’ decisions regarding pediatric diagnostic and predictive genetic testing (DT/PT). Factors are integrated into a conceptual model of decision-making. Implications for genetic counseling, research, and ethics are derived. Methods PubMed, PsychInfo, WebofScience and references of related reviews were searched for original publications between 2000 and 2023. Extracted factors were categorized into an existing model. Results Of 5843 publications, 56 met inclusion criteria. The included studies differentiate between DT, traditional, and expanded (...) PT and describe factors impacting parental decisions on both to have the child genetically tested and to be informed about additional findings. Factors included: 1. benefits/hopes, 2. worries/concerns, 3. values and beliefs, 4. individual circumstances, and 5. emotional states. Conclusion Our work extends an existing empirical decision model of family decisions about genome sequencing to genetic testing in pediatrics in general, adding the categories “individual circumstances” and “emotional states”. The factors can be further integrated into the Health Belief Model; the importance of emotional states is reflected in dual-process theories, such as Fuzzy Trace Theory. Research is required on emotional states, differences between DT and PT, parents’ decisions about result disclosure, and dyadic variables as decision-making predictors. (shrink)

Introduction: The experience of disconnection is common in first-person accounts of grief. One way in which this feeling of estrangement can manifest is through the splintering apart of the time of the mourner and the time of the world. Supplementing and extending Thomas Fuchs' influential idea of temporal desynchronization, my aim in this article is to give an account of the heterogeneous ways in which grief can disturb time. -/- Method: I organize these manifold experiences of temporal disruption according to (...) a method of "depth analysis": a phenomenological interpretation of temporal desynchronization that tracks the increasing disconnect between the mourner and the world as it manifests in time. In so doing, I draw on a wide range of descriptive first-person responses to the question "Has your experience of time changed in any way?" - included as part of an online questionnaire on the emotional experience of grief conducted recently with colleagues at the University of York. I then stratify these according to a mild, moderate, and profound level of disruption. -/- Results: Before setting out the results of this analysis, I give a background account of Fuchs' interpretation of temporal desynchronization in phenomenological psychopathology more generally and in grief specifically. In my results, I then supplement and extend his interpretation by setting out my phenomenological depth analysis of the increasing disconnect between the time of the mourner and the time of the world, as demonstrated by the questionnaire data. As I argue, such a fine-grained account is an important step in understanding the way time can shape the meaning and significance of different grief experiences. Following this, in my discussion, I demonstrate how a depth approach might be helpful in differentiating between temporal disturbances in a range of affective disorders and give an illustrative comparison of grief and depression. -/- Conclusion: In conclusion, I reflect briefly on what grief might reveal about the depth and complexity of temporal experience itself. In so doing, I consider how the radical disruptions to time in grief might transform the mourner's experience of time irreversibly but in a way that enables a renewed connection to both their deceased loved one and the world from which they have become estranged. (shrink)

In this paper, we present a case of a boy – Noah Wall, who till today surprises the world of neuroscience with his will to grow his brain and survive. The case presented in this study sets a stepping stone in understanding the advent of the will to make a choice, from a neuro-quantum mechanics interpretation. We propose that besides our internal states of choices (neurogenesis, neuroplasticity, cell differentiation, etc.) we also relate with external states of choices (love, compassion, (...) empathy, emotions, etc.) that contributes to its emergence. Quantum uncertainty seems to support the existence of a fundamental property based on which the universe functions; which means that even the nothing of free space has a small chance of containing something. Outcomes are not determined by prior or random events but by consciousness that gives rise to these outcomes. This provides us a lead into understanding the existence of the will and the origin of choice when we look deeper into the realms of the implausible interpretations of quantum mechanics. Free will is the ability for the mind to choose between possible outcomes. Willful power is therefore not only a psychological intervention but also a biological and quantum intervention, where we have the capacity to make choices about what direction we will take, making a change to the systematic functioning of our body. (shrink)

This article contains the results of a theoretical analysis of the phenomenon of natural language understanding (NLU), as a methodological problem. The combination of structural-ontological and informational-psychological approaches provided an opportunity to describe the subject matter field of NLU, as a composite function of the mind, which systemically combines the verbal and discursive structural layers. In particular, the idea of NLU is presented, on the one hand, as the relation between the discourse of a specific speech message and the meta-discourse (...) of a language, in turn, activated by the need-motivational factors. On the other hand, it is conceptualized as a process with a specific structure of information metabolism, the study of which implies the necessity to differentiate the affective (emotional) and need-motivational influences on the NLU, as well as to take into account their interaction. At the same time, the hypothesis about the influence of needs on NLU under the scenario similar to the pattern of Yerkes-Dodson is argued. And the theoretical conclusion that emotions fulfill the function of the operator of the structural features of the information metabolism of NLU is substantiated. Thus, depending on the modality of emotions in the process of NLU, it was proposed to distinguish two scenarios for the implementation of information metabolism - reduction and synthetic. The argument in favor of the conclusion about the productive and constitutive role of emotions in the process of NLU is also given. (shrink)

This paper defends a new, role-differentiated account of the virtues of compassion. My main thesis is that in order to understand compassion’s value and advance debate about its ethical importance we need to recognize that the virtue of compassion involves substantively different dispositions and attitudes in different spheres of life – for example in our personal, professional, and civic lives. In each sphere, compassion is an apt and distinctive form of good-willed responsiveness to the value of living beings and their (...) characteristic struggles to live good lives, but the relevant forms of good-willed responsiveness vary because in different contexts there are different types of living beings involved and different relations between the compassionate person and the being to whom she is compassionate. My specific focus is on compassion in human relations; I argue that, in different role and relationship contexts, the virtues of compassion involve different forms of good-willed responsiveness to human struggles to live well. In developing my account I critically engage with the emotion-focused accounts defended by Martha Nussbaum and Roger Crisp and explain how my more plausible account can shed light on the nature and value of compassion for oneself. (shrink)

Contemporary research offers a more compelling account on the complex emotion of envy than the traditional view of envy as simply something bad. This essay explains how Logic-Based Therapy can use this account to coach individuals struggling with negative species of envy. Given that jealousy and envy are often equated, the essay differentiates the two; explains the conditions that make the four species of envy possible; identifies cardinal fallacies associated with negative species of envy; proposes counteractive virtues, and describes (...) ways to help people struggling with negative species of envy acquire these virtues. (shrink)

This thesis problematises the bases of soft power, that is, causal mechanisms connecting the agent (A) and the subject (B) of a power relationship. As the literature review reveals, their underspecification by neoliberal IR scholars, the leading proponents of the soft power concept, has caused a great deal of scholarly confusion over such questions as how to clearly differentiate between hard and soft power, how attraction (soft power’s primary mechanism) works and what roles structural and relational forces play in hard/soft (...) power. In an effort to ascertain the bases, I address this issue not from the viewpoint of A’s policies or resources, like do IR neoliberal scholars, but in terms of B’s psychological perception of A. Employing social psychological accounts, I argue that attraction can be produced in three distinct ways, namely 1) through B’s identification with A (“emotional” attraction), 2) via B’s appreciation of A’s competence/knowledge in a particular field (“rational” attraction) and 3) by means of the activation of B’s internalised values which contextually prescribe B to act in A’s favour (“social” attraction). Importantly, depending upon the way attraction is produced, it is peculiar in a number of characteristics, the main of which are power scope, weight and durability. Insights from social psychology also show that unlike soft power, hard power requires not only B’s relevant perception of the A-B relationship (as coercive or rewarding), but also A’s capability to actualise a threat of punishment and/or a promise of reward. I argue this difference can be fairly treated as definitional rather than empirical, which implies that coercion and reward necessarily have both relational and structural dimensions, whereas for attraction, a structural one alone suffices, while a relational one may or may not be present. Having explicated the soft power bases, I illustrate each of them using three “most likely” case studies, namely Serbia’s policies towards Russia (emotional attraction), Kazakhstan’s approach to relations with the EU (rational attraction) and Germany’s policies vis-à-vis Israel (social attraction). (shrink)

Cosmopolis A Review of Cosmopolitics -/- 2015/3-4 -/- Editorial Dominique de Courcelles & Paul Ghils -/- This issue addresses the general concept of “spirituality” as it appears in various cultural contexts and timeframes, through contrasting ideological views. Without necessarily going back to artistic and religious remains of primitive men, which unquestionably show pursuits beyond the biophysical dimension and illustrate practices seeking to unveil the hidden significance of life and death, the following papers deal with a number of interpretations covering a (...) wide field extending from belief to theory, from emotions to concepts, from the wisdom of personal experience to the most sophisticated doctrines. Spirit and spirituality are indeed many-faceted notions. They may refer to the intricate world of the interacting spirits which inhabit living beings in animistic traditions, without excluding a “grand force” linking human beings within a dynamic whole on which their very existence rely . They also bear upon more atomistic and either/or approaches of Western philosophy, which have become embodied in Cartesian dualism against a monotheist background, to the point of freezing the essence of individuals and culminating in the extreme individualism that characterizes our contemporaries. However, this equally refers to the opposite conception of materialism, across times and cultures, from ancient India and Greece (Cārvāka, originally known as Lokāyata, or some Buddhist doctrines for the former, Democritus or Lucretius for the latter) to more contemporary materialistic schools, whether modern or postmodern. -/- The following papers look at the contrasting forms of the philosophy and spirit of the human factor set into a whole, with no artificial disjoint between the psychical and the physical levels, as Wittgenstein put it: “And how can a body have a soul?”. This approach is not unrelated to the notion of anthropocene examined in a recent issue of Cosmopolis, with provides another comprehensive framework open to a spiritual life emerging from the very environment that generated it. -/- *** The first section of this issue was edited by Dominique de Courcelles, director at the National French Research Centre (CNRS), whom we wish to thank for collecting relevant studies relating to the religious and political questions, with a view to focusing on the war of ideas inevitably waged behind images, concepts and perceptions, taking an asymmetrical approach. To the extent that they are mindful of global/local interactions and include representations, opinions and beliefs, such disciplines as philosophy, philology, history and social sciences can provide useful studies accounting for new practices in geopolitics and a fair diplomacy. -/- In her introduction, Dominique de Courcelles first poses the question of how the religious and political spheres interrelate, with their corresponding religious demands and humanistic values. She then suggests that the right question today may be breaking with the philosophy of human rights concerned with the defense of human beings against the hazards of arbitrary politics or the instrumental use of religion, in favour of a fair philosophy of humankind, a new humanism. This would consist in recognizing a common loyalty of all towards one interhuman, not only interstate community, to protect it from both the autonomy demanded by individuals and the instrumental use of minorities. -/- Considering the fact of diversity, so important today in terms of both politics and religion, Abdelhai Azarkan looks at the conditions under which tolerance could obtain the double status of right and duty. He revisits to two philosophers, John Locke and Voltaire, who thought about it from the historical reality of religious wars. The former made tolerance into a right, basing his analysis on the political-legal level, while the latter saw tolerance as a duty, from an analysis based on ethical-political criteria. -/- Mathieu Guidère examines what he calls semantic denominationalism, a term which implies religious attributes and identities, whichever national loyalties or personal belonging they may have at the same time. Since the early 2000s, thie phenomenon has expanded tremendously, compounded by the “war on terror” and the over media-oriented terrorist actions. Denominational expressions act as formal names for ordinary and high-profile players in domestic and foreign policies of democratic states. These systems reveal a receding secularization, while the powerful comeback of religious identities signals the failure of nation-states and the weakening of the humanist spirit. -/- Barbara De Poli retraces the history of a contemporary jihadism claiming its Islamic essence and asserting the truth of genuine coranic principles via the war on infidels, with a view to restoring the Caliphate. After defining the term jihad, she shows that even if this contemporary jiadism is spreading in the Muslim world, it radically departs from Islamic law and the received use of the term jihad, in so far as it is rooted in the early radical thinking of Islamic ideologues in the 20th century, starting with with Hassan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. This current has been fueled by by international conflicts since the outbreak of the war in Afghanistan, in which the so-called Western countries bear a major responsibility. -/- Abderrazak Sayadi starts from the Tunisian experience to ask the question of humanist values and democracy within the relationships between the religious and political spheres. As a historian of religion, he is brought to demystify certain islamic principles and to paying attention to the reform of law, seeing the separation of religion and politics as a precondition to a successful democratic gamble and the establishment of a renewed humanism. -/- Dominique de Courcelles reminds us that getting a better knowledge of narrations and words makes it possible to better understand how logical and rhetorical thinking works for those who wage an asymetriccal war, re-enchanting and mystifying the world to better take control. As soon as 1932, an exchange of letters between Einstein and Freud made it clear that, in order to free man from fatality and war, education understood as culture was fundamental. Such illustrations as the exécution of Oussama ben Laden and the Caliph’s speech in Mossoul show that a premiminary analysis of images and words is essential to a fair diplomacy conducted by people from civil society, whose culture and wisdom allow justice and force to speak together and better resist war. -/- Marcel Boisard thinks that on the day the guns fall silent, exhausted by war, we will not return to the state borders that have prevailed for a century as an outcome of the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916. It is time to prepare the “day after”, which will be a huge challenge. To this end, a summit of Middle-East nations is urgently needed to globally decide the fate of those peoples. On the condition that we know who the enemy is and accept to name it, to understand the history of the countries, groups and alliances, and to question any false or self-interested sense of certainty. -/- *** In the second section, Paul Schafer provides the author’s experiences to explain how culture, from the artistic to the biological, has the power to to open the doors to spirituality, from the inner self to the global environment. He asks himself whether a relative permanence of spirituality can arise from the specific moments that characterize it. Laurent Ledoux synthesizes the conclusion of a symposium held on 22 January 2015 on the links between philosophy and management, on the basis of the spiritual dimension conceived as “natural” and the answers it may suggest to the issues that face the organizations in a “contemporaniversal” world. Jacques Rifflet makes that question in a secular perspective, based on the wellsprings of personal commitment before it can be caught by any religious creed or scientific theory. In this sense spirituality, in alliance with reason, both inspires human consciousness and illuminates its destiny. Sami Aldeeb asks himself whether Islam can be reconciled with human rights. Caught between the belief in an absolute and final Word descended from the sky, and evidence showing that any religion is the creation of a given culture and a society situated in time and space, the Makkan and … contexts et médinois call for differentiated, if not opposite answers and exegeses. Bernard Carmona provides the outline of a dialogical framework, which is known to be a feature of debates between the various philosophical schools of classical India, exemplified here by the transdisciplinary perspective of debates within a Buddhist context. *** The articles not focused on the previous topic include a study by Landry Signé on China’s strategy, competing with the United States to control African resources. The author deals with the specific case of China’s rapprochement with Southern Sudan since Sudan was broken up. In the last paper, Goran Fejić and Rada Iveković, return to the essential role that women should play, and comments upon the role of some international legal instruments related in particular to the elimination of all forms of discrimination. The perspective is transnational and transethnic and is based on secular criteria, as regards nation-building and more generally society-building. Considering the persistence of widespread violence, whether in times of armed conflict or in times of peace, the question remains whether it is possible to fully implement rights and justice instruments. (shrink)

This paper addresses the scarcely scrutinized topic in the consumer culture literature regarding how a social actor consumes himself through speech acts. More specifically, by introducing a new type of speech act, viz. the taboo speech act, and by effectively differentiating it from expletives, slang, and swearing words and expressions, I outline how subjectivity appropriates and individuates its systemic underpinning as other or linguistic system (Saussure) and wall of language (Lacan) in linguistic acts of transgression. Taboo speech acts do not (...) merely express emotions, such as anger and frustration. They also seek to contain a linguistic system as an ideational totality of acts of parole in a primus affectivus that is incumbent on the inverse sublimation of epithets and cultural symbols standing synecdochically in a pars pro toto relationship for the limits of what is culturally/linguistically sanctioned. The subject consumes/annihilates and institutes itself at the same time in taboo speech acts whose mission may not be fully accounted for through conversational pragmatics, insofar as they perform at a more foundational level a social ontological function. The offered analysis aims at contributing to the extant literature in consumer cultural theory, applied linguistics, and social theory. (shrink)

How can the law be characterized in a theory of collective intentionality that treats collective intentionality as essentially layered and tries to understand these layers in terms of the structure and the format of the representations involved? And can such a theory of collective intentionality open up new perspectives on the law and shed new light on traditional questions of legal philosophy? As a philosopher of collective intentionality who is new to legal philosophy, I want to begin exploring these questions (...) in this paper. I will try to characterize the law in terms of the layered account of collective intentionality that I have introduced in some earlier writings (Schmitz 2013; 2018). In the light of this account I will then discuss a traditional question in the philosophy of law: the relation between law and morality. I begin by giving a brief sketch of the layered account in the next section. Collective intentionality should be understood in terms of experiencing and representing others as co-subjects, rather than as objects, of intentional states and acts on different layers or levels. I distinguish the nonconceptual layer of the joint sensory-motor-emotional intentionality of joint attention and joint bodily action, the conceptual level of shared we-mode beliefs, intentions, obligations, values, and so on, and the institutional level characterized through role differentiation, positions taken in role-mode, e.g. as a judge or attorney, and writing and other forms of documentation. In the third section I introduce a set of parameters for representations such as their degree of richness, of context-dependence, of density and differentiation of representational role and of durability and stability, which can be used to more precisely distinguish different layers. I also put forward the hypothesis that these properties are connected and tend to cluster, and that higher levels can only function and determine conditions of satisfaction against lower level ones. In the fourth and final section I critically discuss the sharp positivistic separation of morality and the law according to which whether something is a law is completely independent of its moral merits. I argue that this only seems plausible if we take an observational stance towards the law, but not towards morality. When we treat them the same way, it rather appears that the moral attitudes of the co-subjects of a society will determine whether and to what extent they will accept its legal order. I conclude by proposing to think of the law as being itself an institutionalized form of morality. (shrink)

Collingwood’s aim in The Principles of Art is “to answer the question: What is art?” (p. 1) The answer Collingwood offers to that question, that art is the expression of emotion, has become notorious for its implausibility. I consider one objection against this theory, namely that it is unclear what is rendered art by this definition: for it sometimes appears to define art too broadly, containing all utterances and gestures; but at other times to define art too narrowly, excluding (...) much of what we intuitively consider art. -/- I argue that this objection is mistaken, because it is founded upon a misunderstanding of the sort of project in which Collingwood is engaged. I propose a new reading, via his philosophical methodology, under which ‘art’ is differentially rather than binarily realisable. According to this new reading, art is something found in every human experience or activity, but to a greater or lesser extent. I close by suggesting one reason why Collingwood’s project under this reading is more philosophically interesting than it is under the standard reading, namely that it can give a better account of borderline cases of art. (shrink)

Mindfulness training has been used to improve emotional wellbeing in early adolescents. However, little is known about treatment outcome moderators, or individual differences that may differentially impact responses to treatment. The current study focused on gender as a potential moderator for affective outcomes in response to school-based mindfulness training. Sixth grade students (N = 100) were randomly assigned to either the six weeks of mindfulness meditation or the active control group as part of a history class curriculum. Participants in the (...) mindfulness meditation group completed short mindfulness meditation sessions four to five times per week, in addition to didactic instruction (Asian history). The control group received matched experiential activity in addition to didactic instruction (African history) from the same teacher with no meditation component. Self-reported measures of emotional wellbeing/affect, mindfulness, and self-compassion were obtained at pre and post intervention. Meditators reported greater improvement in emotional wellbeing compared to those in the control group. Importantly, gender differences were detected, such that female meditators reported greater increases in positive affect compared to females in the control group, whereas male meditators and control males displayed equivalent gains. Uniquely among females but not males, increases in self-reported self-compassion were associated with improvements in affect. These findings support the efficacy of school-based mindfulness interventions, and interventions tailored to accommodate distinct developmental needs of female and male adolescents. (shrink)

The intersection between virtue and care ethics is underexplored in contemporary moral philosophy. This thesis approaches care ethics from a neo-Aristotelian virtue ethical perspective, comparing the two frameworks and drawing on recent work on care to develop a theory thereof. It is split into seven substantive chapters serving three major argumentative purposes, namely the establishment of significant intertheoretical agreement, the compilation and analysis of extant and new distinctions between the two theories, and the synthesis of care ethical insights with neo-Aristotelianism (...) to generate a virtue ethical theory of care. In the first two chapters, I outline virtue ethics and care ethics, and argue for considerable agreement over central premises. Chapter 2 summarises the foundational commitments of care ethics, focusing particularly on their relational ontology and its links to the other ethical claims care ethicists universally ascribe to, namely particularism, partialism, the moral salience of emotions, and the rejection of hard public/private distinctions. Chapter 3 lays out the central concepts in neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics, including eudaimonism, virtue, and character traits, and drawing a number of comparisons between virtue and care ethics specifically with regard to relational ontology and the meta-ethical commitments it underpins. In addition to doing the necessary expository work for the remainder of the thesis, Chapters 2 and 3 also argue that care ethics and virtue ethics have much more in common than is typically acknowledged – the first major contribution of this thesis to the literature. Chapters 2 and 3 to provide at least a prima facie justification for pursuit of the questions I confront in the remainder of the thesis. In Chapter 4, I ask what differentiates these two ethical theories. I survey some of the differences which philosophers in either camp have identified and offer some of my own. I suggest that several of those differences either rest on misunderstandings of one ethic or the other, or that in erecting a divide between virtue and care ethics they also disunify ethics of care. I do, however, identify two differences which seem defensible. Specifically, they are that virtue ethics seems to lack an account of care, which I define minimally as a response or responsiveness to need, and that virtue and care ethics organise their meta-ethical and normative concepts differently. This chapter thus presents a second contribution to the literature: a study of the differences between virtue ethics and care ethics. It also serves to set the trajectory for the remaining chapters, where I respond to the claim that virtue ethics lack an account of care. I spend the remainder of the thesis constructing what I take to be a satisfying foundation for a virtue ethical theory of care. In Chapter 5, I offer three initially viable means of incorporating care into virtue ethics, all of which treat care as a virtue. These are the analogical approach, according to which care is analogous to an existing virtue; the additive approach, according to which care is a novel virtue; and the bundling approach, according to which care is a bundle of virtues. I also offer and evaluate reasons to reject the claim that care is a virtue, concluding that the claim is indeed a viable one so long as the concept of care is sufficiently thick, and I contend that analogical approaches, and particularly analogies with charity, outperform the others. Chapter 5 therefore serves two ends. First, it proffers a novel meta-analysis of concepts of care as a virtue, and thus makes a third contribution to the literature. In doing so, it makes an inroad into the second: the development of a neo-Aristotelian theory of care. Chapter 6 continues this project. I attempt to show how care can be construed as an act-type and a practice. I argue in this chapter that practices are a subcategory of actions, and that care qualifies as an Anscombean act-type which aims at the meeting of needs relating to the care-recipient’s flourishing. I go on to consider the implications of this account for ethics which deploy care as a moral concept, maintaining that it not only offers a better account of consequences than theories of care which include success criteria, but also that it affords us interesting insights into the distinction between ‘caring about’ and ‘caring for’ which allow us to make sense of certain tenets of neo-Aristotelianism. This represents a contribution to both discourses, since neither care nor virtue ethicists working at the intersection of their respective normative theories have delved very deeply into the philosophy of action. Chapter 7 discusses caring relations, suggesting that a virtue ethical theory of caring relations can lean on the work care ethicists have done, and adding some necessary refinements, such as a distinction between ideal and non-ideal caring relations, and a theory of caring relations as reasons for action. This final chapter also draws these three concepts of care together by arguing that virtuous caregivers who are invested in the flourishing of those for whom they care are also sensitive to the relations those care-recipients bear to their institutional environment. I argue that because they are caring participants in caring relations, virtuous agents are characteristically motivated by states of need and dependency to engage in certain sorts of conventionally political practices. In other words, the virtue or virtues of caring characteristically manifest in certain sorts of political or social practices, relating specifically to those areas of moral life. This allows us to build upon recent work in feminist virtue ethics of the sort offered by Tessman and Friedman. I also offer a novel analysis of migration, suggesting that the account of care presenting here is analytically useful both when it comes to historical cases of migration such as the underground railroads and escapes from Nazi-occupied Europe, but also for contemporary issues such as the migrations occurring in the Southern United States and in much of Europe. I thus conclude not only that virtue ethicists ought to incorporate care into their normative framework, and that the theory of care presented here is a coherent one, but that this leads us naturally into applied topics such as virtue politics. I conclude the thesis by considering some its implications and by identifying some further avenues for research. (shrink)

Over time, research programs focusing on the processes that underlie dissonance and regret diverged to the point that the present literature only occasionally draws explicit connections between regret and consistency seeking processes. One of our aims in this chapter is to reestablish the connection between regret and consistency within the context of a theory that examines two independent factors that critically interact to enhance or diminish regret. The first of these is opportunity, which includes both perceptions of past opportunities to (...) make alternative choices and future opportunities to take corrective actions, and the second is mitigation, which is the ability to justify one's actions or otherwise engage regulatory processes that allow for the diminishment of regret. We examine both opportunity and mitigation separately before describing how the two may interact to elicit differential experiences of regret. (shrink)

In this paper, I defend a novel skeptical view about moral disgust. I argue that much recent discussion of moral disgust neglects an important ontological question: is there a distinctive psychological state of moral disgust that is differentiable from generic disgust, and from other psychological states? I investigate the ontological question and propose two conditions that any aspiring account of moral disgust must satisfy: it must be a genuine form of disgust, and it must be genuinely moral. Next, I examine (...) two prominent accounts of moral disgust by John Kekes and Victor Kumar and argue that neither successfully establishes the existence of genuinely moral disgust: Kekes’ account does not satisfy the second condition, and Kumar’s view does not meet the first. I claim that an important general lesson can be drawn from my critiques of Kekes’ and Kumar’s accounts: to establish the existence of moral disgust, one must provide unequivocal evidence that genuinely moral disgust, not generic disgust or anger, is being elicited in response to relevant moral violations. I conclude by considering why we ought to be skeptical about the general prospect of giving a positive answer to the ontological question, given the available evidence. (shrink)

The Future of Individuality in a Universally Connected Intelligence System -/- Introduction -/- The concept of individuality has long been central to human existence, shaping our identities, intelligence, and decision-making. However, if information were universally accessible to every biological brain via quantum computers, the nature of individuality would fundamentally change. While thermodynamics suggests that individuality may be an illusion, the emergence of a universally shared knowledge system would challenge our understanding of intelligence, creativity, and free will. This essay explores how (...) such a system would affect human cognition, decision-making, creativity, and identity while considering its alignment with natural laws and homeostasis. -/- Individuality and the Laws of Thermodynamics -/- From a thermodynamic perspective, individuality is not an independent phenomenon but an emergent property of energy, matter, and information processing. The second law of thermodynamics states that systems naturally move toward increased entropy, yet biological brains counteract this by organizing energy and information. Each person’s intelligence develops uniquely due to different experiences, environments, and biological structures, following the laws of complexity and adaptation. -/- Despite these differences, individuality may be an illusion when viewed through the lens of thermodynamics. Human brains function as open systems, constantly exchanging energy and information with their environment. If all individuals had direct access to the same universal information via quantum computing, the differentiation in intelligence caused by personal learning and memory would be minimized. The uniqueness of individual cognition, shaped by life experiences, would be transformed into a more standardized, universally connected intelligence. -/- The Effect on Cognitive Differences and Decision-Making -/- Currently, human intelligence is shaped by a combination of genetics, environmental influences, and personal experiences. However, if quantum computing enabled instant and equal access to all knowledge, the factors that create cognitive diversity would be significantly reduced. In such a scenario, decision-making would shift from being influenced by personal biases and incomplete knowledge to being guided by a universally shared understanding of facts, consequences, and natural laws. -/- This raises the question: would free will still exist? If every person had access to the same knowledge base and predictive models, decisions might become more deterministic, driven by logical outcomes rather than personal reasoning. While this could reduce errors and societal conflicts, it might also challenge the perception of autonomy, making personal choice seem more like an illusion than a reality. -/- Impact on Creativity and Innovation -/- Creativity has traditionally been seen as a product of individual thought processes, shaped by unique experiences and perspectives. If knowledge were universally accessible, would creativity still exist? One possibility is that creativity would shift from being an individual phenomenon to an emergent property of collective intelligence. Instead of drawing from personal experiences, new ideas could arise from collaborative interactions with the universal knowledge system. -/- On the other hand, if individuality persists at a neural level—perhaps influenced by variations in neural architecture, emotional states, or subconscious processes—then creativity might evolve into a new form. Rather than being limited by personal knowledge, individuals could use their unique cognitive structures to interpret and apply universal knowledge in novel ways. -/- The Transformation of Personal Identity -/- Identity is often defined by personal achievements, expertise, and knowledge. If quantum computing provided instant access to all human knowledge, traditional concepts of learning, expertise, and mastery might become obsolete. Instead of being defined by what one knows, identity might be shaped by how one chooses to interact with the collective intelligence system. -/- This could lead to two possible outcomes: -/- 1. A more unified human society where knowledge gaps no longer create social or economic disparities. -/- 2. A psychological challenge, as individuals struggle with a loss of personal uniqueness and purpose. -/- Would human beings still feel a sense of individuality if everyone had the same knowledge and understanding? Or would personal identity be redefined by new forms of expression, emotional depth, and subjective experiences? -/- Potential Resistance and Psychological Conflicts -/- Not all individuals would easily accept a universally connected intelligence system. Some might resist integration, fearing the loss of personal autonomy or questioning the ethical implications of such a system. The psychological impact of merging individual cognition with a collective intelligence could lead to existential dilemmas, as humans redefine their roles in society. -/- Moreover, there could be unforeseen consequences, such as the manipulation of universal knowledge by those who control the system. If the flow of information were regulated, the promise of a universally connected intelligence could turn into a form of centralized control, limiting true intellectual freedom. -/- Homeostasis and the Balance of Universal Knowledge -/- From the perspective of natural balance, a universally connected intelligence system could be seen as an extension of the homeostatic principle. Just as the human body regulates internal stability, a universal intelligence network could regulate societal balance, reducing ignorance, misinformation, and destructive decision-making. -/- However, if homeostasis is disrupted—if individuals lose the ability to process knowledge uniquely or if the system becomes too rigid—then humanity might face unintended consequences. True balance requires adaptability, diversity, and self-regulation. The challenge would be ensuring that universal intelligence enhances, rather than diminishes, the dynamic equilibrium that allows individuality to thrive within a collective framework. -/- Conclusion -/- The integration of biological brains with a universally accessible quantum computing system would redefine individuality, intelligence, and decision-making. While it could eliminate knowledge-based disparities and enhance collective intelligence, it might also challenge free will, creativity, and personal identity. Whether such a transformation aligns with natural laws depends on how well it maintains homeostasis—balancing collective knowledge with individual autonomy. -/- Would this system create a more enlightened humanity, or would it erase the very essence of what makes us human? The answer lies in how this universal intelligence is designed, regulated, and integrated into the fabric of human society. -/- . (shrink)

Reforming Freedom of Speech to Eliminate Dogmatic and Negative Thinking and Behavior -/- Freedom of speech is a fundamental human right that allows individuals to express their thoughts, ideas, and beliefs without fear of government suppression. It has been a cornerstone of democratic societies, enabling progress through open dialogue and the exchange of diverse perspectives. However, freedom of speech also presents challenges, particularly when it allows for the spread of dogmatic thinking, misinformation, negative behavior, and ideological extremism. The question arises: (...) Can we reform freedom of speech to create a cultural mentality free from dogmatic thinking, negative thinking, and harmful behavior without compromising intellectual freedom? -/- The Role of Freedom of Speech in Intellectual and Behavioral Progress -/- Freedom of speech is crucial for intellectual and social development. It allows for questioning of dogma, whether religious, political, or ideological, and encourages open debate that helps refine knowledge and discard outdated or harmful beliefs. However, unrestricted speech can also enable the spread of misinformation, fear-based ideologies, and divisive rhetoric, which can entrench dogmatic thinking and encourage negative behavior. A well-balanced approach to reforming freedom of speech must ensure that while harmful speech and behavior are addressed, intellectual freedom and constructive dialogue remain protected. -/- Reforming Freedom of Speech Without Harming Intellectual and Cultural Growth -/- Rather than imposing rigid restrictions on speech, societies can implement reforms that guide how speech is used in constructive ways. This can be achieved through education, selective regulation, cultural transformation, and behavioral awareness. -/- 1. Education-Based Approach -/- Mandate critical thinking and logic training in schools: Teaching students how to analyze arguments, recognize logical fallacies, and differentiate between rational and emotional reasoning can significantly reduce the spread of dogmatic thinking and negative behaviors. -/- Teach media literacy: In the digital age, misinformation spreads rapidly. Educating individuals on how to verify sources, evaluate evidence, and distinguish propaganda from fact-based information is essential. -/- Encourage scientific literacy: A society that understands scientific principles is less likely to fall prey to ideological extremism and more likely to base decisions on evidence rather than emotion or tradition. -/- Foster emotional intelligence education: Encouraging self-awareness, empathy, and constructive communication can reduce negative behaviors such as hostility, intolerance, and impulsivity. -/- 2. Regulating Harmful Speech and Behavior Without Limiting Thought -/- Laws against incitement to violence, hate speech, and deliberate misinformation: While free speech should be protected, speech that causes direct harm, promotes violence, or spreads falsehoods with malicious intent should be regulated. -/- Promote fact-checking and responsible journalism: Media outlets and digital platforms should be encouraged to uphold ethical standards, ensuring that information shared with the public is accurate and balanced. -/- Encourage platform moderation: Social media platforms play a significant role in shaping public discourse. Implementing policies to prevent echo chambers of radical dogma, misinformation, and toxic behavior can help maintain a balanced and rational discussion environment. -/- 3. Promoting Constructive Speech, Cultural Transformation, and Positive Behavior -/- Encourage public discourse that values logic and evidence: Societies should foster an environment where rational discussion is appreciated over emotional or ideological rhetoric. -/- Promote public intellectuals and role models: Figures who exemplify balanced, critical thinking and positive behavior should be highlighted in media and education to inspire future generations. -/- Shift cultural norms to value evidence-based reasoning and ethical behavior: Encouraging a cultural shift where truth, facts, and rationality are held in high regard while fostering kindness, respect, and constructive interaction can help reduce the influence of dogmatic ideologies and harmful behaviors. -/- Use behavioral psychology insights to design better policies: Governments and institutions can use insights from psychology to craft policies that encourage cooperation, critical thought, and ethical decision-making. -/- Risks of Over-Regulation -/- While reforming speech and behavior policies can have benefits, excessive control poses serious risks: -/- Authoritarian tendencies: Over-regulation can lead to a government or ruling entity dictating acceptable speech and behavior, which may reinforce dogma rather than eliminate it. -/- Self-censorship: People may hesitate to express genuine ideas out of fear of punishment, leading to intellectual stagnation and a culture of conformity. -/- Subjectivity in defining dogma and negativity: If regulations aim to eliminate dogmatic thinking and negative behavior, determining what qualifies could itself become ideological enforcement. -/- A Balanced Solution: Reform Without Censorship -/- The most effective approach to eliminating dogmatic and negative thinking and behavior while preserving freedom of speech is through education, responsible media, and cultural evolution. Instead of limiting speech, societies should: -/- Strengthen education systems that emphasize critical thinking, logic, media literacy, and emotional intelligence. -/- Regulate speech and behavior only when they directly cause harm, such as incitement to violence or deliberate misinformation. -/- Encourage open and respectful debates where diverse viewpoints can be discussed rationally without fear of suppression. -/- Foster community programs that promote constructive discourse and ethical behavior. -/- Conclusion -/- Reforming freedom of speech to eliminate dogmatic and negative thinking and behavior is a delicate but necessary endeavor. Rather than restricting speech outright, societies must focus on education, responsible discourse, and cultural evolution to encourage rational and constructive thinking and interactions. By fostering an environment where critical thought, ethical behavior, and open-mindedness are valued over ideological conformity, humanity can move toward a more enlightened, balanced, and harmonious future. -/- . (shrink)

Holistic Education as the Ultimate Defense Against Misinformation -/- Introduction -/- In the modern world, young minds are constantly exposed to various influences—media, social networks, religious teachings, and cultural traditions. Many of these influences do not prioritize truth but instead serve political, economic, or ideological agendas. As a result, false beliefs and propaganda have become powerful tools in shaping public perception and decision-making, often leading to societal imbalance, irrational behavior, and unnecessary suffering. -/- Given this reality, a holistic educational system (...) provides the best solution. By integrating critical thinking, the universal law of balance in nature, and foundational knowledge, education can serve as a shield against misinformation. Just as propaganda can manipulate young minds, education—when structured properly—can empower them to think independently, seek truth, and reject false narratives. -/- The Power of Influence: Media, Propaganda, and False Beliefs -/- Throughout history, those in power have controlled narratives through propaganda, misinformation, and selective truth-telling. Media corporations, political leaders, religious institutions, and even educational systems have used information as a weapon, shaping how people perceive reality and make decisions. -/- 1. Media Influence – The media has the ability to set public agendas, exaggerate fears, or distract people from critical issues. For example, mainstream news can focus on divisive social issues while ignoring deeper economic or political corruption. -/- 2. Religious and Cultural Dogma – Many belief systems discourage questioning and critical thinking, demanding blind faith instead of rational analysis. This leads to a rigid mindset that resists change, even when faced with scientific or factual evidence. -/- 3. Political and Economic Propaganda – Governments and corporations often manipulate information to serve their interests. Politicians use fear-based messaging, while corporations promote consumerism and materialism, influencing people’s behaviors without them realizing it. -/- Because young minds are impressionable, they are especially vulnerable to these influences. If false beliefs and misinformation can be deliberately spread and accepted as truth, then why shouldn’t a holistic educational system be used to reverse this process and teach students how to think critically? -/- Holistic Education as a Solution -/- A holistic educational system is not just about memorizing academic subjects. It must focus on developing independent thinking, analytical reasoning, and a deep understanding of reality. Instead of simply feeding students facts, a holistic approach would train them to evaluate information critically and recognize misinformation. -/- 1. The Universal Law of Balance in Nature -/- The foundation of this educational system should be the universal law of balance in nature—the principle that every action and decision must align with the natural equilibrium of life. This law ensures that: -/- Decisions are based on reality rather than emotions or biases. -/- All actions are examined for their long-term consequences on individuals and society. -/- People are trained to recognize imbalance in information and behavior. -/- By integrating this law into education, students will develop a natural resistance to misinformation because they will instinctively analyze whether a piece of information aligns with reality or disrupts balance. -/- 2. Critical Thinking and Logical Analysis -/- Students must be trained to question everything—including media, religious teachings, political statements, and social norms. They should learn: -/- How to recognize logical fallacies in arguments. -/- How to cross-check sources before believing information. -/- How to identify hidden biases in media and propaganda. -/- By sharpening their analytical skills, students will develop a mindset that seeks truth rather than blindly accepting narratives. -/- 3. Media and Information Literacy -/- Most young people today consume news and content through digital platforms, where misinformation spreads easily. Schools should teach: -/- How media operates (advertising, corporate influence, political agendas). -/- How narratives are constructed to manipulate emotions. -/- How to fact-check information using independent sources. -/- With these skills, students will be able to differentiate between objective reality and manipulative messaging. -/- 4. Emotional Intelligence and Psychological Resilience -/- Propaganda often exploits human emotions—fear, anger, hope, or desire. When individuals react emotionally rather than rationally, they become easier to manipulate. Schools must teach students how to: -/- Recognize emotional manipulation in media and politics. -/- Maintain psychological balance when confronted with conflicting information. -/- Make decisions based on reason rather than impulsive emotions. -/- By strengthening emotional intelligence, students will not only think critically but also remain calm and rational in the face of manipulation. -/- The Impact of Holistic Education on Society -/- If this holistic educational system were widely implemented, its impact on society would be profound. A well-informed, critically thinking population would: -/- Resist political and corporate manipulation. -/- Reject false beliefs and harmful ideologies. -/- Hold leaders accountable for their actions. -/- Make balanced, rational decisions in both personal and collective matters. -/- This shift would lead to a world with less conflict, less corruption, and fewer social crises. Instead of societies being controlled by misinformation and fear, they would be governed by rational analysis and ethical decision-making. -/- Challenges and Implementation Strategies -/- While holistic education is the ideal solution, implementing it will require overcoming several challenges: -/- 1. Resistance from Established Institutions – Many religious, political, and media institutions benefit from controlling narratives. These groups may oppose an educational system that promotes independent thinking. -/- Solution: Gradually introduce holistic education through pilot programs, starting in progressive schools and expanding based on success. -/- 2. Teacher Training and Curriculum Development – Many educators are themselves products of biased educational systems. -/- Solution: Train teachers to embrace critical thinking, logical reasoning, and unbiased knowledge dissemination. -/- 3. Government and Policy Barriers – Governments often dictate education policies based on political interests. -/- Solution: Collaborate with international organizations and independent educational institutions to introduce holistic education frameworks outside government control. -/- Conclusion -/- If false beliefs, media influence, and propaganda can shape young minds, then a holistic educational system can do the same—but for truth, rationality, and balance. The battle for the future is not just about controlling information but about empowering individuals to analyze, evaluate, and make decisions based on the universal law of balance in nature. -/- Implementing such an educational approach is not just an option—it is a necessity. A world that prioritizes balanced decision-making over manipulation will be a world with greater harmony, less suffering, and more rational leadership. -/- The question is no longer whether we need holistic education, but how soon we can implement it. The longer we delay, the more young minds will be shaped by misinformation. Now is the time to act. -/- . (shrink)

Chaos, Free Will, and the Law of Balance in Nature: The Evolution of Human Consciousness as the Universe’s Absolute Balancing Mechanism -/- Chaos exists in both organic and non-organic matter, but the way it manifests and is regulated differs significantly. Organic systems—such as living organisms, ecosystems, and human societies—have built-in feedback mechanisms that allow them to self-regulate and maintain balance. Non-organic systems, on the other hand, follow deterministic laws and require external forces to restore equilibrium. Angelito Malicse’s universal formula, particularly (...) the law of balance in nature, provides a structured way to understand and manage chaos. However, the key to fully applying this formula lies in the evolution of human consciousness and its role as the absolute balancing mechanism of the universe. -/- This essay explores the role of chaos in organic and non-organic matter, the importance of higher intelligence in correcting imbalances, and how the evolution of human consciousness enables it to perceive, understand, and actively maintain universal balance. -/- 1. Chaos in Organic Matter: The Self-Regulating System -/- Chaos in organic matter does not mean disorder—it follows the law of balance because living organisms and social structures have adaptive mechanisms to restore stability. Biological systems, for example, appear chaotic but maintain equilibrium through feedback loops. The human body regulates temperature, blood sugar, and heart rate despite constant external and internal fluctuations. Similarly, ecosystems face unpredictable events—weather changes, species migration, and natural disasters—but they self-adjust over time to sustain life. -/- In human society, chaos often manifests through economic downturns, political conflicts, and social unrest. However, if leaders and individuals understand and apply the law of balance, stability can be restored without artificial force. The conscious mind also exhibits chaotic tendencies—thoughts, emotions, and decisions fluctuate unpredictably. Yet, through education and awareness, the mind can be trained to make rational, balanced decisions that align with natural laws rather than false beliefs or propaganda. -/- The higher Intelligence of human beings plays a crucial role in ensuring this balance. Unlike lower forms of organic life, humans possess advanced reasoning, problem-solving abilities, and the capacity for long-term planning. This makes them the primary regulators of chaos—not just within their own biological and social systems but also in the non-organic world that lacks self-regulation. -/- 2. Chaos in Non-Organic Matter: The Deterministic System -/- Unlike organic systems, non-organic matter does not self-regulate—it follows strict physical laws, and chaos in these systems leads to increasing disorder unless acted upon by external forces. A storm, for example, forms due to differences in temperature and pressure but does not correct itself; it dissipates only when external conditions stabilize. A malfunctioning machine will not fix itself unless a human or AI intervenes. Economic crises caused by unchecked greed and corruption continue until governments regulate financial imbalances. -/- The only force capable of correcting chaos in non-organic matter is higher intelligence—specifically, human intelligence. Throughout history, human beings have acted as external regulators to restore order in chaotic non-organic systems. For example: ✔ Engineering and technology help control natural forces—dams regulate rivers, satellites predict weather, and medicine counteracts disease. ✔ Governance and laws prevent economic collapse, crime, and war by ensuring that human behavior aligns with sustainable balance. ✔ Environmental conservation corrects imbalances caused by industrialization and pollution, restoring ecosystems to a stable state. -/- The key takeaway from Malicse’s universal formula is that while organic systems can self-adjust, non-organic systems must be externally balanced to prevent collapse. Leaders and decision-makers must recognize when a system needs external correction to prevent unnecessary destruction. -/- However, the misuse of intelligence can also create more chaos instead of balance. When human decisions are driven by ignorance, greed, or false beliefs, they destabilize both organic and non-organic systems. This is why free will must be aligned with the universal law of balance—otherwise, intelligence becomes destructive rather than corrective. -/- 3. The Evolution of Human Consciousness as the Absolute Balancing Mechanism -/- The ability of humans to regulate chaos in both organic and non-organic systems is not accidental—it is the result of the evolution of human consciousness. Unlike lower life forms that operate purely on instinct, human consciousness has expanded to perceive, understand, and control the forces of nature. -/- This evolution can be seen in: ✔ The rise of scientific understanding, where humans learned to decode the natural laws governing both organic and inorganic systems. ✔ The development of ethical and moral reasoning, allowing societies to correct imbalances caused by selfish or destructive behaviors. ✔ The pursuit of wisdom, where human intelligence moves beyond mere survival and actively seeks universal harmony. -/- At its highest stage of evolution, human consciousness becomes the absolute balancing mechanism of the universe. This means that humanity’s ultimate role is not merely to exist but to actively maintain and restore equilibrium across all systems—from biology to technology, from economics to planetary ecosystems. -/- If human intelligence continues to evolve in alignment with the universal law of balance, it will become the guiding force that corrects all chaos—ensuring that free will, governance, and even artificial intelligence function in harmony with natural equilibrium. -/- 4. Implementing the Universal Formula in Education and Governance -/- To correct the current global imbalance, Malicse’s universal formula must be integrated into the educational system. Schools must teach: ✔ The law of balance in nature, helping students understand that all decisions must align with natural laws to prevent chaos. ✔ Critical thinking, ensuring individuals can differentiate between truth, false beliefs, and misinformation. ✔ Holistic governance, training future leaders to manage societies based on natural balance rather than short-term personal gains. -/- Governments, too, must shift from short-term, economically driven policies to long-term, balance-driven policies. Policies should function like biological feedback mechanisms, continuously adjusting to maintain equilibrium. Economic regulations must prevent extreme wealth inequality, environmental policies must preserve natural ecosystems, and social structures must ensure stability without suppressing free will. -/- 5. The Role of AGI in Maintaining Natural Balance -/- A key application of Malicse’s universal formula is in the development of artificial general intelligence (AGI). If AGI is programmed with the law of balance, it can serve as an external regulatory force in areas where non-organic chaos occurs. AGI can: ✔ Monitor and predict economic imbalances, preventing market crashes. ✔ Analyze environmental changes, providing solutions to climate instability. ✔ Detect political instability, offering governance solutions based on natural balance rather than human bias. -/- However, AGI must be guided by evolved human intelligence to ensure it follows natural balance rather than becoming a tool for artificial control. Without this, AGI risks enforcing rigid, unnatural systems that disrupt organic balance rather than restore it. -/- 6. Conclusion: The Universal Formula as the Only Correct Solution -/- Malicse’s universal formula provides the only exact solution to the problem of chaos in both organic and non-organic systems. It highlights that: ✔ Organic systems self-regulate, but only if free will follows natural balance. ✔ Non-organic systems require external regulation, and only higher intelligence (humans) can provide this. ✔ The evolution of human consciousness is the key to balancing all systems, allowing humans to act as the absolute balancing force of the universe. ✔ Education, governance, and AGI must be designed to maintain balance, ensuring stability without suppressing free will. -/- If humanity fails to adopt this approach, chaos will continue to escalate, leading to further suffering, societal collapse, and environmental destruction. The only path forward is to fully integrate the universal formula into all aspects of education, governance, and artificial intelligence. -/- The time to act Is now. -/- . (shrink)

Overcoming Bias in Analysis and Decision-Making: Effective Psychological Techniques -/- Bias is a fundamental challenge in human thinking, affecting both individual and collective decision-making. It distorts our perceptions, limits rational analysis, and leads to poor choices. Overcoming bias requires a structured approach that integrates cognitive debiasing techniques, analytical thinking strategies, emotional regulation, decision-making frameworks, and data-driven methodologies. This essay explores these psychological techniques in detail, providing a comprehensive guide to improving judgment and decision-making. -/- Cognitive Debiasing Techniques -/- Cognitive biases (...) are mental shortcuts that influence our thinking and decision-making. To counter these biases, we must first recognize them and actively work to minimize their impact. -/- Awareness and Reflection -/- The first step in overcoming bias is recognizing that it exists. Awareness enables individuals to question their assumptions and consider alternative viewpoints. Reflection involves self-examination through questions such as: -/- Why do I believe this? -/- What if I am wrong? -/- Am I considering all perspectives? -/- Keeping a “bias journal” where instances of biased thinking are recorded can help individuals track patterns and improve their critical thinking skills. -/- Perspective-Taking -/- Perspective-taking is the practice of viewing a situation from different viewpoints, particularly from those who hold opposing beliefs. This method is effective in reducing confirmation bias—the tendency to favor information that supports our existing views. To implement perspective-taking, one should ask: -/- How would a scientist, historian, or someone from another culture interpret this issue? -/- What would someone with the opposite viewpoint say? -/- By expanding the scope of analysis, this technique allows for more balanced decision-making. -/- Devil’s Advocate Method -/- The devil’s advocate method involves intentionally arguing against one’s own position to uncover weaknesses in reasoning. This technique prevents groupthink, where individuals conform to the majority opinion without critical evaluation. It encourages intellectual humility and enhances the ability to recognize flaws in logic. Encouraging another person to play the devil’s advocate role can further strengthen decision-making. -/- Analytical Thinking Strategies -/- Analytical thinking strategies help break down problems systematically and ensure that decisions are based on logic rather than intuition. -/- Bayesian Thinking -/- Bayesian thinking involves updating beliefs based on new evidence rather than clinging to initial assumptions. Many individuals fall into the anchoring bias, where they give too much weight to first impressions. Bayesian reasoning teaches that beliefs should be flexible, constantly adjusting as new data emerges. -/- For example, if someone assumes that a new business will succeed but later receives data suggesting otherwise, Bayesian thinking encourages revising the initial expectation rather than dismissing the data. -/- Falsification Principle (Karl Popper’s Method) -/- Instead of looking for evidence that confirms a belief, the falsification principle emphasizes seeking evidence that could disprove it. This approach is crucial for reducing confirmation bias. -/- For instance, rather than only reading studies that support a particular political stance, individuals should actively search for research that contradicts their position. If a belief cannot be disproven under scrutiny, it becomes more reliable. -/- Red Team-Blue Team Analysis -/- Used in intelligence agencies and businesses, the Red Team-Blue Team strategy is a structured method where one team (Red) creates a plan or argument, and another team (Blue) challenges it. This structured opposition ensures that biases and weak points are identified before a final decision is made. -/- This technique is particularly useful in high-stakes decision-making, as it uncovers potential blind spots and prevents bias blind spots—the tendency to recognize bias in others but not in oneself. -/- Emotional and Psychological Regulation -/- Biases are often driven by emotions rather than facts. Managing emotions effectively is key to clear and objective thinking. -/- Mindfulness and Metacognition -/- Mindfulness involves staying present and observing thoughts without judgment. Metacognition is the ability to think about one’s own thinking process. These techniques help individuals recognize when they are making emotional, rather than rational, decisions. -/- For example, loss aversion bias causes people to fear losses more than they value equivalent gains. Mindfulness allows individuals to step back and assess whether their fear of loss is clouding their judgment. -/- Cognitive Reframing -/- Cognitive reframing involves changing the way one interprets a situation. This technique is useful in overcoming negativity bias, where individuals focus on negative experiences more than positive ones. -/- For example, instead of thinking, I failed my exam, so I am not smart, a person can reframe it as, This was a learning opportunity to improve my study methods. This shift in perspective fosters resilience and better decision-making. -/- Decision-Making Frameworks -/- Structured decision-making frameworks help reduce reliance on gut instincts and emotional biases. -/- Pros and Cons List -/- A simple yet effective technique, the pros and cons list forces objectivity by weighing the advantages and disadvantages of a decision. It helps differentiate between emotional reasoning and logical analysis. -/- Six Thinking Hats (Edward de Bono) -/- This framework encourages examining decisions from multiple perspectives by assigning different “hats” to different ways of thinking: -/- White Hat: Focus on facts and data. -/- Red Hat: Consider emotions and intuition. -/- Black Hat: Identify potential risks and problems. -/- Yellow Hat: Look for benefits and opportunities. -/- Green Hat: Think creatively and explore alternatives. -/- Blue Hat: Oversee the thinking process and maintain control. -/- This structured method ensures a comprehensive evaluation, preventing tunnel vision and overly emotional decisions. -/- Pre-Mortem Analysis -/- A pre-mortem is a mental exercise where individuals assume that a decision has already failed and then work backward to identify potential mistakes. -/- For example, if a company is launching a product, a pre-mortem would involve asking, What would cause this launch to fail? This technique prevents overconfidence bias and planning fallacy (underestimating risks). -/- Data-Driven Decision Making -/- Decisions should be based on empirical evidence rather than intuition. -/- Statistical Thinking -/- Many biases arise from relying on anecdotal evidence instead of statistical data. Statistical thinking involves analyzing patterns and probabilities rather than personal experiences or gut feelings. -/- For example, rather than assuming a hiring decision will succeed, checking historical hiring success rates in similar cases ensures more accurate predictions. -/- Double-Blind Analysis -/- In scientific research, double-blind analysis prevents bias by ensuring that neither the experimenter nor the participants know the expected outcome. -/- This approach can be applied in business and policy decisions by ensuring analysts review data without prior expectations, reducing observer bias and selection bias. -/- Conclusion -/- Bias is an inevitable part of human cognition, but it can be managed with the right psychological and analytical techniques. By implementing cognitive debiasing strategies, structured analytical thinking, emotional regulation, decision-making frameworks, and data-driven methodologies, individuals and organizations can make more rational, objective, and effective decisions. -/- These techniques not only improve personal decision-making but also enhance leadership, governance, and problem-solving in society. In an era of increasing information overload and misinformation, mastering these strategies is essential for sound reasoning and ethical decision-making. -/- . (shrink)

This article aims to explore the philosophical meaning of pregnancy and maternity in the writ-ings of R. Soloveitchik and Emmanuel Lévinas. They both make a phenomenological enquiry into these phenomena, by looking on the biological aspect and the emotional aspects. R. Solove-itchik suggests a spiritual interpretation concerning the meaning of pregnancy, which is both biological and spiritual. He attempts to differentiate between the natural parenthood and the spiritual parenthood. Lévinas gives us the philosophical observation through the phenomenolog-ical research of pregnancy, (...) motherhood and parenthood. For him, this inquiry may be revealed as an ethical occurrence that demand responsibility. Perhaps this is one of the unique dimensions of modern Jewish philosophy, looking towards the religious texts with modern philosophical method and modern philosophy theories. Reading carefully the biblical story of Genesis on the notion of birth and maternity, raises textual questions and cultural questions. For Lévinas and R. Soloveitchik these questions can open the door to new philosophical inquiry. (shrink)

Given the hard problem of consciousness, there are no brain electrophysiological correlates of the subjective experience (the felt quality of redness or the redness of red, the experience of dark and light, the quality of depth in a visual field, the sound of a clarinet, the smell of mothball, bodily sensations from pains to orgasms, mental images that are conjured up internally, the felt quality of emotion, the experience of a stream of conscious thought, or the phenomenology of thought). (...) However, there are occipital and left temporal brain electrophysiological correlates of the subjective experience. Notwithstanding, as an evoked signal, the change in event-related brain potential phase (frequency is the change in phase over time) is instantaneous, that is, the frequency will transiently be infinite: a transient peak in frequency (positive or negative), if any, is instantaneous in electroencephalogram averaging or filtering that the event-related brain potentials required and the underlying structure of the event-related brain potentials in the frequency domain cannot be accounted for, for example, by the Wavelet Transform or the Fast Fourier Transform analysis, because they require that frequency be derived by convolution rather than by differentiation. However, as I show, one suitable method for analysing the instantaneous change in event-related brain potential phase and accounting for a transient peak in frequency (positive or negative), if any, in the underlying structure of the event-related brain potentials is the Empirical Mode Decomposition with post-processing Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition. (shrink)

У статті розкрито сутність і зміст індивідуального стилю професійної діяльності, його структуру й механізми формування. Установлено, що індивідуальний стиль професійної діяльності є комплексним особистісним утворенням, яке охоплює сталу систему методів і методик роботи та визначає певну стратегію поведінки в трудовій діяльності. Показано, що структуру індивідуального стилю можна уявити у вигляді змістового ядра й прибудови до нього, що формується внаслідок дії механізмів адаптації, компенсації й корекції під час опанування суб’єктом професійної діяльності. З’ясовано, що індивідуальний стиль професійної діяльності може бути охарактеризований через (...) своєрідність співвідношення в структурі орієнтовної, виконавчої та контрольної видів професійної діяльності та визначений як такий, що має процесуальність, особистісну своєрідність, продуктивність, розвивальнимй, коригувальний та адаптивний потенціал, умотивованість у виявленні й розвитку стилю. Акцентовано на тому, що стиль професійної діяльності є водночас фактором і наслідком індивідуального професійного розвитку індивіда, коли в процесі набуття професійного досвіду відбувається інтеграція вроджених властивостей нервової системи, набутих інтелектуальних, емоційних, поведінкових якостей та формуються відмітні риси й індивідуальні здібності людини, що забезпечують її ефективність і продуктивність у досягненні результатів. Виявлено та обґрунтовано педагогічні умови формування індивідуального стилю професійної діяльності майбутніх фахівців. Серед них: урахування індивідуально-психологічних особливостей майбутніх фахівців; запровадження засобів комплексної диференціації з метою розвитку адекватної самооцінки та настанов у виконанні трудових дій; цілеспрямоване формування системи раціональних трудових прийомів; створення на заняттях позитивного мікроклімату, атмосфери співтворчості та співпраці, що забезпечить закріплення оригінальних способів здійснення професійної діяльності. -/- The article studies the problem of the future specialist’s professional formation as a subject of professional activity, which is characterized by originality and peculiarity in the realization of labour functions. The aim of the article is to reveal the essence and content of the individual style of professional activity, its structure and formation mechanisms; determination of pedagogical terms that contribute to the shaping of the optimal individual style of future specialists’ professional activity during their professional preparation process. A complex of research methods has been used, namely: content analysis, generalization and specification in the provisions of the theory of activity and professional pedagogy regarding the essence of the individual style of activity, modelling of the structure of the individual style of professional activity, substantiating the pedagogical terms of its formation in future specialists during their professional preparation process. It has been established that the individual style of professional activity is a complex personal creation including a stable system of work methods and techniques, and determining a certain behaviour strategy in their labour activity. It has been shown that the structure of an individual style can be presented in the form of a content core and an extension to it; it is formed as a result of the action of mechanisms of adaptation, compensation and correction during the subject’s mastery of professional activity. It has been found that the individual style of professional activity can be characterized by means of the peculiarity of the ratio of the indicative, executive and control types of professional activity in its structure. It can be defined by way of procedural, personal originality, and productivity parameters, as well as one’s having the developmental, corrective and adaptive potential, and motivation in detecting and shaping the style. It has been emphasised that the style of professional activity, at the same time, is both a factor and a consequence of the person’s individual professional development. During the gaining professional experience process, the innate properties of the nervous system, and acquired intellectual, emotional, and behavioural qualities are integrated and a person’s distinctive features and individual abilities are formed ensuring their efficiency and productivity in achieving the results. It has been highlighted that such leading methodological approaches as systemic, personal-activity, axiological and acmeological ones are effective means to shape the future specialists’ individual style of professional activity. They make it possible to form not individual features or characteristics, but an integral dynamic psychological system of individual active adaptation to the conditions of the professional environment via involvement in the study and professional activities, taking into account personality traits and value attitudes and focusing on achieving the top of the professional mastery. Pedagogical terms for the formation of the future specialists’ individual style of professional activity have been identified and substantiated. They include taking into account the individual and psychological characteristics of future specialists, introducing means of complex differentiation to develop adequate self-assessment and attitudes in the performance of labour actions, purposeful formation of a system of rational labour methods, as well as creation of a positive microclimate and an atmosphere of co-creation and cooperation in classes, which will ensure the consolidation of original methods of carrying out professional activities. (shrink)