Book review of Earl Conee and Ted Sider's "Riddles of Existence: A Guided Tour of Metaphysics", written in Spanish. || Reseña del libro "Riddles of Existence: A Guided Tour of Metaphysics", escrito por Earl Conee y Ted Sider.

Earl Conee and Richard Feldman have recently argued that the evidential support relation should be understood in terms of explanatory coherence: roughly, one's evidence supports a proposition if and only if that proposition is part of the best available explanation of the evidence. Their thesis has been criticized through alleged counterexamples, perhaps the most important of which are cases where a subject has a justified belief about the future. Kevin McCain has defended the thesis against Byerly's counterexample. I (...) argue that McCain's defense is inadequate before pointing toward a more promising solution for explanationism. The Byerly–McCain exchange is important because it casts light on the difficult issues of the standards for justification and the nature of epistemic support. Furthermore, McCain's defense of explanationism about epistemic support represents an important recent development of the burgeoning explanationist program in epistemology and philosophy of science. (shrink)

Earl Conee is a well known contemporary defender of the impossibility of moral dilemmas. In his 1982 paper "Against Moral Dilemmas" he argued that moral dilemmas are impossible because the existence of such a dilemma would entail that some obligatory action is forbidden, which is absurd. More recently, in "Why Moral Dilemmas are Impossible" he has defended the impossibility of moral dilemmas by claiming that the moral status of an action depends in part on the moral status of (...) its alternatives. I will here argue that this claim -- as he understands it -- is sufficiently controversial to undermine the force of his argument. (shrink)

Evidentialism as its leading proponents describe it has two distinct senses, these being evidentialism as a conceptual analysis of epistemic justification, and as a prescriptive ethics of belief—an account of what one ‘ought to believe’ under different epistemic circumstances. These two senses of evidentialism are related, but in the work of leading evidentialist philosophers, in ways that I think are deeply problematic. Although focusing on Richard Feldman’s ethics of belief, this chapter is critical of evidentialism in both senses. However, I (...) share with authors like Feldman and Earl Conee, that epistemology has important prescriptive functions, and that a sound, civic ethics of belief is of more than merely philosophic importance. One reason why an ethics of belief might be important to problems of practice is the need we have for tools to more effectively mediate the renewed round of ‘culture wars’ we are experiencing in Anglo-American cultures. I mean especially that grand cultural clash between science and religion, reason and faith, secularist atheism and religious fundamentalism, etc. Let us start with the genealogical question of why there is such a grand cultural debate in the first place, and why the debate especially as played out in public and popular forums and even in the courtrooms seems so volatile and so often to confusedly drag everything—beliefs, values, passions, etc., with it. These are questions that I think Sigmund Freud’s classic Civilization and its Discontents can help us understand. Freud was a major voice in criticism of the stern and often hypocritical Victorian morality, a voice pointing out the price of its sometimes high-handed, guiltinducing curtailments of the satisfactions sought by the individual. But for Freud while there are real differences in the moral demands that different societies or traditions place upon people, there is something inevitable about the conflict itself, for “replacement of the power of the individual by the power of a community constitutes the decisive step of civilization... (shrink)

Several philosophers have recently argued that policies aimed at reducing human fertility are a practical and morally justifiable way to mitigate the risk of dangerous climate change. There is a powerful objection to such “population engineering” proposals: even if drastic fertility reductions are needed to prevent dangerous climate change, implementing those reductions would wreak havoc on the global economy, which would seriously undermine international antipoverty efforts. In this article, we articulate this economic objection to population engineering and show how it (...) fails. We argue, first, that the economic objection paints an inaccurate picture of the complicated relationship between demographic change and economic growth, and second, that any untoward economic effects of fertility reduction can be mitigated with additional policies. Specifically, we argue that supplementing fertility reduction with policies that facilitate the emigration of younger people from developing nations to developed nations could allow for both global reductions in GHG emissions and continued economic stability. Further, we show that moral arguments against such unprecedented increases in immigration are unsuccessful. We conclude that population engineering is a practical and morally justifiable tool for addressing the twin evils of climate change and global poverty. (shrink)

The Procreation Asymmetry holds that we have strong moral reasons not to create miserable people for their own sakes, but no moral reasons to create happy people for their own sakes. To defend this conjunction against an argument that it leads to inconsistency, I show how recognizing ‘creation’ as a temporally extended process allows us to revise the conjuncts in a way that preserves their intuitive force. This defense of the Procreation Asymmetry is preferable to others because it does not (...) require us to take on controversial metaphysical or metaethical commitments – in other words, it has the theoretical virtue of portability. (shrink)

Although researchers generally take great care to ensure that human subjects do not suffer very serious harms from their involvement in research, the situation is different for nonhuman animal subjects. Significant progress has been made in reducing unnecessary animal suffering in research, yet researchers still inflict severe pain and distress on tens of thousands of animals every year for scientific purposes. Some bioethicists, scientists, and animal welfare advocates argue for placing an upper limit on the suffering researchers may impose on (...) animal subjects, with rare exceptions for research that promises critical social benefits. In this article, I argue against such an upper limit on harm on the grounds that researchers often can compensate animal subjects for their suffering, even severe and long-lasting suffering. If animal subjects receive adequate compensation for the harms they suffer, then there is no general limit on how much suffering researchers may impose on them for scientific purposes. (shrink)

This Ideas and Opinions article revisits an argument from Judith Jarvis Thomson in her essay “A Defense of Abortion” that abortion can be an ethical choice even if we assume that fetuses have full moral personhood and moral rights. The authors examine the implications of laws that require a pregnant person to care for another with their body and what other impositions states may also require of citizens to care for others.

We arrived at the neighborhood in Antwerp where our accommodation, Adagio Aprthotel, was located. The presence of immigrants was the one of the first things that caught my attention. They are everywhere. Enroute to the shops past the train station after dropping off our bags, Amiel and I passed a synagogue, and at McDonald’s (yup, my first meal in Belgium was french fries!), seated at the next table were two Filipinos. Overhearing their chatter, I surmised that they have been living (...) in Antwerp for some time. While intently exploring the surrounding streets, it became obvious that there is a profusion of migrant communities in Antwerp offering a multifaceted panorama of cultural diversity. This iss underscored by the conspicuous presence of Orthodox Jews, Arabs, Africans, and Chinese, the latter ensconced in their own Chinatown. Our neighborhood afforded immersion within a milieu teeming with migrant-owned enterprises, from butcher shops and corner stores to quaint cafés and eateries, predominantly overseen by Middle Easterners and Jews. Our first communal meal was, in fact, at an Arabic restaurant just across our accommodations. (shrink)

Many contemporary ethical debates turn on claims about the nature and extent of our alleged procreative moral rights: moral rights to procreate or not to procreate as we choose. In this article, I argue that there are no procreative moral rights, in that generally we do not have a distinctive moral right to procreate or not to procreate as we choose. However, interference with our procreative choices usually violates our nonprocreative moral rights, such as our moral rights to bodily autonomy (...) or to privacy. My argument presents hypothetical cases in which a state interferes with a person's procreative choices in order to promote aggregate social welfare, but this interference does not violate any of the person's nonprocreative moral rights. These cases not only undermine frequently made claims that widely recognized nonprocreative moral rights entail procreative moral rights, they also challenge the intuitively plausible claim that interference with our procreative choices as such violates our moral rights. What at first appear to be substantive moral rights are in fact a kind of illusion created by the frequent overlap of other rights, but lacking in substance beyond that overlap. While this argument against the existence of procreative moral rights has substantive implications for ongoing debates in reproductive ethics, I ultimately suggest that it is consistent with a progressive approach to reproductive justice. (shrink)

They say that argumentative writing skills are best learned through writing argumentative essays. I say that while this is excellent practice for argumentative writing, an important exercise to practice structuring such essays and build critical thinking skills simultaneously is what I call the four-sentence paper. The exercise has the template They say..., I say..., one might object..., I reply... One might object that the assignment oversimplifies argumentative writing, stifles creativity, promotes an adversarial attitude, or that students can’t consider objections well (...) anyway. I reply that a simplified form of argumentative writing is fine for beginners, especially since the template is ubiquitous in philosophy; that any assignment template has room for creativity; that considering objections is consistent with good manners; and that despite some pitfalls of trying to defend a thesis and consider objections, students are capable of considering objections well with proper instruction and practice. (shrink)

One of the Belmont Report’s most important contributions was the clear and serviceable distinction it drew between standard medical practice and biomedical research. A less well-known achievement of the Report was its conceptualization of innovative practice, a type of medical practice that is often mistaken for research because it is new, untested, or experimental. Although the discussion of innovative practice in Belmont is brief and somewhat cryptic, this does not reflect the significant progress its authors made in understanding innovative practice (...) and the distinctive ethical issues it raises. This article explores the history and broader context of Belmont’s conception of innovative practice, its strengths and weaknesses, and its contemporary relevance for scholars working in bioethics and health policy. While this conception of innovative practice deserves our attention, it is inherently limited in some important ways. (shrink)

Innovative practice involves medical interventions that deviate from standard practice in significant ways. For many patients, innovative practice offers the best chance of successful treatment. Because little is known about most innovative treatments, clinicians who engage in innovative practice might consider including extra procedures, such as scans or blood draws, to gather information about the innovation. Such information-gathering interventions can yield valuable information for modifying the innovation to benefit future patients and for designing scientific studies of the innovation. However, existing (...) guidelines do not say when or whether it is appropriate to add potentially risky information-gathering interventions for these purposes. As a result, clinicians may assume that information-gathering interventions are ethically inappropriate and should not be used in innovative practice. This assumption can lead to seriously negative consequences, such as increasing the likelihood that harmful or ineffective innovations will be adopted and creating new barriers to the development of genuinely beneficial treatments. We argue that health care institutions need to promote the responsible use of information-gathering interventions as an adjunct to innovative practice, and that these interventions are not clinical research and should not be subject to research oversight. (shrink)

Eyal et al have recently argued that researchers should consider conducting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) human challenge studies to hasten vaccine development. We have conducted (J. L.) and overseen (L. D.) human challenge studies and agree that they can be useful in developing anti-infective agents. We also agree that adults can autonomously choose to undergo risks with no prospect of direct benefit to themselves. However, we disagree that SARS-CoV-2 challenge studies are ethically appropriate at this time, for (...) 3 reasons: (1) current scientific knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 infection is insufficient to manage risks; (2) autonomous decision making, while necessary, does not override concerns about risk; and (3) undertaking challenge studies now would imperil confidence in the research enterprise, potentially undermining the global response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. (shrink)

Parental Obligations and Bioethics: The Duties of a Creator collects and supplements Bernard G. Prusak’s work on the ethics of procreation and parenthood, and applies his unique theoretical approach to related issues in bioethics and social philosophy. In this review, I’ll first summarize what I take to be the argumentative core of the book, and then offer a brief critical assessment.

Contrary to political and philosophical consensus, we argue that the threats posed by climate change justify population engineering, the intentional manipulation of the size and structure of human populations. Specifically, we defend three types of policies aimed at reducing fertility rates: choice enhancement, preference adjustment, and incentivization. While few object to the first type of policy, the latter two are generally rejected because of their potential for coercion or morally objectionable manipulation. We argue that forms of each policy type are (...) pragmatically and morally justified tools for preventing the harms of global climate change. (shrink)

This article addresses the Conings case – a Belgian soldier, currently wanted for threatening Belgium’s top virologist Marc Van Ranst and the illegal possession of weapons in a terrorist context. It moreover argues for a more situated analysis of Belgium’s far-right extremism by looking at its complex political climate.

I write this introduction with much work already completed in this 4th Edition of The Cone of Perception, primarily to frame the work and touch on what might be missing from it. Namely → though it is hardly lacking these, I’d like to add a few insights about the content of the work and its relevance to the subject and future technology. Why is this work still relevant? How can you use it in your work/subject/area/field, and how am I supposed (...) to read all of these equations?!! This work is relevant, because is shows us that what we may have thought impossible is phenomenological and actualized. That there are, compressed within simple formulations of geometry and parameters of spatio-temporal experiencing, really a complex harmony of relations, coefficients, hexadecimal coefficients, equilibrium, dynamics, resonances, all of which are alternating with each other in a dance of higher dimensionality through many balancing solutions. All of this, and infinitely more is going on between the distance from me to you, and between each particle in between us. You can use this in your life, work, or area of study, practically no matter what it is that you study, because these equations and insights apply to the fundament of the fabric of reality that we all share and live and the consciousness of it. Whether you are a physicists or a monk, these equations reveal answers and are the answers for the eternal questions of nature and reality. Harmony with number, visual forms, etc. are a new language. Why have questions about God been so hard to express? Words don’t always do justice to the potency of philosophical debate. Much magic mystery and magic have been neglected because of this, but math, equations, visualizations, etc. can do more to reveal insights and converse on topics philosophers have been seeking for ages. Also, this book reveals that what science is currently doing with particle accelerators, while offering its own set of insights, may actually be less productive, wasteful, unnecessary and dangerous that we think. What The Cone of Perception offers is a mental scope that will lead you on a journey from what is currently smaller than what physicists currently believe is the smallest mass/time unit all the way out to numbers and equations so large that they are not allowed by God for us to currently visualize their form. The Cone of Perception has revealed that there are particles of the photo electric effects with mass smaller than the quantum foam. That is a revelation that ought turn the obtuse world of physics on its head. There are many other section in The Cone of Perception all with equally revolutionary material. This work is meant to revolutionize the current perception of the physical world. These equations are useful to those who study dynamics, seek understanding of balance, and those who seek visualizations, mystery and empirical proof of metaphysics and magic in this world. (shrink)

Ongeveer vijf weken na de start van de jacht op Jürgen Conings, de Belgische beroepsmilitair gezocht omwille van het bedreigen van viroloog Marc Van Ranst en andere prominente doelwitten, vond men zijn stoffelijk overschot terug in het Dilserbos, Dilsen-Stokkem. Ook na zijn dood – Conings overleed hoogstwaarschijnlijk door zelfmoord – blijft de zaak Conings het Belgische sociaal-politieke landschap beroeren en de publieke opinie verdelen: de mate van steun die Conings de afgelopen weken kreeg, toont nog maar eens aan dat extreemrechts (...) een serieus maatschappelijk probleem is in België, waarvan de reikwijdte bovendien maar al te vaak miskend wordt. (shrink)

Contemporary analytic theological discussions of atonement do not attend extensively to questions of how narrative might relate to the atoning work of Christ. Liberation theologians, on the other hand, utilize narrative in their scholarly method regularly and often employ it when discussing atonement or reconciliation. This essay argues that analytic theologians should consider the notion of narrative (and narrative identity) as a mechanism of atonement in the broad sense of the term introduced when William Tyndale coined ‘atonement’ to translate 2 (...) Corinthians 5. I then offer some psychological grounds for thinking that reframing one’s self-narrative in terms of a transcendent narrative is often conducive to human flourishing, and I consider the work of James H. Cone as an instance of such transcendent narrative reframing at work. (shrink)

Geheel in lijn met de rest van Europa-denk bijvoorbeeld aan de toegenomen populariteit van de radicaal-rechtse Zweden-Democraten (Sverigedemokraterna) en de verkiezing van de eerste naoorlogse radicaal-rechtse premier van Italië, Giorgia Meloni-maakt postpandemisch België een politieke draai naar (radicaal) rechts. Deze wending is vooral merkbaar in Vlaanderen: Uit een krantenpeiling van december 2022 blijkt dat 25,5 procent van de Vlamingen bij de volgende verkiezingen van plan is om op het Vlaams Belang te stemmen, die op de voet gevolgd worden door de (...) N-VA met zo'n 22 procent van de stemmen. Bijna de helft van de Vlaamse kiezers heeft dus een voorkeur voor een Vlaams-nationalistische regering, wat de federale coalitiebesprekingen en de politieke toekomst van België in 2024 wel eens negatief zou kunnen beïnvloeden. N-VA-voorzitter Bart De Wever verklaarde onlangs bovendien te willen samenwerken met het Vlaams Belang, op voorwaarde dat de partij zich zou ontdoen van haar meest radicale vertegenwoordigers. Dit alles betekent dat het zogenoemde cordon sanitaire-akkoord uit 1989-bedoeld om antidemocratische partijen uit politieke coalitiebesprekingen te weren-binnenkort wel eens zou kunnen sneuvelen. (shrink)

Noise reduction is the major issue in the loudspeaker for the application of the musical instruments and related areas. In this paper, a noise disturbance control of a loudspeaker with optimal and robust controllers has been done successfully. The noise of the loudspeaker has been analyzed by simply track a reference cone displacement with the actual cone displacement. Static output feedback and H infinity optimal loop shaping controllers have been used to compare the actual and reference cone displacements by using (...) a sine wave and random cone displacement signals and a promising results have been analyzed. (shrink)

Noise reduction is the major issue in the loudspeaker for the application of the musical instruments and related areas. In this study, a noise disturbance control of a loudspeaker with optimal and robust controllers has been done successfully. The noise of the loudspeaker has been analyzed by simply track a reference cone displacement with the actual cone displacement. Static output feedback and H4 optimal loop shaping controllers have been used to compare the actual and reference cone displacements by using a (...) sine wave and random cone displacement signals and a promising results have been analyzed. (shrink)

This paper deals with the version of Jung’s synchronicity in which correlation between mental processes of two different persons takes place not just in the case when at a certain moment of time the subjects are located at a distance from each other, but also in the case when both persons are alternately (and sequentially, one after the other) located in the same point of space. In this case, a certain period of time lapses between manifestation of mental process in (...) one person and manifestation of mental process in the other person. Transmission of information from one person to the other via classical communication channel is ruled out. The author proposes a hypothesis, whereby such manifestation of synchronicity may become possible thanks to existence of quantum entanglement between the past and the future within the light cone. This hypothesis is based on the latest perception of the nature of quantum vacuum. (shrink)

Chrysippus often talks as if there is a third option when we might expect that two options in response to a question are exhaustive. Things are true, false or neither; equal, unequal, or neither; the same, different, or neither.. and so on. There seems to be a general pattern here that calls for a general explanation. This paper offers a general explanation of this pattern, preserving Stoic commitments to excluded middle and bivalence, arguing that Chrysippus employs this trichotomy move when (...) he wishes to argue that apparent contradictories are only contraries, and wishes to endorse a third option. This general explanation of the pattern of trichotomies sheds light on a number of interpretive puzzles, including on Chrysippus's response to the paradox of the cone. The purpose of these trichotomies is also discussed, and it is suggested that they originate from the dialectical context in which philosophical problems were posed. (shrink)

From The Cone of Perception, volume one of my collected works, you will remember that one of the main topics in that work was V-Curvature, also called, "phenomenological velocity." In that work, although a solution to the v - curvature variable was provided as well as many graphs that yielded numerous jewels of spiral formulations in exquisite 3D color formations, that method by which the solution was found was not iterated. This chapter begins by showing how it is possible to (...) solve for something that ideally ought cancel out with itself and how, although commutation between square roots is valid, there may be room here for an alternate route of accessing a hidden dimension - that dimension we call V-Curvature, or, "Phenomenological Velocity." Herein is provided the pathway for solving for V-Curvature in terms of Csc, which can be translated into Sin and Cos functionality. Furthermore, the processing these equations through WolframAlpha yielded other insights into limits, roots, and series that logically follow. How did the solutions to the, "velocity," v - variable curvature in the Lorentz coefficient, "manifest," when the Lorentz coefficient ought cancel out with itself? The step - by - step solution below illustrates the algebraic process by which a specific solution for something that ought cancel out with itself can be found. The Sphere of Realization is a groundbreaking work of philosophical and mathematical theory. The first volume of this epic collection examines the concept of V-Curvature, or Phenomenological Velocity, using algebraic equations to explain how this phenomenon can be solved. This book goes on to explore the implications of these equations, such as limits, roots, series, and introspection into infinity, providing an alternate route for accessing a 'hidden dimension' that connects physical laws with abstract philosophical ideas. By utilizing this understanding, the author creates a platform for introspection into life and nature, and considers the philosophical implications of this perception, from the exploration of the infinity of angles to theions of time, velocity, the emergence of real numbers, and the meanings of eternity, forever, infinity, and never ending. This landmark work of mathematical exploration and philosophical discovery will challenge and expand our understanding of the universe, and invite us into a journey of introspection and understanding. An exploration of the esoteric terms therein, and the pathways they provide to access new modes of thought, will give the reader the ability to gain a greater insight into the intricacies of reality. The Sphere of Realization provides a unique and comprehensive approach to a difficult concept. Through a blend of philosophical and mathematical exploration, the author delves into the concept of V-Curvature, or Phenomenological Velocity to unlock the mysteries of "hidden dimensions" within our reality. These equations and theories allow the reader to explore angles, time, velocity, roots, series, and other related concepts. In so doing, the book offers an exciting journey into the esoteric. The author also provides insights into the emergence of real numbers from infinity, introducing concepts such as eternity, forever, and never ending in the process. A comprehensive discussion of the applicable equations and transformations, immune to the construct of time, serves as a powerful tool for unlocking a meaningful understanding of the universe. The Sphere of Realization is an opportunity to gain a deeper appreciation of the reality of our world. (shrink)

Michael B. Gill’s A Philosophy of Beauty: Shaftesbury on Nature, Virtue, and Art focuses on Shaftesbury’s thinking about nature, religion, morality, and art. This beautifully and engagingly written book is insightful for scholars and general readers alike, and invites readers to explore the philosophical issues that arise from Shaftesbury’s philosophy. Gill not only shows how Shaftesbury’s ideas were revolutionary at the turn of the eighteenth century but also how they remain relevant today. Shaftesbury’s major work, Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, (...) Times, was one of the most influential books published during the first half of the eighteenth century. According to Gill, “[i]t played a momentous role in turning European thought away from the negative and toward the positive—in nature, religion, morality, and art” (1). Although Characteristicks serves as a major source, Gill also engages with numerous other published and unpublished writings by Shaftesbury. A Philosophy of Beauty is divided into five chapters which focus respectively on nature and God, virtue, art, painting, and writing. (shrink)

We show that in the Maxwell–Lorentz theory of classical electrodynamics most initial values for fields and particles lead to an ill-defined dynamics, as they exhibit singularities or discontinuities along light-cones. This phenomenon suggests that the Maxwell equations and the Lorentz force law ought rather to be read as a system of delay differential equations, that is, differential equations that relate a function and its derivatives at different times. This mathematical reformulation, however, leads to physical and philosophical consequences for the ontological (...) status of the electromagnetic field. In particular, fields cannot be taken as independent degrees of freedom, which suggests that one should not add them to the ontology. (shrink)

Purpose. To determine the potential of deforming broaching for the improvement of efficiency of cutter chisels in the mining industry. Methodology. The study of the application of the technological process of deforming broaching was carried out based on the experimental research into conditions of assembly of press couplings corresponding to cutting rock-destroying tools, the working surface of which is reinforced with solid-alloy inserts. Findings. Based on the conducted research, a new process of assembling the crowns of cutter chisels with the (...) use of deforming broaching was developed. Originality. It was determined that the range of angles of inclination of generatrix of the working cone of the deforming element and the roll-treading lip of the insert, which are necessary for efficient machining and pressing in crowns of cutters, is 4–16°. It was proven that the “solid alloy-steel” press couplings for cutter chisels will have the maximum bearing capacity at total tension a/d0 ≤ 3 %. It was found that it is necessary to foresee the following distribution of tensions: to perform 2 % of deformation by preliminary deforming broaching, and 1 % ‒ by pressing in an insert Practical value. The use of deforming broaching makes it possible to increase the strength of fastening the inserts of cutter chisels by 2 times, to reduce specific consumption of the tool by 4.4 times, and to increase the average drilling rate by 4 times. (shrink)

This essay examines the relation between philosophical questions concerning personal identity and character development in Shaftesbury’s and Hume’s philosophy. Shaftesbury combines a metaphysical account of personal identity with a normative approach to character development. By contrasting Shaftesbury’s and Hume’s views on these issues, I examine whether character development presupposes specific metaphysical views about personal identity, and in particular whether it presupposes the continued existence of a substance, as Shaftesbury assumes. I show that Hume’s philosophy offers at least two alternatives. Moreover, (...) I consider whether and how Hume’s philosophy leaves scope for character development and how he departs from Shaftesbury’s normative project of self-formation. (shrink)

Descartes’ demon is a deceiver: the demon makes things appear to you other than as they really are. However, as Descartes famously pointed out in the Second Meditation, not all knowledge is imperilled by this kind of deception. You still know you are a thinking thing. Perhaps, though, there is a more virulent demon in epistemic hell, one from which none of our knowledge is safe. Jonathan Schaffer thinks so. The “Debasing Demon” he imagines threatens knowledge not via the truth (...) condition on knowledge, but via the basing condition. This demon can cause any belief to seem like it’s held on a good basis, when it’s really held on a bad basis. Several recent critics, Conee, Ballantyne & Evans ) grant Schaffer the possibility of such a debasing demon, and argue that the skeptical conclusion doesn’t follow. By contrast, we argue that on any plausible account of the epistemic basing relation, the “debasing demon” is impossible. Our argument for why this is so gestures, more generally, to the importance of avoiding common traps by embracing mistaken assumptions about what it takes for a belief to be based on a reason. (shrink)

Extensive scientific, philosophical and artistic activities were carried out in the Islamic World’s various science and civilization centers during the early Middle Ages. In these centers, noteworthy works of mathematics, astronomy, geography, medicine, pharmacology, optics, botany, chemistry and other fields of science, which would later determine improvement paths for these fields, were created. Abu al-Izz Ismail ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari (12th-13th centuries), was a magnificent Muslim scientist known for his work named The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (Kitab fi (...) ma‘rifati’l-hiyal al-handasiyya) and he was born in geography where many scientists were trained. He contributed to the development of science and civilization, the joint legacy of humanity and demonstrated his true capability and success in the field of ilm al-hiyal (the scientific field which addresses the information and practices regarding mechanical technology and engineering in Islamic science history). From this perspective, it is evident that al-Jazari had a wide field of interest, made his mark in the age he lived in with his brave and innovative ideas, and was a wise engineer. al-Jazari’s detailed descriptions and explanations of water clocks, oil lamp clocks and water pumping machines, as well as their construction, were astounding. In addition, al-Jazari’s studies on metal casting techniques, cone valves, wheel balance and the real-world use of aspiration tubes are important in contemporary engineering studies. When all these are considered, it becomes clear that his designation as the “Leonardo da Vinci of the Islamic World” is not a coincidence. Many studies on al-Jazari’s scientific legacy have been conducted in various parts of the world. There are various manuscripts of his aforementioned book. Based on these manuscripts, the work has been -fully or partially- translated into many languages, including Turkish. The German and English translations served as a basis for studies on al-Jazari in other languages. In recent years, studies conducted on al-Jazari in Türkiye (books, articles, domestic and international symposiums, congresses etc.) have demonstrated his brilliance and competence as a scientist. Furthermore, studies on al-Jazari are still ongoing in Türkiye. As for Russia, the scientific legacy of the scientists raised in the Islamic World such as Avicenna, al-Farabi, Abu Bakr al-Razi, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, al-Battani, al-Kashi, Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was researched within the scope of a special plan and program. Depending on the relevant studies, al-Jazari and his work drew attention as well. A small portion of the aforementioned Russian studies is known in Türkiye. It is safe to assume that al-Jazari studies in Russia are virtually unknown in Türkiye. The present study primarily aims to contribute to the literature on the scientific legacy of al-Jazari, a Middle Age Islamic scientist best known for his famous work in the mechanical field. More specifically, the present study aims to: 1) to identify the studies on al-Jazari in Russia, and in the former USSR countries, where academic studies are still in Russian after the Soviet Union period, to create a chronological biography and to set forth their compilation; in other words, to create a bibliography which includes Russian studies on al-Jazari; 2) to provide information on the structure and content of the studies in question, to detect the methodological issues encountered in these works, and make solution recommendations to solve these issues; 3) to contribute to continuing and future studies in Türkiye on al-Jazari in terms of source and material index. In conclusion, it should be stated that comparative reading was conducted centered on The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (Kitab fi ma‘rifati’l-hiyal al-handasiyya). It should also be noted that Russian popular internet publications (which are not based on academic research and are created/reproduced for commercial and personal purposes) were excluded from the assessment. (shrink)

The presented study introduces a new theoretical model of collapse for social, cultural, or political systems. Based on the current form of quantum anthropology conceptualized by Heidi Ann Russell, further development of this field is provided. The new theoretical model is called the spiral model of collapses, and is suggested to provide an analytical framework for collapses in social, cultural, and political systems. The main conclusions of this study are: 1) The individual crises in the period before a collapse of (...) social, cultural, and political systems form the trajectory of a conical helix similar to a vortex. 2) The occurrences of crises in the period before a collapse have the shape of the trajectory on the surface of the circular cone with a convex wall narrowing up to its peak. The shape of this cone is based on the Fibonacci sequence coiled into the three-dimensional space. 3) The constant circular movement along the trajectory of crises can occur in exceptional situations in the development of social, cultural, and political systems; however, such a state is always temporary. In such cases, the trajectory of the crisis does not follow the Fibonacci sequence, but the shape of a regular helix. Remaining on the trajectory of a regular helix in the long-term is highly improbable for social, cultural, and political systems. 4) The creation of new potentialities after the final collapse of a system is explained by the conception of topological inversion, when the heretofore embodied part of the energy-information field returns to the global, wave-particle energy-information potential. 5) The global, wave-particle energy-information potential is a source of energy-information for future embodiments in the sense of the future collapses of wave functions. (shrink)

The debate on compatibility of fate with human responsibility lasted for five hundred years of the Stoic school and it is still with us in terms of contemporary discussions of the compatibility of determinism and free will. Chrysippus was confronted with the standard objection: It would be unjust to punish criminals “if human beings do not do evils voluntarily but are dragged by fate.” Chrysippus uses the famous illustration of the cylinder and cone, which cannot start moving without being pushed. (...) However, when this has happened, from then on the cylinder rolls and the cone spins by their own nature. I explore the cylinder analogy and its modern relevance from the perspective of thought experiments. I argue that it helps us isolate the main causal factor (the locus of responsibility and agency) and insulate this factor from the rest of the causal history and causal background. The cylinder/cone analogy is a compatibilistic tool, a kind of “mental distillation” in which we separate in imagination those aspects (causal factors) which are relevant for moral responsibility from those which are not. I suggest, somehow anachronistically, but in line both with contemporary compatibilism and Chrysippian views on causal structure of agency that the actions of an agent are “fated” from the theoretical point of view, but they are up to her from the practical point of view. (shrink)

Determinism is frequently understood as implying the possibility of perfect prediction. This possibility then functions as an assumption in the Manipulation Argument for the incompatibility of free will and determinism. Yet this assumption is mistaken. As a result, arguments that rely on it fail to show that determinism would rule out human free will. We explain why determinism does not imply the possibility of perfect prediction in any world with laws of nature like ours, since it would be impossible for (...) an agent to predict with certainty any future event that is causally influenced by events outside her own backward light cone yet inside the backward light cone of the future event. This is the _light-cone limit_ and it undermines the Manipulation Argument or limits what this argument can tell us about the relevance of determinism to free will. We also respond to objections that the light-cone limit is irrelevant to the Manipulation Argument. (shrink)

The role of the physiological processes involved in human vision escapes clarification in current literature. Many unanswered questions about vision include: 1) whether there is more to lateral inhibition than previously proposed, 2) the role of the discs in rods and cones, 3) how inverted images on the retina are converted to erect images for visual perception, 4) what portion of the image formed on the retina is actually processed in the brain, 5) the reason we have an after-image with (...) antagonistic colors, and 6) how we remember space. This theoretical article attempts to clarify some of the physiological processes involved with human vision. The global integration of visual information is conceptual; therefore, we include illustrations to present our theory. Universally, the eyeball is 2.4 cm and works together with membrane potential, correspondingly representing the retinal layers,photoreceptors, and cortex. Images formed within the photoreceptors must first be converted into chemical signals on the photoreceptors’ individual discs and the signals at each disc are transduced from light photons into electrical signals. We contend that the discs code the electrical signals into accurate distances and are shown in our figures. The pre-existing oscillations among the various cortices including the striate and parietal cortex,and the retina work in unison to create an infrastructure of visual space that functionally ‘‘places” the objects within this ‘‘neural” space. The horizontal layers integrate all discs accurately to create a retina that is pre-coded for distance. Our theory suggests image inversion never takes place on the retina,but rather images fall onto the retina as compressed and coiled, then amplified through lateral inhibition through intensification and amplification on the OFF-center cones. The intensified and amplified images are decompressed and expanded in the brain, which become the images we perceive as external vision. (shrink)

There is widespread belief in a tension between quantum theory and special relativity, motivated by the idea that quantum theory violates J. S. Bell’s criterion of local causality, which is meant to implement the causal structure of relativistic space-time. This paper argues that if one takes the essential intuitive idea behind local causality to be that probabilities in a locally causal theory depend only on what occurs in the backward light cone and if one regards objective probability as what imposes (...) constraints on rational credence along the lines of David Lewis’ Principal Principle, then one arrives at the view that whether or not Bell’s criterion holds is irrelevant for whether or not local causality holds. The assumptions on which this argument rests are highlighted, and those that may seem controversial are motivated. (shrink)

The role of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in neurotransmission is well known. But long before synapses are formed in vertebrates, AChE is expressed in young postmitotic neuroblasts that are about to extend the first long tracts. AChE histochemistry can thus be used to map primary steps of brain differentiation. Preceding an possibly inducing AChE in avian brains, the closely related butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) spatially fore-shadows AChE-positive cell areas and the course of their axons. In particular, before spinal motor axons grow, their corresponding rostral (...) sclerotomes and myotomes express BChE, and both their neuronal source and myotomal target cells express AChE. Since axon growth has been found inhibited by acetylcholine, it is postulated that both cholinetsreases can attract neurite growth cones by neutralizing the inhibitor. Thus, the early expression of both cholinesterases that is at least partially independent from classical cholinergic synaptogenesis, sheds new light on the developmental and medical significance of these enzymes. (shrink)

Origin of the Yellowstone hotspot & Columbia River Basalts has remained uncertain until now. Here, we present evidence of meteorite impact origin. The hotspot is shallow, only 200 km deep, invalidating a theory of mantle plume origin. The hotspot track runs from the Yellowstone National Park in NW Wyoming to the volcanic Modoc Plateau in NE California. We present evidence of apparent remnants of an impact crater existing in the Modoc, a large multi-ring structure at least 160 km diameter. Much (...) of the complex crater has become obliterated by later Cascadia and Sierra orogenies. The crater has a tall 4,100 foot central uplift cone, locally known as Chalk Mountain, consisting of diatomaceous earth, presumably the rebound cone of a meteorite impact. This falsifies a theoretical prohibition of cosmic impact volcanism. Based on recent insights into explosive volcanism a plausible mechanism is proposed for how meteorite impacts can lead to resurgent calderas of the Yellowstone type, & of apparent LIP origin from thin crust ET impacts, invalidating theoretical constructs of mantle plumes. We mention chaotic terrains, including plutons, arising antipodal to impacts. (shrink)

I argue that the best interpretation of the general theory of relativity has need of a causal entity, and causal structure that is not reducible to light cone structure. I suggest that this causal interpretation of GTR helps defeat a key premise in one of the most popular arguments for causal reductionism, viz., the argument from physics.

Since the stone age humankind has created masterworks which possess a mysterious quality of solidity and grandeur or monumentality. A Paleolithic Venus and a still life by Cezanne both share this monumentality. Michelangelo likened monumentality to sculptural relief, Braque called monumentality 'space', and Hans Hoffman, himself one of the masters, called monumentality 'pictorial depth.' The masters agreed on the import of monumentality, but none of them left a clear explanation of it. In 1943 Earl Loran published his classic book (...) on Cezanne's pictorial structure but, as I demonstrate, his explanation was misleading. This book provide a clear explanation, as did an earlier book by Robert Casper. This book also traces some history of monumentality with reproductions. It also explains how some painters achieved monumentality and how a student can attempt it. Pictorial space is created in the tension between pairs of opposing planes. Opposing planes pull against each other, each containing the other, paradoxically, within the flat surface of the canvas. Sculpture also can be 'plastic': opposing masses pull against each other, each containing the other and creating tension in the space which lies between them. Painting has other aspects like subject matter, expression, style and technique but pictorial space does not depend on these. Monumentality moves us profoundly and apparently has done so since the Paleolith. Using patients' vignettes, I show that there are profound parallels between the structure of a monumental work of art and the structure of an evolving personality. In Winnicott's words, such a personality has 'depth ... an interior space to put beliefs in ... an inside ... a space where things can be held ... the capacity to accept paradox [to contain opposites] ... room and strength ... and originality and the acceptance of tradition as the basis for invention'. A monumental painting also meets this description. I argue that monumental art provides a visual portrait of an evolving personality just as myth, as Freud and Jung both showed, provides a narrative portrait of an evolving personality. An evolving personality is perhaps humankind's most important creation; an underlying purpose of both myth and art is to help us achieve it. I demonstrate in this book that monumental art represented the evolving personality since at least 35,000 BC. Thus to understand monumentality is to better understand the personality and its history. (shrink)

Hume seems to contend that you can’t get an ought from an is. Searle professed to prove otherwise, deriving a conclusion about obligations from a premise about promises. Since (as Schurz and I have shown) you can’t derive a substantive ought from an is by logic alone, Searle is best construed as claiming that there are analytic bridge principles linking premises about promises to conclusions about obligations. But we can no more derive a moral obligation to pay up from the (...) fact that a promise has been made than we can derive a duty to fight a duel from the fact that a challenge has been issued – just conclusions about what we ought to do according to the rules of the relevant games. Hume suggests bridge principles that would take us from the rules of the games to conclusions about duties, but these principles are false. My argument features an obstreperous earl, an anarchist philosopher and a dueling Prime Minister. (shrink)

The impossibility of an indeterministic evolution for standard relativistic quantum field theories, that is, theories in which all fields satisfy the condition that the generators of space-time translation have spectra in the forward light-cone, is demonstrated. The demonstration proceeds by arguing that a relativistically invariant theory must have a stable vacuum and then showing that stability of the vacuum, together with the requirements imposed by relativistic causality, entails deterministic evolution, if all degrees of freedom are standard degrees of freedom.

Objective: The aim of this study is to evaluate relationship between ostiomeatal complex variations (OMC) and maxillary sinus pathologies in children and adolescents using cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). -/- Methods: CBCT images of 72 patients (44 males and 28 females) aged 7-18 years were evaluated retrospectively. Presence of nasal septal deviation (NSD), nasal septal pneumatization (NSP), concha bullosa (CB), accessory maxillary ostium (AMO), agger nasi cell (ANC), Haller cell (HC), Onodi cell (OC), ethmoid sinusitis and maxillary sinus pathologies were investigated. (...) Maxillary sinus pathologies were classified. Correlations of OMC variations with each other, maxillary sinus pathologies and ethmoid sinusitis were investigated. Chi-square test was used to analyze relationships among variables and distribution of parameters. -/- Results: NSD was determined in 70.8%, NSP in 40.3%, ethmoid sinusitis in 75%, maxillary sinus pathology in 34.8% of images. OMC variations rates were detected as CB 31.3%, AMO 16%, ANC 16%, HC 24.3% and OC 18.8%. The most common maxillary sinus pathology was localized mucosal thickening, with a rate of 15.3% on right and 22.2% on left. Statistically significant differences were determined between almost all OMC variations with each other, and between anatomical variations in OMC with maxillary sinus pathologies except for NSP and AMO (p < 0.05). The presence of ethmoid sinusitis was more common in males (p =0.026). -/- Conclusion: Anatomical variations in OMC had no significant effect on maxillary sinus pathology except for NSP and AMO. Besides, most of anatomical variations in OMC were statistically significantly correlated with each other. CBCT visualization of these variations is important for sinonasal surgery and is an effective method in children and adolescents with low radiation dose and high image quality compared to computed tomography. (shrink)

In this article, a classification of the global catastrophic risks connected with the possible existence (or non-existence) of extraterrestrial intelligence is presented. If there are no extra-terrestrial intelligences (ETIs) in our light cone, it either means that the Great Filter is behind us, and thus some kind of periodic sterilizing natural catastrophe, like a gamma-ray burst, should be given a higher probability estimate, or that the Great Filter is ahead of us, and thus a future global catastrophe is high probability. (...) If ETIs exist in our light cone, it is most likely they exist in the form of ET artificial general intelligence (ETAI). ETAI may be traveling at near-light speed as an explosive wave of intelligence in the form of some nano-mechanisms which could reach us at any moment; may send us potentially dangerous messages with AI-virus payloads; or be near or on Earth in some dormant form. This dormant form could be nanobots, which could act as berserkers, and be triggered when humans unwittingly cross some threshold. If ETIs are nearby and less advanced, they could find our messaging extra-terrestrial intelligence (METI) messages and send their “fleet” to or direct weapons toward Earth. Even extinct ETIs could have left dangerous remnants in the form of AI systems that our civilization may encounter. If our existence is a simulation, this could be run by ETIs. Even a false belief in the existence of ETIs could potentially fuel millennial sects. If humanity is the first intelligence to emerge, it may kill or prevent the existence of all future potential ETI, a different type of catastrophe. Several options to prevent catastrophic risks are connected with ETI: sending requests for help, using random strategies to escape the Fermi paradox, Great Filter prediction, or the hope that ETIs will find the remains of our extinct civilization and resurrect it. (shrink)

1. INTRODUÇÃO -/- No "mundo" das produções animais, e sem que saibamos exatamente o motivo ou os motivos, não é incomum observar, mesmo a nível docente (faceta em que nos sentimos especialmente culpados), uma notável discussão (obscuridade de ideias e/ou na linguagem, produzida deliberadamente ou não) ao abordar os conceitos de fertilidade, fecundidade e prolificidade. -/- Esta falta de clareza conceitual torna-se tanto mais manifesta quando, precisamente a partir dos referidos conceitos, se pretende efetuar, por exemplo, uma programação ou uma (...) análise técnico-econômica de uma exploração pecuária. -/- O objetivo do presente trabalho é tentar introduzir com "clareza de ideias" acerca dos referidos conceitos essenciais na Zootecnia, sempre no domínio que nos é próprio, o das produções animais. Com a finalidade de tornar a exposição mais didática, construindo os conceitos sobre a cultura dos suínos. No entanto, que fique bem claro desde já que, com pequenas variações, pode-se considerar qualquer outra «espécie animal superior», incluindo as aves. -/- Para efeitos de brevidade e concisão, e porque serão abordados noutros trabalhos, não vamos aprofundar aqui, para além do estritamente indispensável, as questões relativas à anatomia do aparelho reprodutor e à fisiologia da reprodução. -/- -/- 2. FERTILIDADE -/- Segundo o Dicionário Geral Ilustrado da Língua Portuguesa: -/- — Fertilidade: Qualidade de fértil. -/- — Fértil: Virtude que tem a terra para produzir copiosos frutos. -/- A palavra "fertilidade" tem a sua raiz no vocábulo latino "fertilis" (produtivo, abundante). Ao nível da produção animal, a fertilidade pode ser definida como: -/- «A capacidade de um macho ou de uma fêmea púbere de produzir e liberar gametas maduros fisiologicamente aptos a fecundar (espermatozoides) ou para serem fecundados (ovócitos de segunda ordem)». -/- No caso da fêmea, o aparecimento da puberdade começa com a intervenção das hormonas gonadotrofinas FSH e LH (folículo estimulante e lúteo estimulante, respectivamente). Com ela se inicia o desenvolvimento de 15-30 ou mais folículos primários localizados no estroma ovariano, processo que se repetirá de forma cíclica enquanto não se inicia um processo de anafrodisia funcional (gestação) ou patológica. -/- 2.1 Fertilidade em suínos: formação de ovários, ovócitos, folículos e generalidades das fêmeas -/- Na porca, os ovários são duas formações ovais situadas na cavidade abdominal na região sublombar em ambos os lados do raquis. Geralmente, o ovário direito tem um tamanho superior ao esquerdo e, como no caso da maioria das fêmeas mamíferas, a maior parte da superfície ovariana está rodeada pelo epitélio germinal e pelo peritoneu, exceto numa pequena porção, ílio-ovárico, por onde penetram os vasos e os nervos. -/- O estroma ovárico é formado por uma rede de tecido conjuntivo em cujas maias se encontram numerosos folículos que contêm as células germinativas ou ovócitos em diversos estágios de desenvolvimento. Estes folículos manifestam-se na superfície do ovário da porca sob a forma de uma série de eminências arredondadas que lhe dão um aspecto de amora. -/- A fêmea já nasce com um número determinado de folículos primários originados durante o desenvolvimento embrionário, contendo cada folículo um ovócito de primeira ordem que alcançou um desenvolvimento de dictiotene da prófase meiótica ou mitose I. -/- A partir dos folículos primários originam-se folículos secundários ou poliestratificados, alcançando-se o grau de folículos terciários de Graaf ou maduros, com o aparecimento da puberdade. O folículo terciário ou antral caracteriza-se por um aumento de volume e uma grande complexidade, contém, em princípio, o ovócito de primeira ordem que sofreu o período de vitelo-gênese e que vai dar lugar ao ovócito de segunda ordem quando ocorre a lise do cumulus proliger ou ooforo, com o qual a célula sexual permanece agora livre no seio do líquido folicular. Neste processo o ovócito de primeira ordem sofreu modificações características como são um deslocamento do núcleo para a superfície da célula e o protoplasma distribui-se irregularmente. -/- Um folículo terciário ou maduro tem a seguinte estrutura desde a parte externa à interna: teca externa, teca interna, membrana de Slajvansky, membrana granulosa e as células da coroa radiada que rodeiam o ovócito, uma membrana pelúcida que envolve totalmente o ovócito de grande transcendência no momento da fecundação e finalmente o ovócito de primeira ordem. Existe uma cavidade denominada cavidade folicular, que contém um líquido segregado pelas células da granulosa, licor folicular de composição complexa, destacando as hormonas sexuais femininas e concretamente o 17-beta-estradiol. A membrana granulosa está relacionada com a coroa radiada pelo «cumulus proliger» ou ooforo que serve de nexo de ligação. -/- Posteriormente, e seguindo o processo, origina-se o folículo pré-ovulatório ou deiscente, produzindo-se a eclosão do folículo e libertando-se um ovócito de segunda ordem em período de metafase II graças a um processo que Pérez García denominou como ovocitação, termo que foi aceito nos diversos meios científicos, já que considera que o termo ovulação no caso dos vertebrados é incorreto. Este ovócito de segunda ordem é a verdadeira célula fértil, coisa que não ocorre quando se libera ou se produz o óvulo no oviduto; os óvulos são células inférteis. No processo de ovocitação intervém uma série de mecanismos que classificamos em pressores, enzimáticos e neuro-hormonais, destacando entre estes últimos a hormona luteoestimulante (LH), além dos fatores introváricos descritos recentemente. -/- Consequentemente, uma fêmea, no nosso caso suína, será fértil quando for capaz de levar a bom termo de forma regular e de acordo com a periodicidade do seu ciclo sexual o processo descrito supra. -/- Na prática cotidiana das explorações não é possível saber diretamente se uma fêmea é fértil ou não. Neste contexto, por exemplo, ninguém poderá nos informar se ante as manifestações psicomáticas do zelo existe fertilidade; pode tratar-se de um zelo anovular que requer para o seu diagnóstico a utilização de métodos endoscópicos ou ecográficos, assim como métodos cirúrgicos como a perfusão dos ovidutos ou do útero para obter os ovócitos liberados avaliando-se a quantidade e qualidade dos mesmos. -/- Por conseguinte, a frase frequentemente ouvida a nível das explorações: «é uma fêmea muito fértil», é, a menos que tenha sido efetuado o «controle específico» da reprodutora, pelo menos «tecnicamente inadequado». -/- 2.2 Fertilidade em suínos: formação, translocação e generalidades dos espermatozoides no macho -/- O caso do porco é um pouco diferente. No período embrionário formam-se as espermatogônias, células equivalentes às ovogonias da fêmea. De cada espermatogônia primária ou espermatogônia A1 por numerosas mitoses, produzem-se 16 espermatócitos primários mais uma espermatogônia B1 que repetirá o processo. Por conseguinte, o período de proliferação ou multiplicação difere significativamente do mesmo período no caso da fêmea, uma vez que no macho durante toda a vida sexual são produzidas continuamente novas espermatogônias. -/- Cada espermatócito primário, através de um processo de crescimento muito limitado, origina um espermatócito de primeira ordem que, durante o período de maturação, originará dois espermatócitos de segunda ordem (haploides) e, em segundo lugar, quatro espermátides (haploides). Cada uma destas espermátides, através de um processo de transformação denominado espermiogênese ou espermatohistogênese, originará um espermatozoide. Os espermatozoides passarão posteriormente do rete testis ao epidídimo, onde se armazenarão alelostaticamente. A trajetória dos espermatozoides antes de chegar ao epidídimo passa pelos tubos retos de Haller (muito lentamente pela pressão exercida) para chegar às lagunas de Haller e daí aos cones eferentes. O trânsito dos espermatozoides através do epidídimo é de fundamental importância porque é aqui onde tem lugar a verdadeira maturação. Os espermatozoides obtidos a nível da cabeça do epidídimo não terminaram a sua maturação e, portanto, carecem de capacidade fecundante, enquanto que aqueles provenientes da cauda deste órgão a têm em grande medida. No entanto, à saída do epidídimo, os espermatozoides ainda não atingiram a sua plena maturidade. Para isso deverão passar pelas ampolas do ducto deferente ou de Henle para que, como afirmam a maioria dos autores, tenha lugar a seleção de formas anormais e de espermatozoides fracos. As células intersticiais do epitélio seminífero são responsáveis por fornecer aos espermatozoides um material nutricional que exerce ações tróficas e endócrinas que favorecem o equilíbrio celular do espermatozoide. Finalmente estes espermatozoides, conjuntamente com as secreções prostáticas, das vesículas seminais e das glândulas bulbouretrais, terminarão sua trajetória na uretra, sendo eliminados ao exterior pelo órgão copulador ou pênis mediante o processo de ejaculação. -/- No momento da ejaculação libera-se o esperma, ou sêmen, que é o resultado da mistura do material espermático de origem testicular e as sucessivas secreções das glândulas acessórias antes citadas, que derramam seus produtos na uretra. No entanto, o processo final espermatogênico não termina no trato genital masculino, mas sim no trato feminino depois do coito ou da inseminação artificial graças ao conhecido processo extremamente complexo da capacitação espermática. -/- Um varrão é fértil a partir do momento em que é capaz de produzir espermatozoides normais. Analisando o esperma de forma adequada poderemos constatar com uma relativa precisão, tendo em conta a grande quantidade de fatores endógenos e exógenos que afetam a um ser tão sensível como o porco, o nível de fertilidade do mesmo. Devemos ter em mente que macho suíno adulto pode ser inicialmente muito fértil (apresentar uma grande quantidade de espermatozoides, de 400-1.300 x 106/ml na fração espermática do seu ejaculado) e, em vez disso, não ser apto para a reprodução porque pode apresentar defeitos no epidídimo e/ou nas ampolas de Henle pelo qual os espermatozoides não amadurecem e portanto não são úteis para efeitos reprodutivos. -/- Contudo, na prática, e de acordo com a própria definição, o porco é considerado fértil quando produz espermatozoides maduros com as seguintes características: -/- - Concentração correta; -/- - Capacidade motora adequada; -/- - Capacidade metabólica; -/- - Estrutura correta em relação à cabeça e ao flagelo (pescoço, trato intermediário e cauda, considerando esta última formada por seu trato principal e seu trato terminal), avaliando-se também o estado do acrossoma; -/- - Adequado comportamento cromocitógeno. -/- Logo deve ficar claro que a fertilidade é uma aptidão que em geral têm os machos e as fêmeas púberes para produzir e liberar gametas anatômicos e fisiológicos corretos (os híbridos das espécies cavalar e asnal, os mulos e os burdéganos, por exemplo, não são férteis; uma fêmea com ausência de desenvolvimento gonodal tampouco). -/- -/- 3. FECUNDIDADE -/- De acordo com o Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa: -/- — Fecundidade: Qualidade de fecundo. -/- — Fecundo: Que produz ou se reproduz por meios naturais. -/- A palavra «fecundidade» provém do latim fecunditas, significa «virtude e faculdade de produzir». Qualidade de fecundo, do latim fecundus, que «produz ou se reproduz em virtude dos meios naturais». -/- Esta definição pode conduzir, no âmbito das produções animais, a equívocos. Somos a favor da aplicação da seguinte definição de fecundidade. -/- «É a capacidade que um macho e/ou uma fêmea fértil tem para conseguir que os seus gametas, anatómica e fisiológica, aumentem normalmente: uma vez liberados, juntam-se aos do outro sexo para formar um zigoto». -/- Este fenômeno recebe o nome de fecundação, não sendo correto o de fertilização, que é utilizado por alguns autores. -/- 3.1 Generalidades e a fecundação em suínos -/- No caso da porca, para continuar com o mesmo exemplo ao longo de todo o trabalho, os gametas femininos, ovócitos de segunda ordem, sofrem uma descida ou migração, uma vez liberados do folículo maduro, através do oviduto para entrar em contato com os espermatozoides. -/- Esta migração pode ocorrer porque antes de ocorrer a mencionada deiscência folicular caracterizada por um congestionamento, tanto do próprio ovário como dos ovidutos ou trompas de Falópio, o pavilhão destas últimas aproxima-se do ovário (o oviduto de três partes: bandeira, corpo e istmo). Constituindo uma espécie de funil, graças à intervenção das fimbrias do pavilhão, no qual, em princípio, os oócitos deiscentes devem ser depositados com o respectivo líquido folicular. -/- As razões pelas quais o ovócito se dirige ao pavilhão não são bem conhecidas, embora se pense que a causa é devida às correntes que originam os cílios com seus movimentos. O ovócito percorre o oviduto num tempo adequado (reunindo, portanto, as condições adequadas de pH, pressão osmótica, etc.) para que o espermatozoide possa alcançá-lo e entrar em contato com ele. -/- Se o ovócito de segunda ordem não cair no infundíbulo ou transitar a uma velocidade inadequada pelo oviduto não poderá ter lugar a impregnação (penetração do espermatozoide no ovócito de segunda ordem) e portanto a fecundação (singamia e cariogamia). Há que ter em conta que a fecundação provoca a segunda etapa da maturação do ovócito caracterizada pela finalização da mitose II, já que como supracitado o ovócito de segunda ordem se libera no processo de metafase II (equacional), originando um óvulo que já contém o material cromossômico masculino e eliminando o segundo polocito. -/- Podemos interpretar que a eliminação deste segundo polocito, como consequência da penetração da cabeça do espermatozoide no ovócito originando-se um óvulo, seria como o resultado de uma espécie de incompatibilidade entre o pronúcleo do polocito e o que fornece o espermatozoide. Por conseguinte, no período de maturação da ovogênese produz-se, através de um processo reducional, um ovócito de segunda ordem e um primeiro pólcito. Posteriormente, o ovócito de segunda ordem originará por uma mitose equacional, que carece do período de duplicação do ADN no ciclo de Savel, um óvulo e um segundo pólcito. Às vezes, mas nem sempre, o primeiro polocito originará um terceiro e um quarto polocito mediante mitose, pelo que no total podem originar-se três polocito. Estes polocitos podem ser chamados de ovos abortivos porque carecem praticamente de deutoplasma que ficou englobado no óvulo e que permitirá o desenvolvimento embrionário em seus primeiros estádios até que se estabeleçam as conexões feto-maternas. -/- O óvulo maduro apresenta o pronúcleo feminino capaz de conjugar-se com o pronúcleo masculino, dando lugar à formação do zigoto. Mas, insisto mais uma vez, a penetração do espermatozoide ocorre sempre no estágio de ovócito de segunda ordem e nunca quando a célula sexual tenha alcançado o estádio de óvulo. -/- Evidentemente e depois de todo o comentado: -/- UMA PORCA PODE SER FERTIL E NÃO FECUNDA -/- Por isso bastaria, por exemplo, que o pavilhão da tromba não conseguisse aproximar-se de maneira adequada ao ovário, com o que os ovócitos de segunda ordem, anatômica e fisiologicamente normais, cairiam na cavidade abdominal. Nestas circunstâncias a fecundação, logicamente, seria totalmente impossível. -/- O espermatozoide, por sua vez, tem que subir um trecho do oviduto para "encontrar" o ovócito. Este avanço ocorre como consequência das contrações peristálticas do útero que realiza uma sucção do esperma. Neste momento os espermatozoides experimentam uma importante seleção biológica dado que para atravessar o istmo tubárico necessitam ter uma adequada vitalidade (na porca a união uterotubárica, assim como a primeira parte do istmo, atuam parcialmente como uma barreira). -/- Evidentemente, o espermatozoide não o tem fácil, embora consiga aproximar-se do ovócito graças às quatro hormonas produzidas pelos gametas (dois androgamonas e duas ginogamonas), embora atualmente fala-se da existência de três ginogamonas já que o ovócito se comporta como um polo positivo e a parte terminal da cabeça do espermatozóide como um polo negativo. -/- Uma vez que o espermatozoide entra em contato com o ovócito, deve «salvar» a camada protetora do ovócito (formada por um aglomerado mucoso de natureza espessa e viscosa, além de uma camada interna que pode ser mais ou menos poliestratificada que constitui a coroa radiada procedente das células da membrana granulosa). Para superar estes obstáculos, os espermatozoides têm uma estrutura, o acrossoma. Esta estrutura contém um complexo específico de lipoglicoproteínas que inclui uma série de enzimas como hialuronidase e acrosina. A hialuronidase está provavelmente envolvida na dispersão do cumulus proliger. A acrosina está relacionada com a penetração do espermatozoide através da zona pelúcida. -/- Então também podemos afirmar, como fizemos no caso da reprodutora, que: -/- UM PORCO TAMBÉM PODE SER FERTIL E NÃO FECUNDO -/- Bastaria para isso que os espermatozoides experimentassem um hipocinese, por isso sendo excessivamente lentos não tinham suficiente motilidade de avanço. -/- No entanto, sem ter a necessidade de chegar a estes extremos, o que deve ficar claro é que: -/- a) Fertilidade e fecundidade são dois conceitos claramente distintos. -/- b) Para que um reprodutor ou uma reprodutora possam tornar-se fecundos antes devem ser férteis. -/- Assim, por exemplo, um macho fértil pode não ser fecundo; quando um reprodutor não tem ereção, não tem suficiente ardor genérico, não é capaz, obviamente, de introduzir seu aparelho copulador no trato genital da fêmea. Esta situação pode ser ultrapassada, pelo menos em alguns casos, mediante a utilização de um ejaculador elétrico e posterior aplicação da técnica de inseminação artificial. -/- Uma fórmula clássica para determinar a porcentagem global de fecundidade obtida num rebanho durante um determinado período de tempo (T) pode ser a seguinte: -/- Fecundidade (T)(%)=(N° de fêmeas gestantes (T))/(N° de fêmeas cobertas (T)) x 100 -/- A mesma fórmula é utilizada para determinar a «capacidade fecundante» (CF) de um macho X durante um período T. -/- CF(x)(T)(%)=(N° de fêmeas cobertas / macho X (T) gestantes)/(N° de fêmeas cobertas / macho X (T) ) x 100 -/- Obviamente, na prática, a «capacidade fecundante final» do macho X não é apenas função das suas próprias aptidões, é também função da aptidão fecundante das fêmeas por ele cobertas. -/- Por esta razão, para que o parâmetro CFX(T) seja «fiável», o macho X deve ter coberto um elevado número de fêmeas durante o período T. Consequentemente, este período de tempo não pode ser excessivamente curto, dependendo do ciclo sexual da espécie. -/- Analisados os termos fertilidade e fecundidade, vamos tratar a despeito da prolificidade. -/- -/- 4. PROLIFICIDADE -/- Segundo o Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa: -/- — Prolífico: Que tem a virtude de gerar.; -/- — Gerar: Dar origem a um novo ser. -/- No âmbito das produções animais é um termo realmente fácil de de compreender, não existindo discrepância entre os autores. -/- Poderíamos estabelecer a seguinte definição para a prolificidade: -/- "É a capacidade que a fêmea reprodutora tem para proporcionar aos zigotos um meio adequado em que possam realizar o seu desenvolvimento e chegar ao término". -/- 4.1 Generalidades e prolificidade em suínos -/- No caso da porca, poderíamos definir, em primeiro lugar, a prolificidade como o número de leitões nascidos por parto. A maioria dos autores consideram os leitões nascidos vivos e os nascidos mortos; outros só computam os nascidos vivos. Nós nos inclinamos pela primeira consideração. -/- No seio da fêmea, uma vez realizada a fecundação, a «fusão» das células germinativas do macho e da fêmea, inicia-se a divisão das células do zigoto, que constituem uma massa ou um aglomerado de células não especializadas. (Quando no processo de divisão forem atingidas as 16 células, a mencionada massa celular não identificada recebe a denominação de mórula, a qual dará lugar à blástula ou blastocisto.) -/- Durante os primeiros dias este zigoto em divisão, que irá transformar-se em embrião, desloca-se; primeiro, ao longo do oviduto; depois, no útero. Uma vez alcançado o útero é quando ocorre a nidificação. Esta nidificação pode ocorrer porque a mórula segrega uma enzima que é capaz de fixar-se em uma porção do endométrio, resultando em uma cavidade. É precisamente nesta cavidade que tem lugar a «implantação». -/- Nos suínos, o momento da nidificação situa-se entre 10 e 15 dias a contar do início da gestação. Aproximadamente entre os 15-16 dias de gestação os embriões estão totalmente fixados nas paredes uterinas. A partir deste momento pode-se iniciar o desenvolvimento das estruturas que vão permitir com que a mãe possa alimentar os novos seres (durante os primeiros dias, os ovos fertilizados alimentam-se do seu próprio deutoplasma e do chamado leite uterino de Williams proveniente do endotélio uterino). -/- Uma vez desenvolvidas todas as estruturas necessárias (saco vitelino, corioalantoides, saco amniótico, etc.), o embrião pode desenvolver-se no limite das suas possibilidades, transformar-se num feto e tentar atingir o seu objetivo que não é outro senão o de chegar com vida ao final, quero dizer, na altura do parto. -/- Em suma, de acordo com o exposto até aqui, acerca prolificidade da porca, um cálculo para medir o índice reprodutivo é dado por: prolificidade Y em seu parto n será: -/- Prolificidade porca Yn = Número de leitões nascidos (vivos+mortos) -/- Quando se fala da prolificidade média de um lote de reprodutoras (entendendo-se por «lote de reprodutoras» um conjunto de porcas que se encontram no mesmo estado fisiológico), considera-se o número médio de crias durante o período de partos. -/- Assim, por exemplo, a prolificidade média de um lote de 20 porcas que pariram, na respectiva maternidade, 180 leitões vivos e 6 leitões mortos é: -/- Prolificidade médiando lote=(180 l.v.+ 6 l.m.)/(20 porcas paridas)=9,3 leitões/porca -/- Se nos referirmos a uma exploração com 200 porcas reprodutoras ativas presentes na propriedade, desde o dia 1 de Janeiro a 31 de Dezembro, ao qual foram «obtidos» 1800 leitões vivos e 40 leitões nascidos mortos, a prolificidade média da exploração durante este ano será: -/- Prolificidade média do rebanho=(1800 l.v+40 l.m.)/(200 reprodutoras)= 9,2 leitões/reprodutora ativa -/- Este número, a nível prático e referente exclusivamente a um ano, é pouco indicativo dado que dependerá da calendarização no programa de gestão da exploração. -/- Normalmente, o parâmetro mais utilizado para refletir o desempenho de uma exploração no aspecto reprodutivo é o da produtividade definida pela expressão: -/- Produtividade final real=prolificidade média x (N° de fêmeas paridas)/(N° total de fêmeas) -/- Suponhamos que, numa exploração de 200 porcas reprodutoras, tenham parido 150 leitões (vivos+mortos) com uma prolificidade média de 9,0 leitões, a produtividade será: -/- Produtividade final real=9,0 leit./porca x (150 porcas paridas)/(200 porcas total)=6,75 leit./porca -/- Se esta produtividade for referente à um ano, a fórmula será: -/- Produtividade final anual = prolificidade média x (N° de fêmeas paridas)/(N° total de fêmeas) x (365 dias)/I -/- Sendo I – Intervalo médio entre dois partos. -/- No exemplo (exploração) anterior, se o intervalo médio entre dois partos é de 154 dias, a produtividade final anual será: -/- Produtiv. final anual = 9,0 leit./porca x (150 p.paridas)/(200 p.presentes) x (365 dias)/(154 dias)=16 leit./porca/ano -/- Trata-se de um valor muito indicativo do nível médio de «eficácia produtiva» ou eficiência reprodutiva da exploração. -/- Tal como foi calculado para as reprodutoras, estima-se a eficácia produtiva de um macho reprodutor X a partir de uma fórmula semelhante, dada por: -/- Produtividade(mX) = prolificidade x (N° de fêmeas paridas)/(N° de fêmeas cobertas) -/- Onde a prolificidade é a média de crias das fêmeas paridas. -/- Se um macho reprodutor tiver coberto (inseminado) 200 porcas, ao qual 140 pariram um total de 850 leitões vivos e 20 leitões mortos, seu coeficiente produtivo é: -/- Produtiv.macho X=(870 leitões (vivos+mortos))/(140 porcas paridas) x (140 p.paridas)/(200 p.cobertas)=4,35 leit./porca coberta -/- Este parâmetro expressa o número médio de crias nascidas por fêmea coberta. -/- Numa exploração pecuária (especialmente numa exploração suinícola) torna-se muito interessante, na prática, estudar a evolução da produtividade dos machos reprodutores ao longo do tempo. -/- Numa exploração pode também ser interessante calcular a eficácia reprodutiva das fêmeas da exploração que exprime o número de dias necessários para obter uma criação (índice Ni). Este índice permite comparar a diferente eficácia reprodutiva de duas fêmeas e é definido pela seguinte expressão: -/- Ni=Ii/(Prolificidade i) -/- Sendo: -/- Ii = Intervalo médio entre dois partos de uma fêmea i. -/- Prolificidade i = Número médio de crias nascidas por parto na fêmea i. -/- Em nosso caso, a porca 134 tem um intervalo médio entre partos de 156 dias e uma prolificidade média de 9,1 leitões. Por sua vez, a porca 143 tem um I = 163 dias e uma prolificidade média de 9,5 leitões. Com base nos dados apresentados achamos o índice Ni, mediante os cálculos: -/- N134 = (156 dias)/(9,1 leitões)=17,14 dias/leit. -/- N143 = (163 dias)/(9,5 leit.) =17,16 dias/leit. -/- Neste caso, ao contrário do que se poderia perceber a olho nu, as duas reprodutoras possuem a mesma eficácia reprodutiva (quanto menor o índice Ni, maior a eficácia reprodutiva). Esta é a razão, de que numa exploração nem sempre um desmame precoce dos leitões (18-24 dias) é melhor que um desmame mais tardio (24-28 dias). -/- A eficácia reprodutiva numa exploração de R fêmeas reprodutoras durante um período de T dias é avaliada através da fórmula: -/- NiR = (T x R)/(N° de crias nascidas em T) -/- Se, numa exploração de 200 porcas reprodutoras, tiverem nascido, nos últimos 365 dias, um total de 1840 leitões (1800 leitões vivos e 40 leitões mortos), a eficácia reprodutiva será: -/- N200 = (365 dias x 200 porcas)/(1840 leit.nascidos)=39,67 dias/leit. -/- Ao qual equivale a uma prolificidade média do rebanho, no tempo considerado, de: -/- Prolificidade média do rebanho=(365 dias)/(39,67 dias/leit.)=9,2 leit. -/- Tal e como havia sido estimado anteriormente. -/- Não é necessário insistir na importância prática que tem, a nível das explorações, a correta consideração e a adequada utilização dos conceitos, parâmetros e índices expostos nas páginas precedentes. Neste sentido, em muitas das nossas explorações, também aqui, há ainda um longo caminho a percorrer. -/- -/- 5. RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES -/- Ao longo deste trabalho venho tentado expor de uma forma mais clara e simples possível a realidade conceitual dos termos fertilidade, fecundidade e prolificidade dentro da perspectiva das produções animais. -/- Em todos os casos, trata-se de capacidades ou aptidões anatômica-fisiológicas dos reprodutores ligadas ao exercício da sua atividade no âmbito da exploração. -/- Nessa presente exposição, objetivou-se deixar claro que: -/- a) Fertilidade, fecundidade e prolificidade são conceitos totalmente distintos embora estejam correlacionados. -/- b) Um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora pode ser fértil e não fecundo. -/- c) Consequentemente, um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora não pode ser fecundo se não for fértil antes. -/- d) Um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora pode ser fértil e fecundo e não ser prolífico. -/- e) Consequentemente, para que um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora possa ser prolífico antes tem que ser fecundo. E se for fecundo, significa que também é fértil. -/- f) Na prática, as explorações só podem estimar, no âmbito do conceito geral de «eficácia reprodutiva», a fecundidade e a prolificidade dos reprodutores, nunca a sua fertilidade. -/- Uma vez classificados e estudados os referidos conceitos, estamos em condições de enfrentar outros temas ligados ao processo reprodutivo. -/- -/- 6. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- -/- BRACKETT, B. G.; JÚNIOR, G. E. A.; SEIDEL, S. M. Avances en zootecnia. Nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. 1ª ed. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1988. -/- COLE, H. H.; CUPPS, P. T. Reproduction in domestic animals. 1ª ed. Londres: Academic Press, 1977. -/- FERREIRA, A. H. et al. Produção de suínos: teoria e prática. Brasília: ABCS, 2014. -/- GORDON, I. Reproducción controlada del cerdo. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1999. -/- HAFEZ, E. S. E.; HAFEZ, B. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. -/- HUGHES, P. E.; VARLEY, M. A. Reproducción del cerdo. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1984. (shrink)

The component structures of two distinct neuropsychological systems are described. "System-Y" depends upon "system-X" which, on the other hand, can operate independently of system-Y. System-X provides a matrix upon which system-Y must operate, and, system-Y is transformed by the operations of system-X. In addition these neuropsychological structures reverberate in political history and in the cosmos. The most fundamental structure in the soul, in society, and in the cosmos, has the form of a conical spiral. It can be described mathematically as (...) an harmonic system and mythologically in terms of the birth, marriage and death of the divine-king. ;System-Y corresponds to the neocortex. System-X corresponds to the region below the cortex including the limbic brain. Many of the essential structures of system-Y are captured by Plato's image of the helmsman: orientation, locomotion, manual control and dexterity, visual guidance, verbal command, intention, and volition. System-X on the other hand has been systematically neglected by Western culture, beginning with Plato. ;The dissertation builds upon Yakovlev's distinction between "teleokinesis," "ectokinesis" and "endokinesis." "Teleokinesis" refers to goal-directed action in external space, and belongs to system-Y. Ectokinesis and endokinesis are components of system-X. "Endokinesis" refers to movements within the body. "Ectokinesis" refers to the emotions, which are expressions of endokinesis. The mechanics of ectokinesis is that of an harmonic or vibrational system, as is the mechanics of a musical instrument. ;Within a trance the structure of system-Y is temporarily altered, such that system-X enters the foreground of awareness. Because ectokinesis is analogous to music cultures inspired by trance experience understand the universe in terms of music. The structure of ectokinesis in a trance is that of a conical spiral. Plato inherited the mystical traditions of the ancient Near East but replaced the spiral of emotions with a spiral of ideas , by understanding the axis of the cone as the paradigmatic dimension, and the angular rotation of the spiral as the syntagmatic dimension, of language. Finally I explain how the mythology and political structure of theocratic society imitated the neuropsychological structures of trance experience. (shrink)

In the philosophy of artificial intelligence (AI) we are often warned of machines built with the best possible intentions, killing everyone on the planet and in some cases, everything in our light cone. At the same time, however, we are also told of the utopian worlds that could be created with just a single superintelligent mind. If we’re ever to live in that utopia (or just avoid dystopia) it’s necessary we solve the control problem. The control problem asks how humans (...) would be able to control an AI arbitrarily. Nick Bostrom and other AI researchers have proposed different theoretical solutions to the control problem. In this paper, I will not look at the empirical question of how to solve the control problem. Instead, I will ask if we can solve it at all, a critical assumption most AI researchers have made is that we can. I propose, in fact, that we have a priori grounds for believing it is logically impossible to solve the control problem, since all superintelligent minds are, by definition, uncontrollable. (shrink)