Estas son algunas erratas que he encontrado en mi traducción al español de la "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy" de Bertrand Russell, traducción publicada físicamente por Editorial Porrúa/Tecnológico de Monterrey en 2021 en la Colección de Publicaciones de la Escuela de Humanidades y Educación del Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey.

In this work I examine the reasons offered by David Lewis in favor of tolerance in his works “Mill and Milquetoast” and “Academic Appointments: Why Ignore the Advantage of Being Right?” In the first section I expose and discuss the conception of tolerance that is the target of Lewis’s objections, namely, the conception defended by J.S. Mill. In the second section I expose and discuss Lewis’s main reasons in favor of tolerance and the advantages that, according to Lewis, has his (...) position in relation to that of Mill. In the third section I discuss some of the philosophical and political consequences that seem to follow from Lewis’s proposal and from his criticisms of Mill’s conception of tolerance. (shrink)

In this article I propose a new interpretation of David Hume’s position on social contract theory. First, and acknowledging Hume’s critical stance on contractualism, I reject the reasons usually adduced to explain his position: empiricist methodology and utilitarianism. Instead, I argue that to fully understand Hume’s position on contractualism, one must take into account both a psychological methodology and a normative outlook. Second, I highlight Hume’s constructive proposals on the origin and foundation of government and justice, as well as the (...) philosophical approach that he suggested when discussing politics, i.e., mediating between parties. As I argue in this article, these latter aspects of Hume’s political philosophy, often disregarded when examining his reasons against contractualism, are nevertheless essential to understand his views on social contract theory. (shrink)

Mi objetivo es discutir las principales dificultades que Frank P. Ramsey encontró en Principia Mathematica y la solución que, vía el Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, propuso al respecto. Sostengo que las principales dificultades que Ramsey encontró en Principia Mathematica están, todas, relacionadas con que Russell y Whitehead desatendieron la forma lógica de las proposiciones matemáticas, las cuales, según Ramsey, deben ser tautológicas.

Chapitre méthodologique d'un livre co-écrit par Éliane Pons et J.-J. Pinto. Ce dernier, pour raisons professionnelles, n'avait indiqué son nom que dans cette partie intitulée "Esquisse d'une psychanalyse scientifique" (allusion respectueuse au titre de Freud "Esquisse d'une psychologie scientifique"), où se trouve expliquée en détail la méthode originale d'analyse de discours inventée et enseignée par lui : l'Analyse des Logiques Subjectives© (A.L.S.©).

I present the replies that Gottlob Frege, Henri Poincaré, Rudolf Carnap, and Saul Kripke made to the assumption that apriority and necessity are interchangeable synonyms, an assumption that I take, together with the assumptions that there is a split between analytic truths and synthetic truths and that there is a dichotomy between our conceptual schemes and empirical content, as a Kantian dogma.

In this article I discuss the main theses of the realist political philosophy developed in recent years by Raymond Geuss and embodied in his famous Philosophy and Real Politics. Once the motivations behind Geuss’ project identified and its similarities and differences with the other great realistic philosophical-political project of our days, that of Bernard Williams, pointed out, I critically expose Geuss’ theses and his objections to the Kantian and Rawlsian ways of doing political philosophy. In addition to discussing the central (...) points of his proposal, I present two general responses to it, one doctrinal and the other methodological. (shrink)

Subjectivité artificielle: -/- •pléonasme, s'il est exact que la subjectivité humaine ne peut être qu'artificielle, cf infra subjiciel© -/- •terme proposé par l'auteur de l'A.L.S.© (Jean-Jacques Pinto) pour faire pendant à celui d'Intelligence artificielle -/- Subjiciel© : terme forgé (et déposé comme marque à l'I.N.P.I. en 1984) par l'auteur de l'A.L.S. : Jacques Pinto) : -/- 1. programmesubjectif "naturel", mais il se pourrait bien que la subjectivité humaine ne puisse être qu'artificielle : il n'y a pas de "nature (...) humaine", seulement une "condition humaine". Les subjiciels sont au service de l'identification subjective comme les cogniciels sont au service de l'identification cognitive -/- 2. logiciel de subjectivité artificielle écrit par des humains pour simuler la subjectivité humaine "naturelle", et en particulier les subjilectes ou lectes subjectifs. À ce propos, signalons que dès 1983, inspiré par le titre du livre de William Skyvington, "Machina sapiens. Essai sur l'intelligence artificielle". Seuil, 1976, nous avons proposé l'expression Machina subjectiva pour désigner l'ensemble des projets tendant à construire cette subjectivité artificielle. (shrink)

Jurado: Mario Gómez-Torrente (presidente), Miguel Ángel Fernández Vargas (vocal), Santiago Echeverri Saldarriaga (secretario). [Graduado con Mención Honorífica.].

Rescue workers have a stressful and risky occupation where being engaged is crucial to face physical and emotional risks in order to help other persons. This study aims to estimate work engagement levels of rescue workers (namely comparing nurses, firefighters, and police officers) and to assess the validity evidence related to the internal structure of the Portuguese versions of the UWES-17 and UWES-9, namely, dimensionality, measurement invariance between occupational groups, and reliability of the scores. To evaluate the dimensionality, we compared (...) the fit of the three-factor model with the fit of a second-order model. A Portuguese version of the instrument was applied to a convenience sample of 3,887 rescue workers (50% nurses, 39% firefighters, and 11% police officers). Work engagement levels were moderate to high, with firefighters being the highest and nurses being the lowest engaged. Psychometric properties were evaluated in the three-factor original structure revealing acceptable fit to the data in the UWES-17, although the UWES-9 had better psychometric properties. Given the observed statistically significant correlations between the three original factors, we proposed a 2nd hierarchal structure that we named work engagement. The UWES-9 first-order model obtained full uniqueness measurement invariance, and the second-order model obtained partial (metric) second-order invariance. (shrink)

(English, then french abstract) : -/- Fantasy, Discourse, Ideology – Transmission Beyond Propaganda. -/- Propaganda is everywhere, not only in commercials or politics. It is aimed at faraway strangers as well as nearby friends and relations. Propaganda in fact relies on a certain type of psychic structure, one that is tuned to receive it and disseminate it. This structure is a result of an unconscious subjective identification which is therefore not open to change through either cognition, argumentation or reasoning. Propaganda’s (...) form and content are best explained by an unconscious subjectivity rather than by Pavlov’s theory. The social dimension of this subjectivity may be defined by what we refer to as our ‘Analysis of Subjective Logics’ (a legacy of Lacan’s theory of the Four Discourses, which is deficient in some respects). We will first explore the various facets of the ‘Fantasy to Propagate’ by means of a word by word analysis, and will then go on to describe the connexions between Fantasy, Discourse and Ideology. We will show how a clever manipulator triggers an echo in the psyche of his victims, knitting together different and sometimes even contradictory fantasies in an unsteady synthesis he manages to maintain through patient repetition. As for psychoanalysis, it is not only possible but also highly desirable to practise it in the absence of all propaganda : among analysts, on condition that the precept of authority be outwitted, and within each analysis, by undoing the analysand’s sensitivity to suggestion. Psychoanalysis indeed does not only address the individual’s symptoms and their unravelling, but also, more ambitiously, aims to heal civilization of its discontents. This would entitle us to speak in terms of a genuine form of ‘propaganda prevention.’ -/- ---------------------- -/- Fantasme, Discours, Idéologie - D’une transmission qui ne serait pas propagande -/- La propagande se rencontre partout, pas seulement en publicité ou en politique. Avant d’être verticale et adressée aux lointains inconnus, elle est horizontale et s’adresse aux connaissances proches. C’est qu’elle repose en fait sur une structure psychique apte à la recevoir et à la répercuter, structure qui résulte de l’identification subjective, inconsciente donc non modifiable par la cognition, l’argumentation, la raison. Plutôt que par Pavlov, la forme et le contenu de la propagande s’expliquent par la subjectivité inconsciente. Celle-ci se laisse décrire dans le champ social par notre « Analyse des Logiques Subjectives » (héritière critique de la théorie des Quatre Discours de Lacan, insuffisante à maints égards). Nous passerons de l’analyse des facettes du « fantasme de propager » (par le détail des expressions qui en constituent les réalisations) à la description des rapports entre Fantasme, Discours et Idéologie : comment les habiles suscitent un écho dans le psychisme de leurs victimes en fédérant des fantasmes divers –voire opposés– dans une synthèse instable, mais que sa patiente répétition a pour effet de maintenir. En psychanalyse, transmettre sans propagande est non seulement possible mais souhaitable : horizontalement chez les analystes, à condition d’y déjouer l’argument d’autorité, et verticalement dans chaque analyse, en défaisant chez l’analysant les réseaux de suggestibilité. Car la psychanalyse, loin de se borner à la simple disparition des symptômes individuels, a pour vocation plus ambitieuse de contribuer à déconstruire le « malaise dans la civilisation ». On serait alors en droit de parler d’un authentique « prévention de la propagande ». (shrink)

Nous envisagerons dans cet article la possibilité d'un abord pratique de la relation entre linguistique et psychanalyse : la modélisation linguistique des données mises au jour par la psychanalyse à partir de corpus tirés du discours courant. La validation de tels modèles d'après les critères requis par l'« approche logiciste » de J.-C. Gardin et J. Molino sera examinée sur un exemple précis que nous exposerons en détail : l'Analyse des Logiques Subjectives, modèle développé, publié et enseigné par nous depuis (...) près de vingt ans. (shrink)

La plupart des études psychosociologiques et des travaux psychanalytiques sur la psychologie sociale admettent l'existence des groupes et des individus, que leurs rapports soient pensés sur un mode idéologique ou analogique comme dans Totem et tabou par exemple (1). Cette existence, qui paraît aller de soi, nous semble être à préciser, sinon à discuter. (1) Voici l'hypothèse de Freud : "Il n'a sans doute échappé à personne que nous postulons l'existence d'une âme collective dans laquelle s'accomplissent les mêmes processus que (...) ceux ayant leur siège dans l'âme humaine" (S.Freud 1912, 1970, Payot). Une phrase critique de Jacques Lacan, écrite à propos de la dissolution de l'École Freudienne, va nous servir de fil conducteur pour commenter les trois termes qui figurent dans notre titre : "Le groupe se définit d'être une unité synchrone dont les éléments sont les individus. Mais un sujet n'est pas un individu". (shrink)

Social inequality may obstruct the generation of knowledge, as the rich and powerful may bring about social acceptance of skewed views that suit their interests. Epistemic equality in the context of justification is a means of preventing such obstruction. Drawing on social epistemology and theories of equality and distributive justice, we provide an account of epistemic equality. We regard participation in, and influence over a knowledge-generating discourse in an epistemic community as a limited good that needs to be justly distributed (...) among putative members of the community. We argue that rather than trying to operationally formulate an exact criterion for distributing this good, epistemic equality may be realized by insisting on active participation of members of three groups in addition to credited experts: relevant disempowered groups, relevant uncredited experts, and relevant stakeholders. Meeting these conditions fulfills the political, moral, and epistemic aims of epistemic equality. (shrink)

En este trabajo se muestra que, si se lleva a su conclusión lógica la máxima de Quine, “Ningún enunciado es inmune a la revisión” (es decir, a que la propia máxima quineana no es inmune a la revisión), desemboca una situación paradójica. Tal paradoja es, no obstante, inofensiva para la máxima de que “Ningún enunciado es inmune a la revisión” porque no la autorrefuta.

(English then french abstract) -/- This article, which can be read by non-psychoanalysts, intends to browse in four stages through the issue offered to our thinking : two (odd-numbered) stages analyzing the argument that provides its context, and two (even-numbered) of propositions presenting our views on what could be the content of the analytic discourse in the coming years. After this introduction, a first reading will point by point but informally review the argument of J.-P. Journet by showing that each (...) of its clauses may generate a “bifurcated” comment able to serve or go against the analytic discourse. Hence the interest of the “differential diagnosis” mentioned in our title, which makes glimpse the traps that the homonymy may set to this speech. Then, to prepare a second scan which sticks neither to the analytical doxa, nor to the even authoritative opinions of our tenors and seniors, it will be proposed two attempts at redefinitions (“apophatic” and “recursive”) of what psychoanalysis is, as well as methodological tools operating downstream from these redefinitions to thwart the obstacles of “external” and “internal” homonymy (starting from a syllogism which can make consensus).The third stage will precisely be made of our second scan of the issue, whose elements will be reviewed and analyzed more methodically :“external differential diagnosis” between the analytic discourse and psychology, philosophy, sociology, and modern science, and “internal differential diagnosis” on the entanglement between theoretical advances of psychoanalysts and the repeated survival of fantasmatic elements...Finally, a fourth part will present propositions and perspectives resulting from these analysis (principle of economy as to the source of psychoanalytical theorizations; dialogue with the other fields, but without compromising; specific relations with the discourse of science), all this leading to an invitation, beyond disputes, to renew the content of the analytic discourse on some points... -/- --------------------------------------------------------------------- -/- Cet article, qui se veut lisible aux non-analystes, se propose de parcourir en quatre temps la problématique offerte à notre réflexion : deux temps (de rang impair) d'analyse de l'argument qui en fournit le contexte, et deux (de rang pair) de propositions présentant nos vues sur ce que pourrait être la teneur du discours analytique dans les prochaines années. Après cette introduction, un premier parcours réexaminera point par point mais informellement l'argument de J.-P. Journet en montrant que chacune de ses propositions peut donner lieu à un commentaire “bifide” à même de servir ou de desservir le discours analytique. D'où l'intérêt du “diagnostic différentiel” évoqué dans notre titre, qui fait entrevoir les pièges que l'homonymie peut tendre à ce discours.Puis, pour préparer un second balayage qui ne s'en tienne ni à la doxa analytique, ni aux opinions même autorisées de nos ténors et seniors, il sera proposé deux tentatives de redéfinitions (“apophatique” et “récursive”) de ce qu'est l'analyse, ainsi que des outils méthodologiques fonctionnant en aval de ces redéfinitions pour déjouer les embûches de l'homonymie “externe” et “interne” (à partir d'un syllogisme pouvant faire consensus). Le troisième temps sera fait justement de ce second balayage de la problématique, dont les éléments seront reconsidérés et analysés plus méthodiquement : “diagnostic différentiel externe” entre le discours analytique et les discours psychologique, philosophique, sociologique et celui de la science moderne ; et “diagnostic différentiel interne” portant sur l'intrication entre avancées théoriques des analystes et survivance à répétition d'éléments fantasmatiques...Enfin une quatrième partie exposera propositions et perspectives résultant de ces analyses (principe d'économie quant à la source des théorisations analytiques ; dialogue avec les autres champs, mais sans compromissions ; relations spécifiques avec le discours de la science), l'ensemble débouchant sur une invitation, au delà des différends, à renouveler sur certains points la teneur du discours analytique... (shrink)

The aim of this work is to understand the retraction phenomenon in the arts and humanities domain through an analysis of the retraction notices – formal documents stating and describing the retraction of a particular publication. The retractions and the corresponding notices are identified using the data provided by Retraction Watch. Our methodology for the analysis combines a metadata analysis and a content analysis (mainly performed using a topic modeling process) of the retraction notices. Considering 343 cases of retraction, we (...) found that many retraction notices are neither identifiable nor findable. In addition, these were not always separated from the original papers, introducing ambiguity in understanding how these notices were perceived by the community (i.e., cited). Also, we noticed that there is no systematic way to write a retraction notice. Indeed, some retraction notices presented a complete discussion of the reasons for retraction, while others tended to be more direct and succinct. We have also reported many notices having similar text while addressing different retractions. We think a further study with a larger collection should be done using the same methodology to confirm and investigate our findings further. (shrink)

Primary objective: This study represents the first large-scale research on high school philosophy in a public education curriculum in North America. Our objective was to identify the impacts of high school philosophy, as well as the challenges of teaching it in its current format in Ontario high schools. Research design: The qualitative research design captured the perspectives of students and teachers with respect to philosophy at the high school level. All data collection was structured around central questions to provide insight (...) into the dynamics of their shared process of teaching/learning. Methods and procedures: We conducted semi-structured with interviews philosophy teachers (n = 9), classroom observations (n = 142), and student focus groups at 16 diverse high schools. Transcripts were coded according to themes. Results: Our findings reflect the complicated nature of philosophy as a discipline characterized by abstract thinking. Participants found it mind-opening, yet challenging, providing educational opportunities that are largely absent in conventional schooling. They saw multiple connections between philosophy and other subjects, but also appreciated its distinctive benefits. Teachers relied primarily on textbooks and contemporary media to deliver the curriculum. We found that a teacher’s background in philosophy may influence what is taught in philosophy courses and how, especially given the flexibility of the provincial curriculum. Conclusions: The findings suggest that philosophy is a unique, beneficial subject that teachers enjoy teaching and students greatly value, characterizing it as both difficult and rewarding. Our study revealed that considerable differences exist in how philosophy is taught and learned around the province. The flexibility of the provincial curriculum appears to be an invitation for creative and responsive teaching; however, philosophy teachers’ weak preparation can, by their own admission, be a hindrance to effective curriculum delivery. Studying philosophy enhances students’ thinking about other academic areas of study and in some cases opens them up to new ways of thinking. (shrink)

Analisa a atuação de algumas das principais militantes e organizações que construíram a história do feminismo no Brasil, situando sua atuação no processo de transformação vivido pela sociedade brasileira a partir do final do século XIX.

La querelle qui oppose la sémantique cognitive à la linguistique "orthodoxe" contemporaine: structuralisme et grammaire générative (Claude Vandeloise, ce numéro), éveille, en histoire des sciences du langage, des échos lointains mais familiers. Car, par bien des aspects, se trouve rappelée une querelle épistémologique ancienne de grande envergure, celle qui, dans l'Antiquité grecque, opposa les anomalistes aux analogistes, les anomalistes de l'école stoïcienne de Pergame aux analogistes de l'école aristotélicienne d'Alexandrie.

Within ordinary ---unitary--- quantum mechanics there exist global protocols that allow to verify that no definite event ---an outcome to which a probability can be associated--- occurs. Instead, states that start in a coherent superposition over possible outcomes always remain as a superposition. We show that, when taking into account fundamental errors in measuring length and time intervals, that have been put forward as a consequence of a conjunction of quantum mechanical and general relativity arguments, there are instances in which (...) such global protocols no longer allow to distinguish whether the state is in a superposition or not. All predictions become identical as if one of the outcomes occurs, with probability determined by the state. We use this as a criteria to define events, as put forward in the Montevideo Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. We analyze in detail the occurrence of events in the paradigmatic case of a particle in a superposition of two different locations. We argue that our approach provides a consistent single-world picture of the universe, thus allowing an economical way out of the limitations imposed by a recent theorem by Frauchiger and Renner showing that having a self-consistent single-world description of the universe is incompatible with quantum theory. In fact, the main observation of this paper may be stated as follows: If quantum mechanics is extended to include gravitational effects to a QG theory, then QG, S, and C are satisfied. (shrink)

Much forensic inference based upon DNA evidence is made assuming Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) for the genetic loci being used. Several statistical tests to detect and measure deviation from HWE have been devised, and their limitations become more obvious when testing for deviation within multiallelic DNA loci. The most popular methods-Chi-square and Likelihood-ratio tests-are based on asymptotic results and cannot guarantee a good performance in the presence of low frequency genotypes. Since the parameter space dimension increases at a quadratic rate on (...) the number of alleles, some authors suggest applying sequential methods, where the multiallelic case is reformulated as a sequence of “biallelic” tests. However, in this approach it is not obvious how to assess the general evidence of the original hypothesis; nor is it clear how to establish the significance level for its acceptance/rejection. In this work, we introduce a straightforward method for the multiallelic HWE test, which overcomes the aforementioned issues of sequential methods. The core theory for the proposed method is given by the Full Bayesian Significance Test (FBST), an intuitive Bayesian approach which does not assign positive probabilities to zero measure sets when testing sharp hypotheses. We compare FBST performance to Chi-square, Likelihood-ratio and Markov chain tests, in three numerical experiments. The results suggest that FBST is a robust and high performance method for the HWE test, even in the presence of several alleles and small sample sizes. (shrink)

This article describes the Full Bayesian Significance Test for the problem of separate hypotheses. Numerical experiments are performed for the Gompertz vs. Weibull life span test.

The analysis of multimodal argumentation in advertising is a crucial and problematic area of research. While its importance is growing in a time characterized by images and pictorial messages, the methods used for interpreting and reconstructing the structure of arguments expressed through verbal and visual means capture only isolated dimensions of this complex phenomenon. This paper intends to propose and illustrate a methodology for the reconstruction and analysis of “double-mode” arguments in advertisements, combining the instruments developed in social semiotics, pragmatics, (...) and argumentation theory. An advertisement is processed through a five-step path. The analysis of its context, text genre, and images leads to a first representation of the messages that it encodes both pictorially and verbally (step 1). These first semantic representations are further enriched by including their polyphonic articulations and presuppositions (step 2), their explicatures (step 3), and their dialogical functions and illocutionary forces (step 4). These pragmatic steps retrieve the commitment structure of the ad, which allows a further argument analysis conducted through argumentation schemes (step 5). (shrink)

Pocos otros temas despiertan más polémicas que el de los vínculos entre filosofía y política: que quienes se dedican a la filosofía no deben verse influenciados por la política, que si a la política le corresponde ser auxiliada por la filosofía, que si el saber filosófico tiene que desligarse de las posiciones políticas, que si a las instituciones académicas de las humanidades les conviene independizarse del poder de turno, etc. Todas estas son discusiones que heredamos (no sin reformularlas y, por (...) lo tanto, retransformarlas) desde la Antigüedad, en la que ya aparecería, de la mano de Platón, la figura del rey filósofo. Este libro reúne una variedad de abordajes que atraviesan debates sobre juicios de hecho y de valor, sobre la democra-cia como forma de gobierno y sobre la intervención de la historia en el vínculo de la filosofía y la política. Recuperando el pensamiento antiguo y moderno, pero concentrándose en la obra de intelectuales contemporáneos, los autores ponen en movimiento dilucidaciones de grandes como Max Weber, Jacques Rancière, Louis Althusser, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe y Leo Strauss, entre otros. Así, ofrecen aquí un vívido panorama de las controversias que habitan los entrecruzamientos entre filosofía y política, coronando el volumen con la traducción de un texto de Claude Lefort, hasta el momento inédito en español. (shrink)

É possível trabalhar com textos clássicos da filosofia no atual contexto das escolas públicas brasileiras? Se sim, como fazer uso desses textos? Quais as possibilidades e os limites para nossas pretensões, enquanto professores de filosofia, quanto ao uso do texto filosófico? Importantes teóricos do ensino de filosofia no Brasil, tal como Lidia Maria Rodrigo, Renata Aspis e Silvio Gallo, defenderam que os textos filosóficos não apenas podem e devem ser trabalhados em sala de aula, mas ainda que tais textos devem (...) ocupar papel central no ensino da disciplina. Cabe refletir sobre essa proposta a partir da realidade na qual estamos hoje inseridos, pretensão do texto que se segue e cujo objetivo é discutir as possibilidades e os limites do uso do texto filosófico a partir do relato de minha experiência no estágio em filosofia, que foi realizado em uma turma do segundo ano do Ensino Médio em uma escola pública da cidade de Santa Maria, RS. (shrink)

The following paper argues that issues in paradigmatic proposals for solving the new demarcation problem stem from absolutist assumptions about judgments of value legitimacy. Both the problem of uninformativeness (Larroulet Philippi 2020; Fernandez-Pinto 2014, 2015) and the problem of ambiguous judgments of cases (Hicks 2014; Intemann 2017) are explained by an absolutist pretension contained in one of the main aims of these proposals: providing criteria for differentiating legitimate from illegitimate uses of values, without qualification. After presenting the problems and (...) showing how they stem from that common source, we will sketch a way forward, inspired mainly by Joseph Rouse’s Beyond Epistemic Sovereignty (1996), advancing routes that can allow philosophers of science to evade these pitfalls and engage with scientific practice in a more salutary manner. (shrink)

No presente artigo, constata-se o modo como o ensino de filosofia no Brasil, visto como educação maior, é utilizado como ferramenta da inculcação de um arbitrário cultural a partir de uma análise bourdieuana do sistema de ensino. Chegou-se à conclusão que a prioridade conferida ao texto clássico de filosofia no ensino médio é um modo de reprodução das mesmas estruturas sociais que permitem a impossibilidade de ascensão social. Com isso, é proposta uma educação menor, cuja constituição fundamental é a relação (...) entre professor e aluno, capaz de subverter as características da educação maior. Para tanto, foram analisados os textos de Sílvio Gallo (2002; 2006), os quais apontam para a valorização do capital cultural dos alunos, o incentivo à criação autônoma de conceitos e escolha de autoras e autores não canônicos como ferramentas de subversão dos mecanismos da educação maior. (shrink)

FILOSOFIA COMO PRODUTO OU COMO PROCESSO? -/- PHILOSOPHY AS A PRODUCT OR AS A PROCESS? -/- Por: Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva – IFPE-BJ, CAP-UFPE e UFRPE. E-mails: [email protected] e [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)9.8143-8399. -/- -/- PREMISSA -/- Nos trabalhos anteriores, na área filosófica, trabalhei a importância da filosofia no ensino médio e a responsabilidade pedagógica do professor. Doravante, compartilho agora da experiência daqueles que já se debruçaram sobre aquelas questões, acrescentando outras indagações: "Que fins pretendo alcançar com meu curso de (...) filosofia?"; "Que conteúdos são importantes para o aluno iniciante?", "Como ensinar filosofia?". -/- As respostas a essas indagações variam conforme os pressupostos epistemológicos que servem de base ao trabalho do professor. -/- Na escola tradicional prevaleceu a tendência empirista, que privilegia a transmissão de conhecimentos acumulados. Geralmente, os adeptos dessa tendência propõem programas enciclopédicos, com amplo conteúdo. Trata-se da ênfase no produto, na transmissão da herança deixada pelos filósofos, mas o risco dessa metodologia é a passividade do estudante. -/- A pedagogia do século XX, ao criticar a excessiva centralização na figura do mestre, deslocou o foco para o estudante, reservando ao professor o papel de facilitador da aprendizagem. A ênfase foi posta no processo, e não no produto, com a vantagem de permitir a atuação mais participativa do estudante, embora exista o risco de se descuidar do conteúdo (o produto) nos casos em que debates infindáveis não se apoiam na rica herança filosófica. -/- Postas essas premissas, destaco que o ensino de filosofia se sustenta pela referência à história da filosofia e, por isso, o produto é indispensável, caso contrário a intervenção dos estudantes permaneceria espontaneísta, girando em torno do que eles já sabem. Por sua vez, o educando tem o direito de expressar sua experiência, inicialmente fragmentada e difusa e em seguida reexaminada à luz de textos relevantes, para se apropriar do processo reflexivo. Portanto, os dois aspectos -a filosofia como produto e como processo - são indispensáveis e encontram-se intimamente relacionados. -/- 1. DEFININDO O FOCO PRINCIPAL -/- Diante da importância da história da filosofia, a questão que se coloca é a de definir o foco para abordá-la, ou seja, se escolhemos tomar a história da filosofia como centro ou como referencial. -/- a) História da filosofia como centro -/- Definir o foco da didática de filosofia tendo como centro a história da filosofia não significa privilegiar a simples cronologia, mas descobrir o pensamento do filósofo pulsando nas relações com o mundo em que vivia. Pois o filósofo problematiza a realidade e cria conceitos para tentar compreendê-la. A sequência cronológica nos mostra como aquelas soluções foram retomadas pelos seguidores e contraditadas pelos que a elas se opuseram. E ainda é possível estabelecer ligações fecundas daquelas ideias com os problemas atuais. É bem verdade que não posso concluir haver uma "evolução", um "'progresso", como ocorre com o conhecimento científico, mas sim uma constante e atualizada problematização. -/- b) Foco temático como centro -/- A opção por privilegiar temas ou áreas de investigação filosófica oferece mais liberdade ao professor por se desprender da estrita cronologia. Isso não significa, porém, desprezar a história da filosofia, que permanece como referencial constante dos temas escolhidos. -/- Em ambas as perspectivas - história da filosofia ou filosofia temática -, é indispensável o contato com textos filosóficos ou, quando de outra natureza, lidos de maneira filosófica. O professor Franklin Leopoldo e Silva adverte sobre a importância dessas leituras: -/- Aqui, trata-se da difícil tarefa da leitura dos próprios textos filosóficos. Ninguém ignora as imensas dificuldades envolvidas nessas leituras, o mais das vezes áridas e de difícil compreensão, exigindo em muitas ocasiões um domínio razoável de terminologia específica. Apesar de tudo isso, não há como fugir à necessidade dessas leituras, se se quiser proporcionar ao aluno uma visão razoavelmente precisa do pensamento dos autores tratados e dos diferentes estilos de reflexão, coisas que só de forma um tanto abstrata são apreendidas através da leitura de manuais de história da filosofia. Cabe ao professor recortar textos de maneira a proporcionar uma compreensão mínima do assunto tratado, balanceando este recorte com os critérios da viabilidade didática e da importância estratégica dos textos (1986, p. 161-162). -/- c) Problemas filosóficos -/- Inspiradas no pensamento do alemão Friedrich Nietzsche e do contemporâneo Gilles Deleuze, existem propostas de uma didática do ensino de filosofia com base na concepção de que a filosofia é a atividade de criação de conceitos. Como os conceitos resultam de problemas, conclui-se que o foco das aulas estaria em criar condições para diversas etapas de trabalho visando problemáticas filosóficas que tenham significação existencial para os estudantes. Desse modo, os educandos aprenderiam por si mesmos a exercitar a criação de conceitos. -/- Essa é a proposta defendida pelo professor Silvio Gallo. Embora as orientações anteriores possam levantar a questão da problematização filosófica e da busca do conceito, ele enfatiza procedimentos para valorizar a postura ativa do próprio estudante como condição para evitar o enciclopedismo do ensino tradicional. -/- Em muitos livros didáticos de filosofia para o ensino médio, os autores optam pela abordagem temática. É notório que eles observam que, coerentes com o que já foi dito, a história da filosofia permeia todos os capítulos de suas respectivas obras. A participação ativa do estudante acompanha o processo de ensino-aprendizagem o tempo todo, e não apenas no processo final de avaliação. De fato, ao longo dos capítulos encontram-se diversas propostas, seja nos boxes "Para refletir" e "Para saber mais", seja nas várias imagens comentadas, muitas delas levando a indagações. Quatro infográficos que trazem para a atualidade a discussão de conceitos filosóficos. -/- As sugestões não dispensam a criatividade do professor, que certamente saberá encontrar outros procedimentos para dinamizar sua aula e incentivar a participação dos estudantes. -/- 2. A DISCIPLINA INTELECTUAL -/- O termo disciplina tem vários significados. No entanto, o sentido que nos interessa é o de disciplina intelectual, como caminho para ler ou pensar melhor, o que pressupõe a descoberta pessoal de regras a serem seguidas para atingir os fins propostos. -/- Disciplina intelectual significa o esforço do espírito treinado para a atenção continuada, a concentração na leitura, a capacidade de ouvir o professor, o colega, o autor que "fala" por meio do texto que está sendo lido. Ter disciplina intelectual consiste em desenvolver a capacidade de compreensão do que ouvimos ou lemos antes de nos aventurarmos numa crítica. E, ao discordarmos, fazê-lo de maneira organizada e com base nos critérios adotados. Ser capaz de disciplina é também selecionar leituras, concatenando-as com experiências pessoais, a fim de expor suas reflexões oralmente ou por escrito. -/- Sabemos das dificuldades desse aprendizado. Muitos jovens não conseguem se deter por algum tempo na leitura, porque, pelo menos em um primeiro momento, a leitura consiste em uma atividade solitária em que o desafio do autocontrole depende do esforço de cada um para internalizar procedimentos livremente assumidos, sobretudo quando o interesse pela reflexão for criativamente estimulado. -/- -/- -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ARANHA, M. L. de A.; MARTINS, H. P. Filosofando: Introdução à Filosofia. 6ª ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 2016. -/- ASPIS, R. L.; GALLO, S. Ensinar filosofia: um livro para professores. São Paulo: Atta Mídia e Educação, 2009. -/- BECKER, F. A epistemologia do professor: o cotidiano na escola. 10. ed. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2002. -/- GALLO, S.; KOHAN, W. O. (Orgs.). Filosofia no ensino médio. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2000. -/- GALLO, S . Deleuze e a educação. 2. ed. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, 2008. -/- _________. Metodologia do ensino de filosofia: uma didática para o ensino médio. Campinas: Papirus, 2012. -/- KOHAN, W. O. (Org.). Políticas do ensino de filosofia. Rio de Janeiro: DP6A, 2014. -/- SILVA, F. L. e. História da filosofia: centro ou referencial? In: NETO, H. N. (Org.) O ensino da filosofia no 2° grau. São Paulo: SEAP, Sofia, 1986. -/- NOVAES, J. L. C.; AZEVEDO, M. A. O. de (Orgs.). A filosofia e seu ensino: desafios emergentes. Porto Alegre: Sulina, 2010. -/- PIOVESAN, A. et al. (Orgs.). Filosofia e ensino em debate. Ijuí: Unijuí, 2002. -/- PORTA, M. A. G. A filosofia a partir de seus problemas: didática e metodologia do estudo filosófico. 3. ed. São Paulo: Loyola, 2007. -/- RODRIGO, L. M.. Filosofia em sala de aula: teoria e prática para o ensino médio. Campinas: Autores Associados, 2009. -/- Estimule a criatividade, respeite o direito autoral. -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva © 2019. (shrink)