This chapter addresses the morality of two types of national security electronic surveillance (SIGINT) programs: the analysis of communication “metadata” and dragnet searches for keywords in electronic communication. The chapter develops a standard for assessing coercive government action based on respect for the autonomy of inhabitants of liberal states and argues that both types of SIGINT can potentially meet this standard. That said, the collection of metadata creates opportunities for abuse of power, and so judgments about the trustworthiness and (...) competence of the government engaging in the collection must be made in order to decide whether metadata collection is justified in a particular state. Further, the moral standard proposed has a reflexive element justifying adversary states’ intelligence collection against one another. Therefore, high-tech forms of SIGINT can only be justified at the cost of justifying cruder versions of signals intelligence collection practiced by a state’s less-advanced adversaries. (shrink)

We show how faceted search using a combination of traditional classification systems and mixed-membership topic models can go beyond keyword search to inform resource discovery, hypothesis formulation, and argument extraction for interdisciplinary research. Our test domain is the history and philosophy of scientific work on animal mind and cognition. The methods can be generalized to other research areas and ultimately support a system for semi-automatic identification of argument structures. We provide a case study for the application of the methods (...) to the problem of identifying and extracting arguments about anthropomorphism during a critical period in the development of comparative psychology. We show how a combination of classification systems and mixed-membership models trained over large digital libraries can inform resource discovery in this domain. Through a novel approach of “drill-down” topic modeling—simultaneously reducing both the size of the corpus and the unit of analysis—we are able to reduce a large collection of fulltext volumes to a much smaller set of pages within six focal volumes containing arguments of interest to historians and philosophers of comparative psychology. The volumes identified in this way did not appear among the first ten results of the keyword search in the HathiTrust digital library and the pages bear the kind of “close reading” needed to generate original interpretations that is the heart of scholarly work in the humanities. Zooming back out, we provide a way to place the books onto a map of science originally constructed from very different data and for different purposes. The multilevel approach advances understanding of the intellectual and societal contexts in which writings are interpreted. (shrink)

(Spanish) RESUMEN: La libertad absoluta postulada por Viktor Emil Frankl y Jean-Paul Sartre, la Shoah y la creencia en un dios omnipotente, bueno y justo parecen contradecirse. La pregunta por el sentido del sufrimiento de las víctimas del Holocausto (la verdadera catástrofe, el mayor crimen contra la humanidad), simbolizado por Auschwitz, y como punto de inflexión en la historia, es terriblemente dolorosa y parece no tener una respuesta filosófica ni teológica. A mi juicio, es importantísimo distinguir entre las víctimas inocentes (...) de la Shoah que perecieron y las víctimas inocentes que sufrieron un verdadero infierno y perdieron a sus seres queridos, pero que lograron sobrevivir. Ambas son víctimas, por supuesto, pero así como encontrarle un posible sentido al sufrimiento de las víctimas masacradas y gaseadas podría suponer un insulto a su sufrimiento y agonía –en especial, al horror que sufrieron los niños–, el horrible sufrimiento de los supervivientes pudo dar, tal vez, de alguna manera, un sentido a sus vidas después de la liberación de los campos de concentración y exterminio, ya fuera como voz, como protesta o como simple supervivencia. Frankl apuesta por un sentido último (que abraza el sentido del sufrimiento de las víctimas), y Sartre, aunque parezca no apostar por sentido alguno, volcó su vida al compromiso político después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y ello parece vislumbrar una minúscula pizca de sentido después de la barbarie. La filosofía de Frankl es un sí a la vida incluso en las situaciones más extremas, un grito casi nietzscheano que exalta el valor de la vida más allá de cualquier sufrimiento. Frankl, padre de la logoterapia y superviviente del Holocausto, abre una puerta a Dios al hablar de un dios inconsciente, una dimensión suprahumana y una fe incondicional, y define la religión como espiritualidad y como la búsqueda del hombre por el sentido último. Según Frankl, la libertad no se contradice con Dios, y la religión existe no a raíz de la barbarie, sino a pesar de la barbarie. El existencialismo sartreano es una filosofía de la libertad radical y de la responsabilidad. El hombre está condenado a ser libre. El ser humano es un ser en el que la existencia precede a la esencia. Somos totalmente responsables de lo que somos. Sartre afirma que la libertad humana es incompatible con Dios. En un mundo sin Dios, la moral la construyen los hombres, con sus propias decisiones y sus acciones, y la existencia y el sufrimiento de las víctimas no tienen sentido alguno. Sartre define al hombre como libertad, responsabilidad, angustia y contingencia. Frankl define al hombre como libertad, responsabilidad, espiritualidad y búsqueda de sentido. Con esta tesis me propongo entrar en la resbaladiza dimensión del dolor, la desesperación, el sentido y sinsentido del sufrimiento de las víctimas (teniendo presente los horrores de Auschwitz, que en teología y filosofía ha simbolizado desde la liberación de los campos la muerte de Dios y la muerte de la moral). Es verdad que no solo los hombres, mujeres y niños judíos fueron víctimas de la barbarie alemana, pero, como reza el mensaje de Elie Wiesel en la exposición permanente del Block 27 del Auschwitz-Birkeanu State Museum: "Not all victims were Jewish in this place, but all Jews were victims". La Shoah no es un episodio dentro de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, sino un punto de inflexión en la historia de la humanidad, y es una catástrofe que nos concierne a todos, hombres y mujeres judíos y no judíos, religiosos e irreligiosos, creyentes e increyentes, como seres libres, responsables y morales que somos –o que deberíamos ser. Muchas de las víctimas del Holocausto, en medio de la desesperación, entraron en las cámaras de gas orando, aferrándose a la esperanza de que ese final espeluznante no era un punto final. Con esta tesis no me propongo de ninguna manera responder a la eterna pregunta de si Dios existe o no, sino que propongo interpretar ese grito hacia Dios como un desesperado anhelo de esperanza. También me propongo encontrar una coherencia en las posturas de estos dos grandes pensadores para quienes la libertad y la responsabilidad definen al hombre: Frankl (quien apuesta por una dimensión suprahumana donde existe un sentido último en el que el sufrimiento de las víctimas tiene que tener algún sentido, aunque ese sentido sea completamente incomprensible en la dimensión humana) y Sartre (el existencialista ateo por excelencia, para quien el mundo, la existencia y el sufrimiento son absolutamente contingentes). En el primer capítulo expongo la logoterapia y el existencialismo sartreano: describo las tres dimensiones del hombre y las tres búsquedas de sentido propuestas por Frankl, y expongo las cinco consecuencias de "l'existence précède l'essence", centrándome en la libertad y la responsabilidad, y hablo del suicidio. El segundo capítulo está dedicado al dios inconsciente frankleano, la dimensión suprahumana, la búsqueda por el sentido último y la fe incondicional. En el tercer capítulo ilustro la libertad sin Dios sartreana, la ontología sartreana, el ateísmo sartreano y el humanismo sartreano, y hablo sobre la responsabilidad, la mauvaise foi, la contingencia, la situation y la angustia. El cuarto capítulo es necesariamente histórico (sin dejar de ser filosófico): me pregunto por la muerte de Dios después de Auschwitz, argumento y defiendo la unicidad del Holocausto (la Shoah es un punto de inflexión en la historia de la humanidad), describo las masacres antes de los campos de exterminio (Einsatzgruppen, Ordnungspolizei y Wehrmacht), el gigantesco complejo de Auschwitz (Stammlager, Auschwitz-Birkenau y Monowitz-Buna), reflexiono sobre Dios y el mal (centrándome en los niños de Auschwitz), describo los días de Frankl en Auschwitz, hablo de Dios como esperanza, de la inmortalidad y la escatología, de la crueldad de Dios, de la relación entre el cristianismo y el antisemitismo, del islam y el antisemitismo, critico el silencio de Dios, hablo de la muerte de Dios y del juicio contra Dios. En el quinto capítulo expongo la moral frankleana (una moral que atañe al hombre y no a Dios), basándome en su teoría del amor y en su única obra de teatro (Synchronisation in Binkerwald), y la moral sartreana (una moral que atañe a una humanidad sin Dios), recordando a Dostoyevsky, analizando la famosa cita de Garcin en Huis clos "L'enfer, c'est les Autres", criticando el marxismo de Sartre y cuestionando (con la mirada de Frankl y Sartre) el verso de Brecht "Erst kommt das Fressen, dann kommt die Moral"; al final del capítulo incluyo una reflexión propia y las críticas frankleana y sartreana sobre la impunidad de los verdugos y colaboradores después del Holocausto (con el permiso de Dios). Después de la Conclusión, añado un Apéndice sobre las vidas de Frankl y Sartre, para poder entender mejor su obra. PALABRAS CLAVE: logoterapia, existencialismo sartreano, búsqueda de sentido, libertad, responsabilidad, moral, angustia, sufrimiento, supervivientes, víctimas, contingencia, espiritualidad, religión, Dios, esperanza, antisemitismo, culpa, Auschwitz, Holocausto, Shoah. /// (English) ABSTRACT: The absolute freedom defended by Viktor Emil Frankl and Jean-Paul Sartre, the Shoah and the belief in an omnipotent, benevolent and just God seem to contradict each other. The question of the meaning of the victims' suffering of the Holocaust (the true catastrophe, the biggest crime against humanity), simbolised by Auschwitz and as a turning point in History, is terribly painful and doesn't seem to have an answer. In my opinion, it's crucial to distinguish between the innocent victims of the Shoah who perished and the innocent victims who sufferend a real hell and lost their loved ones, but managed to survive. Both are victims, of course, but just as finding a possible meaning to the suffering of the massacred and gassed victims could result in an insult to their suffering and agony –especially to the horror that the children suffered– the gigantic suffering of the survivors could, maybe, somehow, give a meaning to their lives after the liberation of the concentration and extermination camps, either as a voice, as a protest, or as a simple survival. Frankl believes in an ultimate meaning (that embraces the meaning of the victims' suffering), and Sartre, even if it appears not to embrace any meaning, turned his life to political engagement after War World II, and that attitude seems to give a tiny glimpse of meaning after the barbarity. Frankl's philosophy says yes to life even in the most extreme situations, and it's a Nietzschean-like scream that exalts the value of life beyond any monstrous suffering. Frankl, the father of logotherapy and a Holocaust survivor, opens a door to God when he talks about an unconscious God, a supra-human dimension and an unconditional faith; he defines religion as spirituality and as man's search for ultimate meaning. According to Frankl, freedom is not contradictory with God, and religion exists not because of the barbarity but in spite of the barbarity. Sartrean existentialism is a philosophy of radical freedom and responsibility. Men are condemned to be free. We are beings where the existence precedes the essence. We are completely responsible of what we are. Sartre argues that human freedom is incompatible with God. In a godless world, morality is constructed by people, with their own choices and actions, and human existence and the suffering of the victims don't have any meaning. Sartre defines man as freedom, responsibility, Angst and contingency. Frankl defines man as freedom, responsibility, spirituality and search for meaning. With this dissertation I attempt to enter in the slippery dimension of the pain, despair, meaning and meaninglessness of the victims' suffering (having in mind the horrors of Auschwitz, that in theology and in philosophy have simbolised, since the liberation of the camps, the death of God and the death of morality). It's true that not only Jewish men, women and children were victims of the German barbarity, but, as Elie Wiesel's message from the permanent exhibition from Block 27 of the Auschwitz-Birkeanu State Museum reads: "Not all victims were Jewish in this place, but all Jews were victims". The Shoah is not an episode inside War World II, but a turning point in the history of humankind, and a catastrophe that embraces us all, Jewish and not not Jewish men and women, religious and not religious, believers and not believers, as the free, responsible and moral beings that we all are –or that we should be. A lot of the victims, in the midst of their desperation, entered into the gas chambers praying, holding to the hope that their horrifying end was not the ultimate end. With this dissertation I do not attempt to answer the eternal question of the existence of God, rather, I will try to interpret that scream to God as a longing for hope. I also intend to find a coherence between the thought of these two great thinkers for whom freedom and responsibilty define man: Frankl (who argues that there is a suprahuman dimension where an ultimate meaning exists and where the victims' suffering has to have a meaning, even if this meaning is completely incomprehensible in the human dimension) and Sartre (the atheist existentialist par excellence, for whom the world, human existence and suffering are absolutely contingent). In the first chapter I expose logotherapy and Sartrean existentialism: I describe the three dimensions of man, the three searches for meaning, the five consequences of "l'existence précède l'essence" and I speak about suicide. The second chapter delves into the unconscious God, the supra-human dimension, the ultimate meaning and the unconditional faith. In the third chapter I expose the freedom without God defended by Sartre, Sartre's ontology, Sartre's atheism, Sartre's humanism, and his ideas about responsibility, mauvaise foi, contingency, situation, and Angst. The fourth chapter is necessarily historical (while being philosophical too): I wonder about the death of God after Auschwitz, I argue and defend the uniqueness of the Holocaust (the Shoah is a turning point in the history of humankind), I describe the massacres before the extermination camps (Einsatzgruppen, Ordnungspolizei y Wehrmacht), the gigantic Auschwitz camp complex (Stammlager, Auschwitz-Birkenau y Monowitz-Buna), I reflect on God and evil (focusing on the children of Auschwitz), I describe Frankl's days in Auschwitz, I talk about God as hope, about immortality and escathology, I discuss God's cruelty, the relationship between Christianity and antisemitism and Islam and antisemitism, I question the silence of God, and I talk about the death of God and about the trial against God. In the fifth chapter I talk about the Franklean morality (a morality that concerns man and not God), on the basis of his love theory and his only work of theater (Synchronisation in Binkerwald), and the Sartrean morality (a morality that concerns a humanity without God), remembering Dostoyevsky, analysing Garcin's famous quote in Huis clos "L'enfer, c'est les Autres", crticizing Sartre's marxism and questioning (with Frankl's and Sartre's eyes) Brecht's verse "Erst kommt das Fressen, dann kommt die Moral"; at the end of the chapter I include my own reflection (and Frankl and Sartre's critique) about the impunity of the executioners and collaborators after the Holocaust (with God's permission). After the Conclusion, I add an Appendix about the lives of Frankl and Sartre, which helps understanding better their work. KEYWORDS: logotherapy, existentialism, search for meaning, freedom, responsibility, morality, Angst, suffering, survivors, victims, contingency, spirituality, religion, God, hope, antisemitism, guilt, Auschwitz, Holocaust, Shoah. (shrink)

Abstract and Keywords This chapter offers an account of central issues and themes in feminist philosophical engagements with poststructuralism, reflection on examples of important contributions to this discussion, a discussion of the extent to which feminist work has engaged and critiqued the mainstream of the field, and feminist poststructuralist theorizations of the subject, identity, and culture. It also offers a critical genealogy of the epistemological paradigm poststrustructuralism has come to represent, in search of its continuities and breaks from its foundations (...) furnished by French structuralism, psychoanalysis and tangential links with Marxian critical theory. It argues that the anglophone appropriations of structuralism in postmodern context, as it would have been termed in the French academe, have veered away from the original and purely formal conceptualization of the subject by resorting to what might be called, in Marxian terminology, identity centered reifications. This chapter puts forward the claim that poststructuralist discourse and the neoliberal discourse of individual and social mobility, transformativity and the concomitant proclamation of “the death of ideology” (and history) have established numerous and mutually opportune discursive and ideological correspondences. (shrink)

This paper aims to offer a novel interpretation of Socrates’ autobiography in the Phaedo 96-102 by using reliabilist epistemology as a heuristic guide to spell out the complex dynamics of the intellectual development of Socrates of the Phaedo. Surprisingly, scholars have mostly focused on the outcomes of Socrates’s scientific investigations, but they neglected the dynamics of the discovery process. The reason why Socrates rejected many earlier scientific ideas and the way in which he discovered new theories as much significant and (...) noteworthy as those theories. I argue that Socrates’ discovery and implementation of new methods of inquiry meet the epistemic standards of reliabilism that emphasize the reliability of processes involved in belief-formation. I show that Socrates criticized the physicists’ materialistic-mechanistic approach to explain coming-to-be, perishing, and being because of its unreliability. The paper concludes that (a) the concept of reliability is used as a guide to theory choice in Socrates’ autobiography (b) the positive feature of Socrates’ second sailing is its reliability and (c) reliability is the motive behind Socrates’ choice of certain belief-forming processes, namely a priori reasoning, the method of hypothesis, and the theory of Forms, in the search of the cause of coming-to-be, perishing, and being. -/- KEYWORDS: reliabilism, Phaedo, Socrates’ autobiography, deuteros plous. (shrink)

In this study, it is tried to put forth some explanations on the definition of vitality referring to the historical definition of biology that can be considered as thestudy of life. In accordance with the explanations, the necessity of revision and distinction of some terms in the contemporary biology is also mentioned. The first among which is the updating of the term known as homeostasis into homeokinesis. For this reason, a number of propositions are emphasized in order to clarify the (...) distinction of meaning. The following three questions were repeated in the process and structure of the article: 1) What is vitality? 2) Does it have any degrees or grades? 3) If so, what is the basic-vitality? In the search for an answer to these questions, different topics of biology are cited as references. At the same time, by claiming that vitality is an emergent process, it is proposed to follow the emergentist view, rather than the reductionist view on the statements of biological facts and phenomena. As a result, the cell level in the hierarchy of the biological organization is discussed first and a threefold-vitality view emergent in the levels of cell, organ and organism is put forth. Consciousness and memory are immanent in every level of the proposed threefold-vitality. -/- Keywords: Life, Cell, Homeokinesis, Consciousness. (shrink)

During the idea generation phase of the design process, designers often search for inspirations in external sources of information, such as photographs, written descriptions and physical examples. These sources have potential to enhance creative performance. However, they sometimes become too attached to particular ideas of external precedents or various examples. It refers to fixation which is identified as inadequate adoption of features from existing examples. Influence of the existing examples on creativity and fixation, specifically textual examples, have been discussed in (...) this research. -/- For the nature of design, researchers highlighted the restructuring process of design problem by new sources because the capabilities and boundaries of design problems are not defined very well. Further, the design problem is not knowable at any specific point. Design knowledge identifies itself by its ambiguity. Many models have been developed for design process. The various numbers of divided phases of the models can be seen as having two main areas: (1) idea generation phase (or “ideation”); (2) later phase for details. Idea generation plays an important role in the design process. It is the area of new and creative configurations on design. -/- Creativity is an integral part of the design process. Designers purpose to achieve original ideas to demonstrate their ability and unique designs. External stimuli or inspirational inputs play important roles to increase creativity. They can support moments of stimulation. Associations between information from memory and external stimuli can contribute to the creation of new meanings. Designers are widely influenced by their surroundings in daily lives. However, each stimulus may not be the part of a more creative result Even if designers want to utilize stimulus as an inspirational source, somehow it may fixate their mind to its surface features and they may lose potential creative contributions of the source. It is called fixation. There is much research that shows significant evidence of conformity effects across the design problems. -/- The given examples to designers may cause higher-level fixation and lower-level creativity or vice versa. Fixation may occur when example solutions are introduced, on the other hand, the designers may create more original ideas as well. There is a need for research to find ways to avoid fixation traps or reduce their adverse impact. Thus, this research focuses on variables of the given example. -/- The following claims show some research areas remained unclear: (1) Some researchers investigated textual examples as - one of the modalities of representation - but did not focus on forms of textual examples. (2) Much research has been conducted with examples which are selected by the researcher. Nevertheless, designers can also choose or produce their own stimuli. There is not much research on this possibility. In this context, my research focuses on the following two variables through two studies (Study 1 and 2): (1) forms of textual examples; (2) self-construction of textual examples. First, most of the studies in the literature have focused on visual presentation and there is not enough research on the content and form of the text. The study of textual examples has still not been awarded enough attention especially as various forms of text. Some forms of text are as follows: keyword, paragraph, sentence, poem. These observations lead me to the following research question: Which forms of textual example increase creativity and reduce fixation more? (Study 1). -/- Second, most of the studies regarding textual examples have used prose or keywords. The poems have been ignored. However, poems imply more meaning with fewer words. The structure of the poems enables more creative narratives than structure of prose. Because unusual organization of words stimulates the readers and draws their attention. This activates the creative performance of the reader. The surrealist poem is the extreme form of this activation. It is random assemblies with headlines and sentences which is cut from newspapers. Thus, novel meaning networks are formed. The method of creating a surrealist poem offers a new way of getting inspiration. It is termed as self-construction practice by this research. Through this method, designers create their own example from the given one. Reconstruction of the text may increase the creative process and prevent fixations from the given text. This suggestion led me to the following research question: If the designers write their own poem instead of a given poem (as a self-construction practice), can they internalize the textual example? In addition, does it produce more creative and less fixated designs? (Study 2). Two experimental studies were planned to partially answer the research questions, in which novice students of architecture were asked to solve two different design problems, under different conditions. All of the experimental sessions were conducted in a design education studio. The participants produced sketches and added a written explanation relating to their designs. Fluency, flexibility and repetition of key attributes were calculated by the researcher. -/- Originality, practicality, understanding of the task and quality were ranked by judges. Study 1 shows us tendencies of using various textual forms. Distinctions of keywords and of poems have appeared among them. This emphasizes the role of keyword and poem in the design process as inspirational sources and provides many tips for their potential use. The keyword also leads to a high degree of fixation. However, a low degree of fixation is observed when poems are presented as inspirational examples. -/- In Study 2, the self-constructed poem seems to support develop more successful design ideas from many perspectives. In the context of the surrealist poem, writing and reading the surrealist poem trigger the designers’ imagination. At first, the words and lines of poems seem unrelated to each other and designers try to relate them and solve the puzzle of meaning. Hence, novel meaning networks are formed. It indicates that surrealist poems are able to activate the creative performance of the designers. Writing their own surrealist poems ,as a self-construction practice, motivated designers to begin to produce by having fun. Motivated designers have stimulated themselves to produce creative ideas. In other words, the self-construction process may be added to the design process models in the earlier part of the idea generation phase which is called as pre-design and warm-up phase. This earlier phase makes designers highly motivated and they internalized the given examples. -/- Following the conclusions, several implications and recommendations for the design process and education are discussed. (shrink)

ABSTRACT: The largest obstacle to saving people in today's world is from violence and wars. There is a long line of people waiting for peace so that they can survive the conflict. People will promise that no country can exploit another and that no country can produce weapons capable of mass murder. They believe that their plan can be realised by transforming the world's goodwill and efforts toward world peace into world peace in paradise. The whole world is waiting for (...) a human universe that seems to be taking us to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi). This article's main issue is an extinct political ideology that Mahatma Gandhi promoted many years ago as a supporter of nonviolent policy in search of the human world. Here, the communication style has been shown to have the missing Gandhian ideals. This post will attempt to analyse Mahatma Gandhi's policy & ideology in communication style as we approach his 150th birthday celebrations. Through extensive study, this article will attempt to determine how Gandhi's philosophy and communications relate to one another. As a method of exploration and analysis, Gandhi’s principles Nonviolence, and Chamber-Pots have been scientifically reviewed in this article. Keywords: Violence, principles, chamber pots, Mohandas K. Gandhi, mass murder. (shrink)

When reusing existing ontologies for publishing a dataset in RDF (or developing a new ontology), preference may be given to those providing extensive subcategorization for important classes (denoted as focus classes). The subcategories may consist not only of named classes but also of compound class expressions. We define the notion of focused categorization power of a given ontology, with respect to a focus class and a concept expression language, as the (estimated) weighted count of the categories that can be built (...) from the ontology’s signature, conform to the language, and are subsumed by the focus class. For the sake of tractable initial experiments we then formulate a restricted concept expression language based on existential restrictions, and heuristically map it to syntactic patterns over ontology axioms (so-called FCE patterns). The characteristics of the chosen concept expression language and associated FCE patterns are investigated using three different empirical sources derived from ontology collections: first, the concept expression pattern frequency in class definitions; second, the occurrence of FCE patterns in the Tbox of ontologies; and last, for class expressions generated from the Tbox of ontologies (through the FCE patterns); their ‘meaningfulness’ was assessed by different groups of users, yielding a ‘quality ordering’ of the concept expression patterns. The complementary analyses are then compared and summarized. To allow for further experimentation, a web-based prototype was also implemented, which covers the whole process of ontology reuse from keyword-based ontology search through the FCP computation to the selection of ontologies and their enrichment with new concepts built from compound expressions. (shrink)

Karl Popper’s critique of idealism manifests itself with the application of his method, falsificationism, to metaphysics, epistemology, and social and political philosophy. According to Popper, who identifies himself as a philosophical realist, idealism has emerged as a result of the idea that reality cannot be known by reason and of the search for certainty which is erroneous, and it has begotten two mistaken and detrimental views. These views are historicism, the notion that history has an irresistible course, and holism, the (...) notion that social wholes are organic structures that amount to more than the individuals constituting them. Historicism and holism have become the philosophical underpinnings of closed societies throughout history, such as the totalitarian regimes of the 20th century. Therefore, with a practical leaning, Popper actually takes aim at these pernicious consequences of idealism while criticizing it. In this study, idealism and the contours of Popper’s philosophy are examined, and then Popper’s metaphysical, epistemological, social, and political critiques against idealism are investigated. Keywords: Karl Popper, idealism, historicism, holism, falsificationism. (shrink)

Regarding the relation of Plato’s early and middle period dialogues, scholars have been divided to two opposing groups: unitarists and developmentalists. While developmentalists try to prove that there are some noticeable and even fundamental differences between Plato’s early and middle period dialogues, the unitarists assert that there is no essential difference in there. The main goal of this article is to suggest that some of Plato’s ontological as well as epistemological principles change, both radically and fundamentally, between the early and (...) middle period dialogues. Though this is a kind of strengthening the developmentalistic approach corresponding the relation of the early and middle period dialogues, based on the fact that what is to be proved here is a essential development in Plato’ ontology and his epistemology, by expanding the grounds of development to the ontological and epistemological principles, it hints to a more profound development. The fact that the bipolar and split knowledge and being of the early period dialogues give way to the tripartite and bound knowledge and benig of the middle period dialogues indicates the development of the notions of being and knowledge in Plato’s philosophy before the dialogues of the middle period. -/- Keywords Plato; early dialogues; middle dialogues; being; knowledge; development -/- Introduction The differences between two groups of the early and middle period dialogues have always been a matter of dispute. Whereas the developmentalists like Vlastos, Silverman (2002), Teloh (1981), Dancy (2004) and Rickless (2007) think that from the early to the middle dialogues Plato’s philosophy changes, at least in some essential points, the unitarists like Kahn, Cherniss and Shorey believe that there happens no development and the differences must be taken as natural, ignorable and even pedagogic. In his well-known article, Socrates contra Socrates in PLATO, Vlastos lists ten theses of difference between two groups of dialogues. The first group which includes Plato’s early dialogues he divides to 'elenctic' (Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, Hippias Minor, Ion, Laches, Protagoras and Republic I) and 'transitional' (Euthydemus, Hippias Major, Lysis, Menexenus and Meno) dialogues. These transitional come after all the elenctic dialogues and before all the dialogues of the second group which compose Plato’s middle period dialogues, including (with Vlastos' chronological order) Cratylus, Phaedo, Symposium, Republic II-X, Phaedrus, Parmenides and Theaetetus (1991, 46-49). Vlastos asserts strictly that his list of differences are 'so diverse in content and method that they contrast as sharply with one another as with any third philosophy you care to mention, beginning with Aristotole’s' (ibid, 46). Vlastos’ list of differences between two Socrateses is considered a view breaking sharply between the early and the middle dialogues. Besides all ten differences between the two Socrateses in Vlastos’ list that can be supportive for our doctrine here, we intend to focus on some ontological as well as epistemological distinctions that have not completely been discussed hitherto. Contrary to the developmentalist theory of Vlastos, unitarian theory of Charles Kahn wishes to eliminate any substantial difference between the early and the middle dialogues. He distinguishes seven 'pre-middle' or 'threshold' dialogues including Laches, Charmides, Euthyphro, Protagoras, Meno, Lysis and Euthydemus from the other Socratic dialogues which he calls 'earliest group' (1996, 41). The threshold dialogues, Kahn thinks, 'embarke upon a sustained project' that is to reach to its climax in the middle period dialogues, namely Phaedo, Symposium and Republic. Believing in that there is no 'fundamental shift'between the early and middle dialogues (ibid, 40), Kahn thinks the Socratic dialogues are just the 'first stage' with a 'deliberate silence' towards the theories of later periods (ibid, 339). One of the reasons of the surprising fact that Plato gives no hint of the metaphysics and epistemology of the Forms in the early dialogues, he thinks, is the pedagogical advantages of aporia. He thinks that Plato 'obscurely', and mostly because of education, hinted to some doctrines and conceptions in his early dialogues and with the aim of clarifying them only in the later ones (ibid, 66). The seven threshold dialogues, Kahn asserts, 'had been designed from the first' to prepare the pupils and readers for the views expounded in the middle period dialogues (ibid, 59-60). To show that the differences of the two Socrateses of the early and middle period dialogue are in their onto-epistemological grounds and thence cannot be explained by a unitaristic view, we try to draw the ontological and epistemological principles of the early dialogues in the first part below in order to show, in the second part, that those principles have been developed in the middle period dialogues. -/- A. The Onto-Epistemologic Principles of the Early Dialogues Socratic dialogues are paradoxical about knowledge because while being knowledge-oriented always searching for knowledge, they deny it and even never discuss it directly. Three elements of Socrates’ way of searching Knowledge throughout the early dialogues, i.e. Socratic 'what is X?' question, his disavowal of knowledge and his elenctic method combined together produce something like a circle which works, more or less, in the same way in these dialogues. Though this circle is an embaressing inquiry always resulting in ignorance instead of knowledge, its motivation is surprisingly Socrates’ passionate enthusiasm for knowledge, an intensive love of wisdom. The starting point of this circle is Socrates’ confession of having no knowledge which might be explicitly asserted or presupposed, maybe because it was one of the famous characteristics of Socrates; a confession always paradoxically accompanied with his intense longing for knowledge (e.g., Gorgias 505e4-5). Every time Socrates encounters with someone who thinks he knows something (οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι) (Apology 21d5) and tries to examine him. This examination seems to be the simplest one asking just what it is that he knows. Socrates’ elenchus, therefore, is always connected with 'what is X?' (τίς ποτέ ἐστιν) question, a question that most of the early dialogues of Plato are concerned with; 'what is courage?' in the Laches, 'what is piety?' in Euthydemus, 'what is temperance?' in Charmides and 'what is beauty?' in Hippias Major. This question we call here 'Socratic question' and probably is the very question the historical Socrates used to employ, is tightly interrelated with both his disavowal and his elenchus. He disclaims knowledge because he cannot find the answer to the question himself and he rejects others’ since they cannot offer the correct answer too. Every interlocutor can claim he knows X, if and only if he can answer the Socratic question. Otherwise, he is more of an ignorant than of a knower of τί ποτέ ἐστι X. Knowing the answer to this question is, thus, knowledge’s criterion for Socrates. Having found out that he cannot answer what it is which he would claim to know, the interlocutor comes to the point Socrates was there at the beginning. The least advantage of this circle is that he becomes as wise as Socrates does about the subject, becoming aware that he does not know it. At the end of the circle they are both still at the beginning, not knowing what X is. So let us first take a glance at these three elements. Socratic disavowal of knowledge is strictly asserted in some passages. At Apology 21b4-5, Socrates says: -/- I do not know of myself being wise at all (οὔτε μέγα οὔτε σμικρὸν σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ σοφὸς ὤν) -/- Moreover, at 21d4-6: -/- None of us knows anything worthwhile (καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι) …. I do not know (οἶδα) neither do I think I know. -/- In Charmides Socrates speaks about a fear about his probable mistake of thinking that he knows (εἰδέναι) something when he does not (166d1-2). The somehow generalization of this disavowal can be seen in Gorgias. After calling his disavowal 'an account that is always the same' (509a4-5), Socrates continues (a5-7): -/- I say that I do not know (οἶδα) how these things are, but no one I have ever met, like now, who can say anything else without being absurd. -/- At the end of Hippias Major (304d7-8), Socrates affirms his disavowal of knowledge of 'what is X?' this time about the fine: -/- I do not know (οἶδα) what that is itself (αὐτὸ τοῦτο ὅτι ποτέ ἐστιν). Some other passages, however, made a number of scholars dubious about Socrates’ disavowal. Vlastos mentions Apology 29b6-7 as an evidence : 'that to do wrong and to disobey one’s master, both god and men, I know (οἶδα) to be evil and shameful'. He thinks that if we give this single text 'its full weight' it can suffice to show that Socrates does claim knowledge of a moral truth (1985, 7). Vlastos’ claim is not admittable since it would be too strange, I think, for a man like Socrates to violate his disavowal claim just after emphasizing it. We can see his claim just before the already mentioned passage: -/- And surely it is the most blameworthy ignorance to believe that one knows what one does not know. It is perhaps on this point and in this respect, gentlemen, that I differ from the majority of men and if I were to claim that I am wiser than anyone in anything it world be in this, that, as I have no adequate knowledge (οὐκ εἰδὼς ἱκανῶς) of things in the underworld, so I do not think I have (οὐκ εἰδέναι) (Apology 29b1-6) Vlastos tries to solve what he calls the 'paradox' of Socrates’ disavowal of knowledge distinguishing the 'certain' knowledge from 'elenctic' knowledge (1985, 11) and thinking that when Socrates avows knowledge, we must perceive it as an elenctic knowledge, a knowledge its content 'must be propositions he thinks elenctically justifiable' (ibid, 18). Irwin’s solution is the distinction of knowledge and belief. He approves that Socrates does not 'explicitly' make such a distinction, but still thinks that Socrates’ 'test for knowledge would make it reasonable for him to recognize true belief without knowledge, and his own claims are easily understood if they are claims to true belief alone' (1977, 40). While I agree with Vlastos up to a point, I strongly disagree with Irwin about the early dialogues. As I will try to show below, we are not permitted to consider any kind of distinction within knowledge in Socratic dialogues because only one category of knowledge is alluded to there and the distinction of knowledge and belief thoroughly belongs to the second Sorcates. Although no kind of distinction can be admittable here, I think Vlastos’ distinction can be accepted only if we regard it as a distinction between knowledge, which is unique and without any, even incomparable, rival, and a semi-idiomatic and ordinary one that is a necessary requirement for any argument, and thus, unavoidable even for someone who does not claim any kind of knowledge. An apparent evidence of this is Gorgias 505e6-506a4: -/- I go through the discussion as I think it is (ὡς ἄν μοι δοκῇ ἔχειν), if any of you do not agree with admissions I am making to myself, you must object and refute me. For I do not say what I say as I know (οὐδὲ γάρ τοι ἔγωγε εἰδὼς λέγω ἃ λέγω) but as searching jointly with you (ζητῶ κοινῇ μεθ᾽ ὑμῶν). -/- The minimal degree of knowledge everyone must have to take part in an argument, conduct it and use the phrase "I know" when it is necessary is what Socrates cannot deny. We can call it elenctic knowledge only if we agree that it is not the kind of knowledge that Socrates has always been searching, the one that can be accepted as the answer of Socratic 'what is X?' question. His disavowal of knowledge is applied only to the knowledge which can truly be the answer of Socratic question and pass the elenctic exam; a knowledge that, I believe, is never claimed by first Socrates. Socrates conducts his method of examining his interlocutors’ knowledge, our second element here, by almost the same method repeated in Socratic dialogues. That whether we are allowed to regard all the examinations of Socrates in the early dialogues as based on the same or not has been a matter of dispute. Vlastos himself (1994, 31) distinguished Euthydemas, Lysis, Menexenns and Hippias Major from the other Socratic dialogues because he thinks Socrates has lost his faith to elenchus in there. Irwin (1977, 38) distinguishes Apology and Crito where Socrates’ own convictions is present. Contrary to some scholars like Benson (2002, 107) who take elenchus in all the Socratic dialogues as a unique method, Michelle Carpenter and Ronald M. Polansky (2002, 89-100) argue pro the variety of methods of elenchus. Thomas C. Brickhouse and Nicholas D. Smith (2002, 145-160) even reject such a thing as Socratic elenchus which can gather all of the Socrates’ various arguments under such a heading. There can be no solution for the problem of elenchus, they think, is due to 'the simple reason that there is no such thing as 'the Socratic elenchos"'(p.147). Though we consider elenchus a somehow determined process and a part of Socratic circle in the early dialogues, all we assume is that whatever differences it might have in different dialogues, it has the same onto-epistemological principles and, thus, we are not going to take it necessarily as a unique method. This method sets out to prove that the interlocutors are as ignorant as Socrates himself is. That whether elenchus is constructive, capable of establishing doctrines as Vlastos (1994) or Brickhouse and Smith (1994, 20-21) believe or not is another issue to which this paper is not to claim anything. What is crucial for our discussion here is that elenchus does not reach to the very knowledge Socrates is looking for. This is strictly against Irwin who thinks that not only elenchus leads to positive results, 'it should even yield knowledge to match Socrates’ conditions'(1977, 68, cf. 48). He does not explain where and how they really yield to that kind of knowledge. He explains his elenctic method in his apology in the court (Apology 21-22), that how he used to examine wise men, politicians, poets and all those who had the highest reputation for their knowledge and every time found that they have no knowledge. If we accept, as I strongly do, that Socrates’ disavowal of his knowledge is not irony, it might seem more reasonable to agree that the process that has that disavowal as its first step cannot be irony as well. The key of the circle which can explain why Socrates disclaims knowledge and how he can reject others’ claim of having any kind of knowledge lies in the third element, Socratic question. In Hippias Major (287c1-2), Socrates asks: 'Is it not by Justice that just people are Just? (ἆρ᾽ οὐ δικαιοσύνῃ δίκαιοί εἰσιν οἱ δίκαιοι). He insists at 294b1 that they were searching for that by which (ᾧ) all beautiful things are beautiful (cf. b4-5, 8). At Euthyphro 6d10-11 it is said that the Socratic question is waiting for 'the form itself (αὐτὸ τὸ εἶδος) by which (ᾧ) all the pious actions are pious; and at 6d11-e1: -/- Through one form (που μιᾷ ἰδέᾳ) impious actions are impious and pious actions pious. -/- Since the X itself is that by which X is X, knowing 'X itself' is the only way of knowing X. It is probably because of this that Socrates makes the distinction between the ousia as a right answer to the question and effect as a wrong one: -/- I am afraid, Euthyphro, that when you were asked what piety is (τὸ ὅσιον ὅτι ποτ᾽ ἐστίν) you did not wish to make clear its nature itself (οὐσίαν … αὐτοῦ) to me, but you said some effect (πάθος) about it. (Euthp. 11a6-9) -/- 1. Knowledge of what X is Now it is time to look for the onto-epistemological principles of Socratic circle and its three elements. It cannot reasonably be expected from the first Socrates to present us explicitly and clearly formulated principles of his onto-epistemology when such explications cannot be found even in the second Socrates who has some obviously positive theoris. Since there must be some principles underlying this first systematic inqury of knowledge, we must seek to them and be satisfied with elicitation of the first Socratas’ principle. What will be drawn out as his principles cannot and must not, thus, be taken as very fix and dogmatic principles. Some very slightest principles and grounds suffice for our purposes here. The first principle that is the prima facie significance of the Socratic question and his implementation of all those elenctic arguments I call the principle of 'Knowledge of What X is' (KWX): -/- KWX To know X, it is required to know what X is. -/- Aristotle (Metaphysics 1078b23-25, 27-29, 987b4-8) takes Plato’s τί ἐστι question as seeking the definition of a thing that is the same as historical Socrates’ search but applying to a different field. That Plato’s 'what is X?' question was a search for definition became the prevailed understanding of this question up to now. I am going neither to discuss the answer of Socratic question nor to challenge taking it as definition. What I am to insist is that knowledge is attached firmly to the answer of the question: Knowledge of X is not anything but the knowledge of what X is. It entails, certainly, the priority of this knowledge to any other kind of knowledge about X but it also has something more fundamental about the relation of knowledge and Socratic question. Socrates’ exclusive focus on the answer of his question can authorize the consideration of such an essential role for KWX in his epistemolgoy. The total rejection of his interlocutors’ knowledge when they are unable to answer the question can be regarded as a strong evidence for it. Socrates’ elenctic method and his rejection of others’ knowledge in the early dialogues, which all end aporetically with no one accepted as knower and nothing as knowledge, prevent us from finding any positive evidence for this. We have to be content, therefore, of negative evidences which, I think, can be found wherever Socrates rejects his interlocutors’ knowledge when they are not able to give an acceptable answer to his 'what is X?' question. 2. Bipolar Epistemology Socrates’ rejection of his interlocutors’ knowledge has another epistemological principle as its basis. Let me call this principle Bipolar Epistemology' (BE): BE There is no third way besides knowledge and Ignorance. -/- BE says that about every object of knowledge there are only two subjective statuses: knowledge and Ignorance. Socrates’ disavowal, however, says nothing but that he is ignorant of knowledge of X because he does not know what X is. This means that BE is presupposed here. Socrates’ elenchus and his rejection of interlocutors’ having any kind of knowledge are the necessary results of the fact that he does not let any third way besides knowledge and ignorance. The first Socrates never let anyone partly know X or have a true opinion about it, as he would not let anyone know anything about X when he did not know what X is. -/- 3. Bipolar Ontology The principle of BE in first Socrates’ epistemology is parallel to another principle in his ontology. Plato’s bipolar distinction between being and not being is as strict and perfect as his distinction between knowledge and ignorance. This principle I shall call the principle of 'Bipolar Ontology' (BO): BO Being is and not being is not. BO is apparently the same with the well-known Parmenidean Principle of being and not being (cf. Diels-Kranz (DK) Fr. 2.2-5). Euthydemus’ statement against the possibility of false knowledge can be good evidence for this principle: -/- The things which are not surely do not exist (τὰ δὲ μὴ ὄντα … ἄλλο τι ἢ οὐκ ἔστιν). (Euthydemus 284b3-4) -/- He continues (b4-5): -/- There is nowhere for not being to be there (οὖν οὐδαμοῦ τά γε μὴ ὄντα ὄντα ἐστίν). -/- That BE does not let true opinion as a third option besides knowledge and ignorance seems to be related to BO’s rejecting a third option besides being and not being, which is itself the basis of the impossibility of false belief. Socrates’ elaborate discussion of the problem of false belief in Theatetus that leads to a more decisive discussion and finally to some solutions in Sophist can make our consideration of BO for the first group of dialogues authentive. -/- 4. &5. Split Knowledge and Split Being The fourth principle I shall call the principle of 'Split Knowledge' (SK): -/- SK Knowledge of X is separated from any other knowledge (of anything else) as if the whole knowledge is split to various parts. -/- This Principle is hinted and criticized as Socrates’ way of treating with knowledge in Hippias Major: -/- But Socrates, you do not contemplate the entireties of things, nor do people you have used to talk with (τὰ μὲν ὅλα τῶν πραγμάτων οὐ σκοπεῖς, οὐδ᾽ ἐκεῖνοι οἷς σὺ εἴωθας διαλέγεσθαι). (301b2-4) -/- Contrary to Rankin who regards the passage as 'antilogical, almost eristic in tone rather than presenting a serious philosophy of being' (1983, 54), I think it can be taken as serious. Hippias criticizes Sorcates that he does not contemplate (σκοπεῖς) the entireties of things (ὅλα τῶν πραγμάτων), a critique which Socrates is not its only subject but all those whom Socrates accustomed to talk with (ἐκεῖνοι οἷς σὺ εἴωθας διαλέγεσθαι). This last phrase, I think, extends this critic beyond this dialogue to other Socratic dialogues. Hippias’ use of the perfect tense of the verb ἔθω (to be accustomed) is a good evidence of this extension. We can get, thus, these ἐκεῖνοι as Socrates’ interlocutors in his other dialogues that hints that this criticism has the epistemological groundings of the previous dialogues as its subject. What ἐκεῖνοι οἷς σὺ εἴωθας διαλέγεσθαι points to is that Hippias does not have in mind Socrates’ way of treating things only in this dialogue, but he is also criticizing Socrates’ way throughout his dialogues. At 301b4-5, Socrates and his interlocutors’ way of beholding things is described as such: -/- You people knock (κρούετε) at the fine and each of the beings (ἕκαστον τῶν ὄντων) by taking each being cut up in pieces (κατατέμνοντες) in words (ἐν τοῖς λόγοις). This leads us to our next principle that is parallel to, and the ontological side of, SK, the principle of 'Split Being'(SB): -/- SB Everything (being) is separated from any other thing as if the whole being is split to many beings. -/- Socrates and his interlocutors and thus, as we saw, the Socratic dialogues are accused to regard everything as it is separated from all other things. This separation is en tois logois that, I think, can reasonably be taken as saying that Socratic dialogues (it refers of course to the dialogues before Hippias Major) cut up all things which have the same name/definition from all other things and try to understand them separately, without considering other things that are not in their logos. They, for example in Hippias Major, are cutting up to kalon and try to understand what it and all others inside this logos are by separating it from all other things. This is directed straightly against Socratic question and the way Socratic dialogues follow to find its answer, every time separating one logos. As Meyer (1995, 85) points out, every question 'presupposes that the X in question in a logos is something' and 'every answer to every question aims at unity' (84). The critique of Hippias Major is, therefore, at the same time a critique of SK and SB. It is also a critique of KWX because it is only based on KWX that Socratic dialogues could search for the answer of 'what is X' question supposing that knowing what X is is enough for the knowledge of X. SK and KWX are absolutely interdependent. What Socrates and all his previous interlocutors have neglected in Socratic dialogues, Hippias says, was 'continuous bodies of being' (διανεκῆ σώματα τῆς οὐσίας) (301b6). Either this theory actually belongs to the historical Hippias as it is being said or not, it is strictly criticizing SB. We have the same phrase with changing sūma to logos some lines later at 301e3-4: διανεκεῖ λόγῳ τῆς οὐσίας. Although this theory that can be observed as both an ontological and an epistemological theory is rejected by Socrates (301cff.), it is still against first Socrates’ onto-epistemological principles and might let us look at what is rejected as Socratic prineple. -/- 6. Knowledge is of Being The sixth principle that I think is presupposed by the first Socrates, is the 'Knowledge of Being' Principle (KB): -/- KB Knowledge is of Being. -/- This principle is obviously the source of the problem of false knowledge, a very important problem throughout Plato’s philosophy. We face this problem maybe for the first time in Euthydemus. In less than 20 Stephanus’ pages, 276-295, we are encountered with different interwoven problems about knowledge , all grounded in the problem of false opinion. Having challenged the obvious possibility of telling lies at 283e, at 284 Euthydemus discusses it saying that the man who speaks is speaking about 'one of those things that are (ἓν μὴν κἀκεῖνό γ᾽ ἐστὶν τῶν ὄντων)' (284a3) and thus speaks what is (λέγων τὸ ὄν) (a5). He must necessarily be saying truth when he is speaking what is because he who speaks what is (τὸ ὄν) and the things that are (τὰ ὄντα) speaks truth (τἀληθῆ λέγει) (a5-6). This is based on Parmenidean principle of the impossibility of being of not being which Euthydemus restates (284b3-4) and we mentioned discussing BO principle above. The things that are not are nowhere (οὐδαμοῦ) and there is no possibility for anyone to do (πράξειεν) anything with them because they must be made as being before anything else can be done, which is impossible (b5-7). The words, then, are of things that exist (εἰσὶν ἑκάστῳ τῶν ὄντων λόγοι) (285e9) and as they are (ὡς ἔστιν) (e10). The result is that no one can speak of things as they are not. It is this impossibility of false speach that is extended to thinking (δοξάζειν) at 286d1 and leads to the impossibility of false opinion (ψευδής … δόξα) (286d4). The general conclusion is asserted at 287a extending this impossibility to actions and making any kind of mistake. Not only knowledge is of being but speech, thought and action are of being simply because of the fact that nothing can be of not being. -/- B. First Socrates’ Principles in the Middle Period Dialogues Out of what were presupposed or criticized mostly in five dialogues, Euthyphro, Euthydemus, Hippias Major, Laches and Charmides, we tried to draw the first Socrates’ principles. Our inquiry here is directed to find out the fate of these principles in the three dialogues of the middle period, Meno, Phaedo and Republic. To do this, first we ought to check the situation of Socratic circle in these dialogues. The Socratic circle that was predominant in the early dialogues, does not look like a circle here anymore though they certainly have some features in common. Meno, Phaedo and Republic II-X are not committed to the principles of the circle and the whole circle in disrupted in them. The difference of the two Socrateses towards acquiring knowledge is obvious. The Socrates of Meno, Phaedo and Republic is evidently more self-confident that he can get to some truths during his arguments as he does. They are in their first appearance, as almost all other dialogues, committed to Socrates’ disavowal. All of them try to keep the shape of the Socratikoi Logoi genre, which is committed to the historical Socrates’ way of discussion; a dramatic personage who is to challenge his interlocutors, ask them and refuse the answers. Nevertheless, the fact is that what we have in common between two groups of dialogues is mostly a dramatic structure. Whereas the first group’s arguments are based on Socrates’ disavowal and lead to no positive results, the second group is decisively going to achieve some positive results. The aim of the first Socrates was to show others that they are ignorant of what they thought they knew. The new Socrates of Meno, on the opposite, makes so much efforts to show that the slave boy has within himself true opinions (ἀληθεῖς δόξαι) about the things that he does not know (οἶδε) (85c6-7). Despite his lack of knowledge, he has true opinions nevertheless. The way from these true opinions to knowledge, as Socrates states, is not so long. These true opinions are now like a dream but 'can become knowledge of the same things not less accurate than anyone’s' (οὐδενὸς ἧττον ἀκριβῶς ἐπιστήσεται περὶ τούτων) (c11-d1), if they be repeated by asking the same questions. The most outstanding text regarding Socrates’ disavowal is Meno 98b where he explicitly claims knowledge: -/- And indeed I also speak as (ὡς) one who does not know (εἰδὼς) but is guessing (εἰκάζων). However, [about the fact] that true opinion and knowledge are different, I do not altogether expect (δοκῶ) myself to be guessing (εἰκάζειν), but if I say about anything that I know (εἰδέναι) -which about few things I say- this is one of the things that I know (οἶδα). (98b1-5) This passage is very significant about Plato’s disavowal of knowledge. There can hardly be found, I think, anywhere else in Plato’s corpus where Socrates speaks about his knowledge of something as such. He says first that he speaks as someone who does not know. This ὡς οὐκ εἰδὼς λέγω comparing with what he used to say in the first group, οὐκ οἶδα, has this added ὡς. Socrates does not claim strongly anymore that he does not know anything but speaks only as someone who does not know. He needs this ὡς not only because he is going to accept that he does know some, though few, things immediately after this sentence, but also because he needs his previous disavowal to be loosened from Meno on. He does not merely say here that he knows something. It is then different from the examples mentioned before which could be taken as idiomatic or at least not emphatic. Socrates’ remarkable emphasis on distinguishing εἰδέναι from εἰκάζειν departs it from all other passages where he says only he knows something. Moreover, he claims definitely that he has knowledge about few (ὀλίγα) things. From the early to the middle dialogues, Socrates’ attitude to knowledge has totally renewed its face. He brings forth a new concept, true opinion, and he does not speak of knowledge as he used to before; the rough, perfect and unachievable knowledge of the first group has turned to something more smooth, realistic and achievable. Comparing with the early dialogues that did not set out from the first to reach positive results, the middle ones are extraordinarily and surprisingly positive and hence destroy the basis of the Socratic circle. The questions and answers are purposely directed to some specific new theories; most of them are not directly related to the topics or the main questions of the dialogues. They are suggested when Socrates draws the attention of the interlocutor away from the main question because of the necessity of another discussion. Even if the main question remains unanswered, we have still many positive theories, prominently of metaphysical type. These theories are so abundant and dominant in these dialogues, especially Phaedo and Republic, that one might think that they may appear to be arbitrarily sandwiched in there. This helps dialogues to keep their original Socratic structure while they are suggesting new theories. Hence, the Socratic question of 'what is X?', though is still used to launch the discussion, is loosened and is forgotten for most part of the dialogues. Meno that has first a differently formulated question, 'can virtue be taught?', leads finally to the Socratic question of 'What is virtue?'. Phaedo is dedicated to the demonstration of the immortality of soul and the life after death without having a central Socratic question. The case of Republic is more complicated. The first book, on the one hand, has all the criteria of a Socratic circle: its 'what is justice?' question, Socrates’ strong disavowal (e.g. 337d-e), his rejection of all answers and coming back to the first point without finding out any answer. This Book, considered alone, is a perfect Socratic dialogue, as many scholars regard it as early and separated from other books. The books II-X are, on the other hand, far from implementing a Socratic circle. They have still the 'what is justice?' question as their incentive leading question, but they are, in most of the positive doctrines and methods that encompass the main parts, ignoring the question. Even these books that, I believe, are the farthest discussions from the Socratic circle are so cautious not to break the Socratic structure of the dialogue as long as it is possible. What is changed is not the structure of the dialogue but the ontological and epistemological grounds based on which new theories are suggested. -/- 1. Knowledge of the Good We can clearly see in the second group of dialogues that the KWX principle loses the place it had before in our first group. It is not, of course, rejected, but still we cannot say that it has the same situation. KWX that was based on Socratic question, as we discussed before, was the leading principle of the first Socrates’ epistemology and of the highest position. Other epistemological principles, SK directly and BE indirectly, were relying on Socratic question and therefore on KWX. Such a position does not belong to KWX from Meno on. What makes it different in the second Socrates is another principle that is needed it not only as its complementary principle but also as what is more fundamental. Plato, then, does not reject KWX in this period, but, it seems, he transcends to another more basic principle; a principle we shall call the principle of 'Knowledge of the Good' (KG): -/- KG Knowledge of X requires knowledge of the Good. -/- Whereas all the dialogues of our first group are free from any discuscon about KG, it bears a very important role in the second group so as becomes the superior principle of knowledge in Republic. Trying to solve the problem of teachability of virtue, Socrates says that it can be teachable only if it is a kind of knowledge because nothing can be taught to human beings but knowledge (ἐπιστήμην) (Meno 87c2). The dilemma will be, then, whether virtue is knowledge or not (c11-12) and since virtue is good, we can change the question to: whether is there anything good separate from knowledge (εἰ μέν τί ἐστιν ἀγαθὸν καὶ ἄλλο χωριζόμενον ἐπιστήμης) (d4-5). Therefore, the conclusion will be that if there is nothing good which knowledge does not encompass, virtue can be nothing but knowledge (d6-8). What let us discuss KG as an epistemological principle for the second Secrates is the relation he tries to establish between knowledge and the Good which, though is alongside with the mentioned thesis and the idea of virtue as knowledge, goes much deeper inside epistemology asking to regard the Good as the basis of knowledge. The effort of Phaedo cannot succeed in establishing the Good as the criterion of explanation and knowledge since, I think, it needs a far more complicated ontology of Republic where Socrates can finally announce KG. What is said in Republic is totally compatible with Phaedo 99d–e and the metaphor of watching an eclipse of the sun. In spite of the fact that we do not have adequate knowledge of the Idea of the Good, it is necessary for every kind of knowledge: 'If we do not know it, even if we know all other things, it is of no benefit to us without it' (505a6-7). The problem of our not having sufficient knowledge of the Idea of Good is tried to be solved by the same method of Phaedo 99d-e, that is to say, by looking at what is like instead of looking at thing itself (506d8-e4). It is this solution that leads to the comparison of the Good with sun in the allegory of Sun (508b12-13). What the Good is in the intelligible realm corresponds to what the sun is in the visible realm; as sun is not sight, but is its cause and is seen by it (b9-10), the Good is so regarding knowledge. It has, then, the same role for knowledge that the sun has for sight. Socrates draws our attention to the function of sun in our seeing. The eyes can see everything only in the light of the day being unable to see the same things in the gloom of night (508c4-6). Without the sun, our eyes are dimmed and blind as if they do not have clear vision any longer (c6-7). That the Good must have the same role about knowledge based on the analogy means that it must be considered as a required condition of any kind of knowledge: -/- The soul, then, thinks (νόει) in the same way: whenever it focuses on what is shined upon by truth and being, understands (ἐνόησέν), knows (ἔγνω) and apparently possesses understanding (νοῦν ἔχειν). (508d4-6) -/- Socrates does not use agathon in this paragraph and substitutes it with both aletheia and to on. He links them with the Idea of the Good when he is to assert the conclusion of the analogy: -/- That which gives truth to the objects of knowledge and the power of knowing to the knower, you must say, is the Idea of the Good: being the cause of knowledge and truth (αἰτίαν δ᾽ ἐπιστήμης οὖσαν καὶ ἀληθείας) so far as it is known (ὡς γιγνωσκομένης μὲν διανοοῦ). (508e1-4) Knowledge and truth are called goodlike (ἀγαθοειδῆ) since they are not the same as the Good but more honoured (508e6-509a5). KG, which had been implicitly contemplated and searched in Phaedo, is now explicitly being asserted in Republic. As what was quoted clearly proves, this principle is the very one which we can observe as the most fundamental principle of the second Socrates in Republic, corresponding to the role KWX had in the first Socrates. The Form of the Good in Republic, of which Santas speaks as 'the centerpiece of the canonical Platonism of the middle dialogues, the centerpiece of Plato’s metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and …' (1983, 256) much more can be said. Plato’s Cave allegory in Book VIII dedicates a similar role to the Idea of the Good. The Idea of the Good is there as the last thing to be seen in the knowable realm, something so important that its seeing equals to understanding the fact that it is the cause of all that is correct and beautiful (517b). Producing both light and its source in visible realm, it controls and provides truth and understanding in the intelligible realm (517c). -/- 2. Tripartite Epistemology BE is thoroughy rejected in the second Socrates and substituted by its opposite, the principle of 'Tripartite Epistemolgy' (TE): -/- TE Opinion is an epistemological status between knowledge and ignorance. BE of the first Socrates was denying any third way besides knowledge and ignorance which was the foundation of Socratic circle without which Socrates could not reject his interlocutors’ possessing any kind of knowledge. We cannot say, however, that the first Socrates had a third epistemological status in mind but rejected it. Such a status was unacceptable for him so that one can say that he would reject any kind of such status if suggested. There were only two possibilities about knowledge: either one knows something or he does not know it. TE, thus, was not the first Socrates’ discovery and, I think it is not the second Socrates’discovery. All we can see in our second group of dialouges is that he uses this principle as an already demonstrated one. Having examined the slave boy in Meno for the prupose of showing the working of recollection, it truns out that he has some opinions in him while he still does not know. Without trying to prove it, Socrates takes this as the distinction between knowledge and opinion: -/- So, he who does not know (οὐκ εἰδότι) about what he does not know (περὶ ὧν ἂν μὴ εἰδῇ) has within himself true opinions (ἀληθεῖς δόξαι) about the same things he did not know (περὶ τούτων ὧν οὐκ οἶδε) (85c6-7). -/- The same distinction is set between ὀρθὴν δόξαν and ἐπιστήμην at 97b5-6 ff. (also cf. 97b1-2: ὀρθῶς μὲν δοξάζων … ἐπιστάμενος). He connects then their difference to the myth of Daedalus, the statue that would run away and escape. So are true opinions, not willing to remain long in mind and thus not worthy until one ties them down by αἰτίας λογισμῷ (98a3-4). Socrates says that this tying down is anamnesis. We face, in Phaedo, the same relation is settled between knowledge as the process of being tied down and getting the capability to give an account, on the one hand, and anamnesis, on the other hand. When a man knows, he must be able to give an account of what he knows (Phaedo 76b5-6) and since not all people are able to give such an account, those who recollect, recollect what once they learned (76c4). Although the distinction between knowledge and opinion is not explicitly used in Phaedo, referring to the parallel link between knowledge plus account and anamnesis in Phaedo and Meno, one can say that those who cannot recollect are not able to give account and, thus, are in a state of opinion. What is said at Phaedo 84a, though not yet a definite distinction between knowledge and opinion, makes a distinction between their objects so as we can agree that it is presupposed. The soul of the philosopher, Socrates says, follows reason, stays with it forever and contemplates the divine, which is not the object of opinoin (ἀδόξαστον) (84a8, cf. Meno 98b2-5). The distinction of knowledge and belief in Republic has a significant difference with what we discussed in Meno and Phaedo since the distinction of Meno was based on anamnesis and thus more an epistemological distinction. Even in Phaedo that we do not have any elaborate discussion about the distinction, the only hint to the matter at 76 is bound to the theory of anamnesis. In addition to the relation of the distinction with this theory, there is another evidence that does not permit us to consider the distinction as an ontological distinction. Let’s see Meno 85c6-7: -/- So, he who does not know about what he does not know has within himself true opinions about the same things he did not know (τῷ οὐκ εἰδότι ἄρα περὶ ὧν ἂν μὴ εἰδῇ ἔνεισιν ἀληθεῖς δόξαι περὶ τούτων ὧν οὐκ οἶδε). (85c6-7) -/- This last sentence persists that the objects of knowledge and true opinion are the same. What Socrates is to say here is that whereas he does not know X he has true opinion about the same X. I think Socrates’ sentence that the slave boy οὐκ εἰδότι ἄρα περὶ ὧν ἂν μὴ εἰδῇ and his restatement of it by saying περὶ τούτων ὧν οὐκ οἶδε is because he wants to emphasize that the slave boy who does not know, has true opinion about the same thing. Socrates could say this just with using τούτων and there would be no necessity to bring περὶ ὧν ἂν μὴ εἰδῇ for οὐκ εἰδότι if he did not want to emphasize. -/- 3. Tripartite Ontology The distinction between knowledge and true opinion in Republic, on other side, has nothing to do with recollection, but is based on an ontological principle, 'Tripartite Ontology' (TO): -/- TO There are things that both are and are not. -/- This principle I confine, among our three dialogues of the second group, to Republic not extended to Meno and Phaedo, is obviously the opposite of BO. Speaking about the lovers of sights and sounds in the fifth book, Socrates distinguishes them from philosophers because their thought is unable to understand the nature of beautiful itself besides beautiful things (476a6-8) and hence they can only have opinions. The philosopher who, on the contrary, believes in beautiful itself and can distinguish it from beautiful things (476c9-d3), has knowledge because he knows, contrasting others who have opinion because they only opine (d5-6). Since those whose knowledge were degraded as opinion will complain about Socrates’ such calling their thought, he provides them the following argument (476e7-477b1): -/- - Does the person who knows, knows (γιγνώσκει) something (τὶ) or nothing (οὐδέν)? - He knows something (τί). - Something that is (ὂν) or is not (οὐκ ὄν)? - Something that is (ὂν) for how could something that is not be known (πῶς γὰρ ἂν μὴ ὄν γέ τι γνωσθείη)? - Then we have an adequate grasp of this: No matter how many ways we examine it, what completely is (παντελῶς ὂν) is completely knowable (παντελῶς γνωστόν) and what is in no way (μὴ ὂν δὲ μηδαμῇ) is in every way unknowable (πάντῃ ἄγνωστον). - A most adequate one. - Good. Now, if anything is such as to be and also not to be (ὡς εἶναί τε καὶ μὴ εἶναι), won’t it be intermediate (μεταξὺ) between what purely is (εἰλικρινῶς ὄντος) and what in no way is (μηδαμῇ ὄντος)? - Yes, it’s intermediate. - Then as knowledge (γνῶσις) is set over what is (τῷ ὄντι), while ignorance (ἀγνωσία) is of necessity set over what is not (μὴ ὄντι) mustn’t we find an intermediate between ignorance (ἀγνοίας) and knowledge (ἐπιστήμης) to be set over the intermediate, if there is such a thing? -/- From the third status of being we must reach to the third status of knowledge. The simple reading of this text can be an existential reading, taking the "is" of the mentioned sentences as existence. The problem is that when it is said that there is something that both is and is not reading "is" existentially, it sounds too bizarre to be acceptable. It cannot easily be understandable to have something as both existent and non-existent at the same time. This problem arose so many debates and led many scholars to reject the existential reading of "is" and suggest some other readings like predicative or veridical readings. I think though Plato’s complicated ontology of Republic cannot be correctly understood by a simple existential reading, this "is" cannot be free from existential sense of being and, thus, cannot be reduced to just a predicative or veridical sense of being. -/- 4. Bound Knowledges In addition to KG, the Good is also the basis of another principle in the second Socrates, namely the principle of 'Bound Knowledge' (BK): -/- BK Knowledge of everything is bound to the knowledge of the Good. -/- We distinguished BK from KG because we want to insist, in BK, on what had not been insisted upon in KG, that is, the binding role that the Good plays in the second Socrates, contrasting the absence of such a role in the first Socrates. Socrates remembers, in Phaedo, his wonderful keen on natural philosophers' wisdom when he was young. The origin of this enthusiasm was Socrates’ hope to know the cause of everything as they used to claim. When he was searching the matters of his interest on their basis, Socrates says, he became convinced he can get no acceptable answer from them and found himself blind even to the things he thought he knew before. One day he hears Anaxagoras’ theory that 'it is Mind that arranges and is the cause of everything (ὡς ἄρα νοῦς ἐστιν ὁ διακοσμῶν τε καὶ πάντων αἴτιος)' (Phd. 97c1-2 cf. DK, Fr.15.8-9, 11-12, 12-14) and thinks that he can finally find what he has always expected, i.e. something which can explain all things. What I intend to show here is that what makes Socrates hopeful is that Anaxagoras’ theory tries 1) to explain all things by one thing and 2) this explanation is understood by Socrates as if it is based on the concept of the Good. That Socrates was searching for one explanation for all things can be proved even from what he has been expecting from natural philosophers. The case is, nonetheless, more clearly asserted when he speaks about Anaxagoras’ theory. In addition to διακοσμῶν τε καὶ πάντων αἴτιος of 97c2 mentioned above, we have τὸ τὸν νοῦν εἶναι πάντων αἴτιον (c3-4) and τόν γε νοῦν κοσμοῦντα πάντα κοσμεῖν (c4-5) all emphasizing on the cause of all things (πάντα) which can clearly prove that one of the reasons which caused Socrates to embrace it delightfully was its claim to provide the cause of all things by one thing. Another reason was that Anaxagoras’ Mind, at least in Socrates’ view, was attempting to explain everything by the concept of the Good. This connection between Mind and Good belongs more to the essential relation they have in Socrates’ thinking than Anaxagoras’ theory because there are almost nothing about such a relation in Anaxagoras. The reason for Socrates’ reading can be that Mind is substantially compatible with Socrates’ idea of the relation between good and knowledge. Both the thesis 'no one does wrong willingly' and the theory of virtue as knowledge we pointed to above are evidences of this essential relation. Nobody who knows that something is bad can choose or do it as bad. The reason, when it is reason, that means when it is as it should be, when it is wise or when it knows, works only based on good-choosing. In this context, when Socrates hears that Mind is considered as the cause of everything, it sounds to him like this: good should be regarded as the basis of the explanation of all things. We see him, thus, passing from the former to the latter without any proof. This is done in the second sentence after introducing Mind: -/- I thought that if this were so, the arranging Mind would arrange all things and put each thing in the way that was Best (ὅπῃ ἂν βέλτιστα ἔχῃ). If one then wished to find the cause of each thing by which it either perishes or exists, one needs to find what is the best way (βέλτιστον αὐτῷ ἐστιν) for it to be, or to be acted upon, or to act. On these premises then it befitted a man to investigate only, about this and other things, what is the most excellent (ἄριστον) and best (βέλτιστον). The same man must inevitably also know what is worse (χεῖρον), for that is part of the same knowledge. (97c4-d5) This passage is a good evidence of Socrates’ leap from Anaxagoras’ Mind to his own concept of the Good that can explain why Socrates found Anaxagoras theory after his own heart (97d7). Mind is welcomed because of its capability for explanation on the basis of good to 'explain why it is so of necessity, saying which is better (ἄμεινον), and that it was better (ἄμεινον) to be so' (97e1-3). What Socrates thought he had found in Anaxagoras can indicate what he had been expecting from natural scientists before. Socrates could not be satisfied with their explanations because they were unable to explain how it is the best for everything to be as it is. It can probably be said, then, that it was the lack of the unifying Good in their explanation that had disappointed him. We must insist that we are discussing what Socrates thought that Anaxagoras’ theory of Mind should have been, not about Anaxagoras’ actual way of using Mind. Phaedo 97c-98b, is not about what Socrates found in Anaxagoras but what he thought he could find in it. On the contrary, it should also be noted that it was not this that was dashed at 98b, but Anaxagoras’ actual way of using Mind. It was Anaxagoras’ fault not to find out how to use such an excellent thesis (98b8-c2, cf. 98e-99b). Socrates gives an example to show how not believing in 'good' as the basis of explanation makes people be wanderers between different unreal explanations of a thing. His words δέον συνδεῖν (binding that binds together) as a description for the Good we chose as the name of BK principle: They do not believe that the truly good and binding binds and holds them together (ὡς ἀληθῶς τὸ ἀγαθὸν καὶ δέον συνδεῖν καὶ συνέχειν οὐδὲν οἴονται). (99c5-6) -/- Having in mind Plato’s well-known analogy of the sun and the Good at Republic 508-509, we can dare to say that his warning of the danger of seeing the truth directly like one watching an eclipse of the sun in Phaedo (99d-e) is more about the difficulty of so-called good-based explanation than its insufficiency, a difficulty which is precisely confirmed in Republic (504e-505a, 506d-e). Moreover, BK is asserted in a more explicit way in the Republic, where the Good is considered not only as a condition for the knowledge of X, as was noted above discussing KG, but also as what binds all the objects of knowledge and also the soul in its knowing them. At Republic VI, 508e1-3, when Socrates says that the Form of the Good 'gives truth to the things known and the power to know to the knower (τοῦτο τοίνυν τὸ τὴν ἀλήθειαν παρέχον τοῖς γιγνωσκομένοις καὶ τῷ γιγνώσκοντι τὴν δύναμιν ἀποδιδὸν)', he wants to set the Good at the highest point of his epistemological structure by which all the elements of this structure are bound. This binding aspect of the Good is by no means a simple binding of all knowledges or all the objects of knowledge, but the most complicated kind of binding as it is expected from the author of the Republic. The kind of unity the Good gives to the different knowledges of different things is comparable with the unity which each Form gives to its participants in Republic: as all the participants of a Form are united by referring to the ideas, all different kinds of knowledge are united by referring to the Good. If we observe Aristotle's assertion that for Plato and the believers of Forms, the causative relation of the One with the Forms is the same as that of the Forms with particulars (e.g. Metaphysics 988a10-11, 988b4), that is to say the One is the essence (e.g., ibid, 988a10-11: τοῦ τί ἐστὶν, 988b4-6: τὸ τί ἢν εἶναί) of the Forms besides his statement that for them One is the Good (e.g., ibid, 988b11-13) the relation between the Good and unity may become more understandable. Since the quiddity of the Good (τί ποτ᾽ ἐστὶ τἀγαθὸν) is more than discussion (506d8-e2), we cannot await Socrates to tell us how this binding role is played. All we can expect is to hear from him an analogy by which this unifying role is envisaged, the sun. The kind of unity that the Good gives to the knowledge and its objects in the intelligible realm is comparable to the unity that the sun gives to the sight and its objects in the visible realm (508b-c). The allegory of Line (Republic VI, 509d-511), like that of the Sun, tries to bind all various kinds of knowledges. The hierarchical model of the Line which encompasses all kinds of knowledge from imagination to understanding can clearly be considered as Plato’s effort to bind all kinds of knowledges by a certain unhypothetical principle. The method of hypothesis starts, in the first subsection of the intelligible realm, with a hypothesis that is not directed firstly to a principle but a conclusion (510b4-6). It proceeds, in the other subsection, to a 'principle which is not a hypothesis' (b7) and is called the 'unhypothetical principle of all things' (ἀνυποθέτου ἐπὶ τὴν τοῦ παντὸς ἀρχὴν) (511b6-7). This παντὸς must refer not only to the objects of the intelligible realm but to the sensible objects as well. Plato does posit, therefore, an epistemological principle for all things, a principle that all things are, epistemologically, bound and, thus, unified by. -/- 5. Bound Beings The ontological aspect of BK we shall call the principle of 'Bound Beings' (BB): -/- BB Being of all things are bound by the Good. -/- We saw in our principle of Split Being (SB) how the first Socrates was criticized because of his approach to split being and separate each thing from other things. The principle of Bound Beings intends to make the things more related, a duty which is done again by the Good. In the allegory of Sun, there are two paragraphs that evidently and deliberately extend the binding role of the Good to the ontological scene: -/- You will say that the sun not only makes the visible things have the ability of being seen but also coming to be, growth and nourishment. (509b2-4) -/- This clearly intends to remind the ontological role the sun plays in bringing to being all the sensible things in order to display how its counterpart has the same role in the intelligible realm (b6-10): -/- Not only the objects of knowledge (γιγνωσκομένοις) owe their being known (γιγνώσκεσθαι) to the Good, but also their existence (τὸ εἶναί) and their being (οὐσίαν) are due to it, though the Good is not being but superior to it in rank and power. That the Good is here represented as responsible for being of things in addition to their being known means, in my opinion, that Plato wants to posit BB in addition to BK. The allegory of Cave at the very beginning of the seventh Book (514aff.) can be taken as another evidence. The role of the Good, one might say, is confined to the intelligible realm because it is asserted that the role the Good plays in this realm is corresponding to that of the sun in the visible realm. The fact that Plato wants to observe the Good also as the ontological cause of the sensible things is obvious from his saying, in the allegory of Cave, that the Form of the Good 'produces light and its source (τὸν τούτου κύριον) [i.e. the sun] in the visible realm' (517c3). We can conclude, then, that the ontological function of the Good is not confined to the intelligible realm in which it is the lord and provides truth and understanding (c3-4) because it is also responsible to produce τὸν κύριον of light. 6. Proportionality of Being and Knowledge Insofaras BE and BO principles of the first Socrates gave way to TE and TO principles of the second Socrates, we cannot expect him to preserve KB in the same way as it was in the first Socrates. The new tripartite ontology and epistemology necessitates some modifications in KB which results in the principle of 'Proportionality of Being and Knowledge' (PBK): -/- PBK To every class of being there is a proportionate category of knowledge. -/- This principle, of course, does not entail the refutation of KB and thus is not kind of rejecting PBK but only a more complicated version of it. Based on PBK, we can still agree that knowledge is of being (KB) but the issue is that since none of the concepts of knowledge and being in the second Socrates are as simple as they were for the first Socrates, we need a more complicated principle for their relation here. Although from Meno 97a where the distinction of knowledge and true opinion is drawn out in the second group of the dialogues, we can expect a new relation, it is articulated in its most complete way in Republic and specifically in the allegory of Line. All the beings are divided there hierarchically to four classes, to each of them belongs a class of knowledge: imagination to images, belief to the sensible things (more correctly: the things of which they[in previous class] were images (ᾧ τοῦτο ἔοικεν)), thought to mathematical objects (?) and understanding to the Forms and the first principle. The degree of clarity that each of the classes of knowledge shares in (σαφηνείας ἡγησάμενος μετέχειν) is proportionate to the degree that its object shares in truth (ἀληθείας μετέχει). (511e2-4) -/- Conclusion From the six onto-epistemilogical principles of the first Socrates, four principles turn to their opposite in the middle period dialogues. While bipolar epistemology and ontology of the early dialogues give place to tripartite epistemology in the middle period dialogues and tripartite ontology in Republic, the split knowledge and being of the first Socrates are inclined to be substituted by bound knowledges and bound beings in the second Socrates and specifically in Republic. Not all our system of principles in this article is necessarily determinative. Either they are rightly formulated or not, our result would not be vulnerable if we accept that 1) making the distinction of knowledge and belief, 2) accepting the being of not being and 3) trying to bind both being and knowledge by the concept of the Good happens only in middle period dialogues, having been absent in the early ones. These are the favourite results all those somehow arbitrary and even oversimplified principles were to illustrate; that there is kind of a development in the epistemological as well as the ontological grounds of Plato’s philosophy. -/- Notes . (shrink)

Over the last two centuries, the relationship between philosophy and science has completely broken down, so the question we are confronted with is: How can we develop a new philosophy, which will influence science decisively? The physicists of the last century rejected their contemporary philosophy. They considered that “philosophy today is dead” (Hawking and Mlodinow 2010). However, we believe that the great scientific problems are always philosophical, and only philosophical problems. Therefore, these problems can be solved only by philosophers and (...) scientists who operate at the greatest level of thinking: that of the “paradigm of thinking”. In fact, these great scientific problems can usually be solved by changing the “paradigm of thinking” for scientists. This book furnished more applications of the “epistemologically different worlds” (that replaced the “world”/”universe” – in their previous books (2008, 2010, 2011, etc.), the authors indicated that the notion of the world/universe is wrong). Following Aristotle’s “Prime Mover” (or the “Unmoved Mover”), we stop the regress ad infinitum by discovering the first EW, the EW0 (the Hypernothing). Even if one EW does not exist for any EDW, the Hypernothing was the first EW and all other EDWs correspond to the EW0. Chapter 2 is about the “Hypernothing”. The other chapters continue our works of applying the EDWs to different concepts/areas of Physics: quantum mechanics, elementary particles, thermodynamics (with its main notion, “entropy”), etc. In the last chapter, knowing that Einstein’s special and general theory of relativity are very correct (but in a book 2016 we showed that “spacetime” cannot ontologically exist), we re-write both theories without “spacetime”. Content, Introduction and Chapter 1, FREE at https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss_1?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=gabriel+vacariu&rh=i %3Aaps%2Ck%3Agabriel+vacariu . (shrink)

This review was conducted to examine the causes, diagnoses, clinical manifestations, and available treatments for Graves' disease. Keywords like "Graves' disease," "radioactive iodine," "etiology," and "treatment" were used to search for data pertaining to Textbooks on endocrinology and other papers from these sources were also located. The introduction, etiology, risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis, course of treatment, and the contribution of many factors to the beginning of Graves' disease are all covered in this review article.

Özet -/- Bu çalışmada modern endüstri toplumlarında teknolojinin, bireylerin ve bir bütün olarak toplumun rasyonalitesini nasıl etkilediği ve bunun da ötesinde nasıl belirlediği incelenecektir. Bu inceleme Herbert Marcuse’nin Tek Boyutlu İnsan adlı eserinde ortaya koyduğu teknolojiye ilişkin görüşleri üzerinden yapılacaktır. Rasyonalite, bilgi ve deneyim arasındaki ilişki teknoloji üzerinden irdelenecek ve daha sonra Marcuse’nin ‘teknolojik rasyonalite’ kavramı Claus Offe’nin eleştirileri bağlamında çözümlenecektir. Son olarak Marcuse’nin teknoloji eleştirisi günümüzde ortaya çıkan toplumsal pratiklerle ele alınarak değerlendirilecektir. -/- Anahtar Terimler Teknoloji, Bilgi, Eleştiri, Pratik, (...) Kapitalist Toplum, Politika, Rasyonalite. -/- Rationality, Experience and Knowledge in the Age of Technology: Problems & Criticisms -/- Abstract -/- The question of how human potential is imprisoned in contemporary capitalism is one of the central topics of the analysis on social reality by every social theory which claims to be critical. This question which can be concretized as a systematic occupation with the cultural-technical forms which caused by contemporary capitalism and as an analysis of new types of social subjectivity which emerge as a result of these forms, essentially includes the effort to specify at what level and by using what kind of tools the current system grabs the individual by the throat. Frankfurt School tradition as one of the foremost traditions which conducts such an investigation, discusses the analysis of society over fragility of the bourgeois individual. -/- According to Frankfurt School, the individual in contemporary capitalism is extorted from bourgeois ideals and is out of breath as a result of blockade of overgrown structures in social context in which s/he lives. In other words, the bourgeois individual has been erased. In the late capitalist society where personal histories are melted away, technological progress is one of the processes that led to the deletion of the individual. The clearest expression of this emphasis finds correspondence in the introduction of Herbert Marcuse's One Dimensional Man. Marcuse proposes two opposite theses in this work which he examines advanced industrial societies: 1) Advanced industrial society have a structure that it can control the qualitative changes in predictable future, 2) However, trends and forces which can reverse this situation (which can break this limitation and destroy capitalist society) also exist. First one claims that relations of domination in the social structures are sustainable in the future; and the other thesis emphasizes that the opportunity of emancipation of people by getting free of these power relations is still possible. However, Marcuse does not dwell on too much on the latter (which is the claim about possibility of powers and trends that can change the current situation). Moreover it could be argued that his arguments relating to technological rationality and one-dimensionality draws us into the impossibility of attaining any moment of a positive social transformation. -/- The book is dominated by an atmosphere of immense feeling of being encircled and hopelessness, thus it follows from the work of Marcuse that in the system that we live in it is even impossible to breathe freely. Although in follow-up studies after the One Dimensional Man (especially in writings in which vitality of 68 movement and the axis of New Left), it can be observed that there is an attempt to convert despair into hope, it is clear that Marcuse’s designations regarding technological life mechanisms should be discussed again given the technological advancements of our times. Within this context, in the study, how the technology affects and furthermore determines the individuals and society as a whole in the modern industrial societies has been investigated. This investigation has been carried out through Herbert Marcuse's views on technology which are presented in his work One-Dimensional Man. The relationship between rationality, knowledge and experience has been examined on the basis of technology, and then Marcuse's concept of ‘technological rationality’ has been analysed in the context of Claus Offe's criticisms. -/- Finally, Marcuse's critique of technology has been assessed by considering the emerging social practices in this day and time. Herbert Marcuse refers to the rationality which is created by technology and is directly based on submissive efficiency, as ‘technological rationality’. Thinker argues that what is considered to be rational in a society is subject to change with technological developments, and social rationality is directly connected to the technological advancements. There are three different projections of technological rationality approach which are in turn ontological, epistemological and ethicalpolitical approaches. Claus Offe claims that it is possible to group these different dimensions under three theses. According to the first one; scientific rationality has become the organizational principle of domination. -/- According to Offe, in his second thesis Marcuse mentions the emergence of technology sui generis i.e. as a distinctive autonomous technological rationality. And the third thesis proceeds on the line of the argument that socialist societies are under the impact of technological rationality as well as capitalist societies. According to Offe, even though these three theses are consistent with each other, Marcuse has been violated the most fundamental principle of the Critical Theory by not offering any possibility of social transformation which are aimed at the problems of extensive manipulation and pacified existence that brought about by technological rationality. Hence although Marcuse's work is of utmost importance with regard to his analysis and the issues that he has covered, it would not be wrong to say that a problematic argument from the point of the tradition of Critical Theory has been proposed. The main reason for this is the argument which asserts that the technology turned into a mechanism of domination which is almost irreversible and unchangeable. Therefore, such mechanism does not offer any resistance point where human can take a breath. As a result of this, emancipation which is the main political purpose of the Critical Theory has been invalidated. What could be the problems which are created by the negative situation that results from Marcuse's thesis on technology? For instance, how could the basis for the existence of opposing movements which are organized over the internet or the foundations of anti-capitalist radical critique be explained on the axis of Marcuse’s thesis? -/- There is a fundamental problem that has to be solved: if we declare only the validity of oppressive, central and ideological functions of technological devices, then the idea which is referred by authoritarian governments that current opposing movements or rebel groups organized over internet might be organized from a centre which is defined as imperialist power or external power becomes an affirmable argument. In other words, does Marcuse's technological determinist approach serves to legitimize the discourses such as "foreign powers or imperialist enemies," and so on which authoritarian powers frequently resort to. Is it possible to think of another alternative with regard to the problems produced by this rationality apart from the negative comments that revealed by the concept of technological rationality. From what frameworks this question can be answered In the conclusion of the study, answers to these questions have been searched. -/- Keywords: Technology, Knowledge, Criticism, Practice, Capitalist Society, Politics, Rationality. (shrink)

Despite analgesic and emetogenic benefits, cannabis has been banned from prescription in a number of western countries. Although some benefits are shared by drugs already available, the options of prescription are limited to the physician. The negative side-effects of cannabis do not justify this limitation on freedom and autonomy. Recreational use warrants limitations, as the search for euphoria is regularly believed to be a non-autonomous behavior. Medical prescriptions serve an analgesic and emetogenic purpose comparable to other prescribed drugs. This vindicates (...) the right for a physician to prescribe cannabis to qualified patients. For a patient to be considered qualified, they must be an adult that does not drive often, is not pregnant, and not at risk of schizophrenia or cardiovascular disease. If possible, cannabis should be eaten in an effort to avoid smoke irritation in the lungs and aerodigestive tract. In the end, the question is not whether cannabis use is efficable, but rather is the limitation of medical treatments to patients in need ethical? In light of the medical benefits, the banning of cannabis is simply immoral. Keywords: cannabis, banned substance, prescription, analgesic, emetogenic Note. Authors did not receive any external funding, nor display conflict of interest. (shrink)

RESUMO A inseminação artificial em tempo fixo (IATF) é uma das biotecnologias de reprodução mais estudadas dos últimos anos, e a busca pelo equilíbrio entre a fisiologia animal e o controle hormonal fomenta uma série de estudos. Sendo assim, o objetivo com este trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência da aplicação do hormônio liberador de gonadotrofinas (GnRH) no dia zero (D0) do protocolo de IATF, a base de estrógeno e progesterona sobre a taxa de penhez por IATF. O experimento foi desenvolvido (...) na Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), na Fazenda Experimental do Glória, localizada no município de Uberlândia, no estado de Minas Gerais. Foram avaliadas 69 inseminações de vacas leiteiras mestiças, divididas em dois grupos com diferentes protocolos; Controle: sem aplicação de GnRH e Tratamento: aplicação de GnRH no dia zero do protocolo. Todos os animais foram inseminados com sêmen previamente analisado. O diagnóstico de gestação foi realizado 32 dias após a inseminação, com aparelho de ultrassonografia equipado com probe linear transretal de 7,5 MHz. Os dados foram analisados por análise descritiva, sendo avaliado o efeito da relação protocolo e presença de corpo lúteo no início do protocolo e efeito da relação protocolo e ordem de IA Pós-Parto sobre a taxa de concepção. A taxa de concepção após a realização do Protocolo Tratamento foi de 53% (17/32) e do Protocolo Controle foi de 43% (16/37). Portanto, conclui-se que o protocolo de sincronização de vacas leiteiras mestiças com a aplicação de GnRH no dia zero do protocolo resultou em um aumento no número da taxa de concepção de vacas leiteiras mestiças. Palavras-chave: biotecnologia; bovinocultura; hormônio; ovulação; reprodução. ABSTRACT The artificial insemination at fixed time (AIFT) is one of the most studied reproduction biotechnologies in recent years, and the search for a balance between animal physiology and hormonal control fosters a series of studies. Therefore, the objective of this work was to to evaluate the efficiency of gonadotrofine hormone inducer (GnRH) on day zero (D0) of the AIFT protocol, an estrogen and progesterone base on an AIFT rate. The experiment was developed at the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU), at the Experimental Farm of Glória, located in the municipality of Uberlândia, in the state of Minas Gerais. Were evaluated 69 inseminations of crossbred dairy cows divided into two groups with different protocols; Control: without application of GnRH and Treatment: application of GnRH on day zero of the protocol. All animals were inseminated with previously analyzed semen. The diagnosis of pregnancy was performed 32 days after insemination, with an ultrasound device equipped with a 7.5 MHz transrectal linear probe. The data were analyzed by descriptive analysis, evaluating the effect of the protocol relationship and the presence of corpus luteum at the beginning of the protocol and the effect of the protocol relationship and postpartum AI order on the conception rate. The conception rate after performing of the Treatment Protocol was 53% (17/32) and the Control Protocol was 43% (16/37). Therefore, it is concluded that the synchronization protocol of crossbred dairy cows with the application of GnRH on day zero of the protocol resulted in an increase in the number of conception rates of crossbred dairy cows. Keywords: biotechnology; cattle breeding; hormone; ovulation; reproduction. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS ATANASOV, A. S.; DINEVA, J. D.; YOTOV, S. A. 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Monografia apresentada à banca examinadora da Escola Municipal Manuel Teodoro de Arruda, anexa do Colégio Frei Cassiano de Comacchio em Belo Jardim, para a obtenção do título de concluinte do curso de Normal Médio, oferecido pela instituição. A natureza do trabalho, em suma, consiste em apresentar perspectivas de trans formação social para a comunidade de jovens e adultos, o principal programa cunho do trabalho é a Educação de Jovens e Adultos a EJA, e como esse programa intervém na sociabilidade e (...) na mudança do meio social do educando, além de tratar a educação como a principal fonte e meio de mudança de vida dessas pessoas que voltam às escolas. Orientador(a): professora Maria Angelita Pinheiro BELO JARDIM 2017 DEDICATÓRIA Dedicamos este trabalho primeiramente a todos que acreditaram em sua realização, em especial à professora de práticas pedagógicas e também orientadora, Maria Angelita Pinheiro, pelo incentivo e esforço à nossa preparação ao dia de hoje. Bem como, dedicamos este à Alana Thais da Silva, que em todo o desenvolvimento deste, esteve ao nosso lado. AGRADECIMENTOS Agradecemos primeiramente a Deus, que pôde nos proporcionar saúde e sabedoria para a conclusão deste. Agradecemos também à todos que acreditaram na realização deste trabalho, como fruto da realização de um sonho, que é tornarmos normalistas. A nossos colegas de classe que puderam nos proporcionar alegria para continuarmos. Agradecemos em especial mesmo, à Alana Thais da Silva e a Dawson de Barros Monteiro, ambos por oferecer amor e carinho quando o cansaço chegava, e também pela colaboração nas pesquisas que adentravam noites e dias. Enfim, agradecemos a todos que puderam plantar uma semente nesse nosso terreno, para que no futuro pudéssemos colher bons frutos nessa etapa decisiva em nossas vidas. À todos nosso muito obrigado. EPÍGRAFE “Educação não transforma o mundo. Educação muda as pessoas. Pessoas transformam o mundo.” Paulo Freire RESUMO Este trabalho teve por objetivo abordar a Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) como transformação social na vida daquelas pessoas que não tiveram a oportunidade de estudar ou, por motivo maior, tiveram que abandonar os estudos na idade própria. Muitos vão à procura dos estudos por motivo de conquistar um emprego melhor, outros por motivos de se sociabilizar melhor, e por vários outros motivos. Também é possível afirmar que o retorno para a escola na terceira idade é possível, e que para os jovens, os estudos abrirão as portas para o mundo do trabalho, mostrando que o indivíduo alfabetizado tem valor na sociedade, e que a escola, como um ambiente de aprendizagem, tem o poder de transformar o indivíduo e torná-lo um cidadão crítico, democrático e participativo. Palavras Chaves: Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Aprendizagem. Transformação Social. ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to approach the education of young people and adults (EJA) as a social transformation in the lives of people who did not have the opportunity to study or, for greater reason, had to drop out of school at their own age. Many go in search of their studies for the sake of gaining a better job, others for the sake of socializing better, and for many other reasons. It is also possible to state that the return to school in the third age is possible, and that for the youngest, studies will open the door to the world of work, showing that the literate individual has value in society and that the school as a learning environment, has the power to transform the individual and make him / her a critical, democratic and participatory citizen. Keywords: Education for Youth and Adults. Learning. Social transformation LISTA DE ILUSTRAÇÕES FIGURA 1 – Gráfico sobre o percentual do Analfabetismo..............................................................27 FIGURA 2 – Gráfico sobre o Analfabetismo por região do Brasil....................................................28 SUMÁRIO INTRODUÇÃO.......................................................................................... ..................................... 10 CAPÍTULO 1 – CONTRIBUIÇÕES DA TRAJETÓRIA DA EDUCAÇÃO POPULAR NO BRASIL E PROCESSOS DE ALFABETIZAÇÃO........................................................................ 13 1.1 Históricos da Educação de Jovens e Adultos em seu Contexto Inicial............................ 13 1.1.1 Do Brasil Colônia ao Varguismo: Jesuítas, Pombal, Corte Imperial e Governo Vargas.............................................................................................. ................................. 13 1.2 A Educação de Jovens e Adultos Pós-Varguismo............................................................ 15 1.3 Acerca do Movimento Brasileiro de Alfabetização(Mobral)............................................ 15 1.3.1 Metodologia de Ensino no Mobral: Uma Abordagem Superficial.......................... 16 1.4 A Evolução da Educação de Jovens e Adultos: do Regime Militar ao seu Contexto Atual............................................................................................... .................................................. 17 CAPÍTULO 2 – REFLEXÕES ACERCA DA ALFABETIZAÇÃO............................................... 20 2.1 Análises Histórico-Antropológica Acerca da Escrita e a Alfabetização........................... 20 2.2 Alfabetização e Pragmatismo: Conceitos Acerca da Leitura e Escrita no Âmbito Educacional......................................................................................... ............................................. 21 2.3 O Analfabetismo como Antagonia ao Alfabetismo........................................................... 25 CAPÍTULO 3 – REFLEXÕES TEÓRICAS SOBRE A EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS............................................................................................. .......................................... 29 3.1 Pensamentos de Paulo Freire Sobre a Educação Popular................................................. 29 3.2 Acerca do Método Freiriano........................................................................................... .. 31 3.2.1 Etapas do Método.............................................................................................. ...... 31 3.2.2 O Método.............................................................................................. ................... 31 3.2.3 As Fases de Aplicação do Método........................................................................... 32 3.2.4 História............................................................................................ ........................ 33 3.3 O Perfil do Professor Alfabetizador.................................................................................. 33 3.4 Perfil do Estudante da Educação de Jovens e Adultos e os Motivos de Evasão............... 35 3.5 Pensando em Métodos............................................................................................. ......... 37 CONCLUSÃO........................................................................................... ...................................... 41 REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS...................................................................................... ...... 43 10 INTODUÇÃO Este trabalho tem por objetivo abordar a Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) como modelo, espelho ou meio de uma transformação social, na vida daquelas pessoas que não tiveram oportunidade de estudar, ou por motivos maiores, tiveram que abandonar os estudos na idade ideal, essa visão é explicada pelos motivos da evasão escolar. Foram pesquisados os motivos que levaram essas pessoas a desistirem de estudar e porque retornaram as salas de aula muito tempo depois, destacando principalmente como cunho primordial, os alunos das turmas da EJA (Educação de Jovens e Adultos), que, em suma, pode-se concluir que o principal motivo de evasão na idade adequada era as baixas condições que eram submetidos, e por isso, abandonavam a escola para trabalhar, por isso que a maioria dos estudantes da EJA, são trabalhadores e pessoas que já carregam e possuem uma experiência de vida. Educação de jovens e adultos (EJA) é uma modalidade da qual participam aqueles que não frequentaram a escola durante a infância ou na idade ideal. Os motivos apresentados pelos quais não conseguiram estudar são, na maioria das vezes, alheios a vontade de cada um, a exemplo foi-se citado: o fato de se ter que trabalhar para sobreviver, não ter acesso a escola no local onde mora e até mesmo a evasão escolar. Por isso é comum ainda haver escolas que alfabetizam jovens e adultos. Alfabetizar jovens e adultos é uma ocupação antiga que não se limita a uma tarefa meramente escolar, está intimamente ligada a sonhos, expectativas e a anseios de mudança. E com isso, a escolha do tema deste trabalho se deu com o convívio com jovens e adultos durante o estágio supervisionado na EJA. Geralmente, é depois da adolescência que o indivíduo reconhece que necessita do conhecimento escolar e passa a buscá-lo. Pois, é muito gratificante para uma pessoa leiga poder aprender a ler e a escrever, consciente da necessidade e importância de tal ato para sua vida, um mundo novo se abre, e o indivíduo é posto num contexto “como se fosse cega e de repente abrisse os olhos e enxergasse coisas que até então não via” . Alfabetizar tais pessoas é proporcionar para elas grandes mudanças, uma nova visão de mundo, a chance de ter uma vida melhor, pelo menos com mais oportunidades. Por isso remete-se, então, para além de uma alfabetização e sim de uma transformação social destes indivíduos. A EJA é um direito assegurado pela Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional (LDBEN)2, é assegurado gratuitamente aos que não tiveram acesso a escola na idade própria e segundo a LDBEN o poder público deverá estimular o acesso e permanência do jovem e do adulto na escola. Porém, esse estímulo é a cada dia deixado de lado, como afirma o professor doutor em filosofia e educação do Instituto Federal de Pernambuco campus Belo Jardim, Dawson de Barros Monteiro. “[...] as atuais políticas públicas educacionais, mostram um exemplo de problemas, pois aqui na perspectiva contemporânea, é deveras nítida a deficiência da incentivação pública a estes indivíduos.” (Monteiro 2016, PROEJA p. 185). Abordando acerca dos objetivos, destacamos a abordagem do surgimento da EJA ante o alto índice de pessoas analfabetas no Estado, que por inúmeros motivos tiveram que abandonar os estudos por um longo período de tempo, ou para muitos, que nunca sequer tinham ido à escola. É necessário também dar luz e enaltecer a primordialidade da socialização dos que ingressam em uma escola mesmo depois da idade certa; nessa linha de raciocínio é necessário abordar e enaltecer as concepções ideológicas da transformação social no espaço da EJA, bem como compreender a importância desta para a atual sociedade. Por fim, abordar, entender e compreender as questões antropológicas dos motivos de evasão escolar; enxergar a EJA e a transformação social como utopia do indivíduo que retorna ao espaço educacional. E com isso, vislumbrar que em toda a sociedade a questão do Analfabetismo é um problema público educacional e social. 12 1. CONTRIBUIÇÕES DA TRAJETÓRIA DA EDUCAÇÃO POPULAR NO BRASIL E PROCESSOS DE ALFABETIZAÇÃO A educação de Jovens e Adultos antecede até mesmo as datas documentadas: de forma indireta, adultos interessavam-se em aprender as primeiras letras do alfabeto, sendo considerado o alicerce para a aprendizagem, ou seja, codificar cada símbolo daquele para formular palavras; ou ao menos também, interessar-se à escrever o próprio nome. Este Capítulo abordará a trajetória da Educação de Jovens e Adultos EJA, no Brasil, e sua contribuição para a população brasileira e ao mesmo tempo os processos de alfabetização que são contribuições para que esta aconteça de maneira eficaz. 1.1 HISTÓRICOS DA EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS EM SEU CONTEXTO INICIAL 1.1.1 DO BRASIL COLÔNIA AO VARGUISMO: JESUÍTAS, POMBAL, CORTE IMPERIAL E GOVERNO VARGAS Alfabetizar jovens e adultos não é um ato de ensino-aprendizagem, é a construção de uma perspectiva de mudança: no início, época da colonização do Brasil, as poucas escolas existentes era para o privilégio das classes média e a burguesia da colônia, nessas famílias os filhos possuíam acompanhamento escolar na infância; não havia a necessidade de uma alfabetização pra jovens e adultos, esse bloco etário não tinha acesso a uma instrução escolar e quando a recebiam era de forma indireta, de acordo com Ghiraldelli Jr. a educação brasileira teve seu início com o fim dos regimes das capitanias hereditárias, ele cita que: “[...] A educação escolar no período colonial, ou seja, a educação regular e mais ou menos institucional de tal época, teve três fases: a do predomínio dos jesuítas; a das reformas do Marquês de Pombal, principalmente a partir da expulsão dos jesuítas do Brasil e de Portugal em 1759; e a do período em que Dom João VI, então rei de Portugal, trouxe a corte para o Brasil (1808-1821)”. (Ghiraldelli Jr. 2008, p. 24). O ensino dos jesuítas tinha como fim não apenas a transmissão de conhecimento científico escolar, mas a propagação da fé cristã. A história da EJA no Brasil no período colonial deu-se de forma assistemática, nesta época não se constatou iniciativas governamentais significativas. Os métodos jesuíticos permaneceram até o período pombalino com a expulsão dos jesuítas, neste período, Pombal organizava as escolas de acordo com os interesses do Estado, com a chegada da coroa portuguesa na colônia, a educação perdeu o seu foco que já não era amplo. Após a proclamação da Independência do Brasil foi outorgada a primeira constituição brasileira, e no artigo 179 dela constava que a “instrução primária era gratuita para todos os cidadãos”; mesmo a instrução sendo gratuita não favorecia as classes pobres, pois estes não tinham acesso à escola, ou seja, a escola era para todos, porém inacessível a quase todos. No decorrer dos séculos houve várias reformas, Soares cita que: “[...] No Brasil, o discurso em favor da Educação popular é antigo: precedeu mesmo a proclamação da República. Já em 1882, Ruy Barbosa, baseado em exaustivo diagnóstico da realidade brasileira da época, denunciava a vergonhosa precariedade do ensino para o povo do Brasil e apresentava propostas de multiplicação de escolas e de melhoria qualitativa do ensino” (SOARES, 2002, p. 8). A constituição de 1934, no governo ditatorial de Getúlio Vargas não teve êxito, sendo assim criase uma nova constituição escrita por Francisco Campos. Para a constituição de 1937 que Ghiraldelli Jr. Cita que: “[...] A constituição de 1937, fez o Estado abrir mão da responsabilidade para com a educação publica, uma vez que ela afirmava que o Estado desempenharia um papel de subsidiário, e não central, em relação ao ensino”. O ordenamento democrático alcançado em 1934, quando a letra da lei determinou a educação como direito de todos, e obrigação dos poderes públicos, foi substituído por um texto que desobrigou o Estado de manter e expandir o ensino” (GHIRALDELLI Jr., 2008, p. 78). Nessa perspectiva, o Estado passou a não ter mais o papel de bancar os educadores para levar o conhecimento para toda a nação, num plano ideológico mundial, vemos que a educação é um princípio fundamental para o crescimento do país e deixar esta ferramenta de lado, acarreta num colapso conhecido como “grande taxa de Analfabetismo”. A constituição de 1937, foi criada no intuito de estabelecer o favorecimento do Estado pois o mesmo tira sua responsabilidade; “gera nesse contexto histórico-social uma população sem educação, ou a educação para poucos, uma sociedade frágil e suscetível a aceitar tudo que lhe é imposto pelo poder coercitivo” afirma o professor doutor em filosofia do Instituto Federal de Pernambuco campus Belo Jardim, Dawson de Barros Monteiro: logo se entende que esta constituição não tinha o interesse que o conhecimento crítico se propagasse, mas buscava favorecer o ensino profissionalizante, pois dentro do contexto histórico o Brasil precisava mais capacitar os jovens e adultos para o trabalho nas indústrias. 1.2 A EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS PÓS-VARGUISMO Segundo Cunha (1999), o fim do Estado Novo trouxe ao país um processo de redemocratização e a necessidade de aumento da quantidade de eleitores. Nesse sentido, o primeiro projeto lançado pelo governo foi uma campanha que previa a alfabetização do educando em três meses, além da conclusão do curso primário num prazo bem menor que o convencional. A educação era considerada unilateral e tinha o professor como transmissor de conhecimento. O educador, que era voluntário ou mal remunerado, seria o único sujeito deste processo. A campanha extinta em 1963, não rendeu bons resultados, mas ajudou a ideia preconceituosa de que o adulto não precisaria mais aprender a ler e que já havia encontrado seu lugar no mundo. Esse desprezo pela classe trabalhadora, o proletariado, ainda persistiu na década de 1990, quando o então ministro da Educação do governo Collor de Mello, o professor, físico e político José Goldemberg, afirmou que a tentativa de alfabetização de adultos não diminuiria o índice de analfabetos; ao contrário, perturbaria a ordem social. Com os resultados insatisfatórios dessa campanha, surgiram críticas a esse projeto: seria necessária a qualificação dos professores e a adequação do programa, do material didático e dos métodos de ensino à clientela atendida. No final dos anos 1950, Paulo Freire propunha uma nova pedagogia, posteriormente trabalhada neste trabalho. Apesar de ser encarregado de desenvolver o Programa Nacional de Alfabetização de Adultos, com o golpe militar de 1964, Paulo Freire foi exilado e um programa assistencialista e conservador foi criado: o Movimento Brasileiro de Alfabetização (Mobral). 1.3 ACERCA DO MOVIMENTO BRASILEIRO DE ALFABETIZAÇÃO (Mobral) Na época do regime militar (1964-1985), surge um movimento de alfabetização de jovens e adultos, na tentativa de erradicar o analfabetismo, pelo menos é o que se tinha em teoria; chamado MOBRAL, esse método tinha como foco o ato de ler e escrever, essa metodologia assemelha-se a de Paulo Freire com codificações, cartazes com famílias silábicas, quadros, fichas e etc., porém, não utilizava o diálogo como ideologia educacional de Freire e não se preocupava com a formação crítica dos educandos. A principal ideologia objetiva do Mobral era apenas a alfabetização funcional que em seu conceito é o ensino alicerce da compreensão de textos simples, capacitando os educandos a decodificação mínima de letras para a interpretação de textos, sem a apropriação da leitura e da escrita de pessoas entre 15 e 30 anos. A respeito do Mobral Bello cita que: “[...] O projeto Mobral permite compreender bem esta fase ditatorial por que passou o Brasil. A proposta de educação era toda baseada em aos interesses políticos vigentes na época. Por ter de repassar o sentimento de bom comportamento para o povo e justificar os atos da ditadura, esta instituição estendeu seus braços a uma boa parte das populações carentes, através de seus diversos programas.” (BELLO, 1993, p. 56). 1.3.1 METODOLOGIA DE ENSINO NO MOBRAL: UMA ABORDAGEM SUPERFICIAL A metodologia utilizada pelo Programa de Alfabetização Funcional baseava-se em seis objetivos: 1. Desenvolver nos alunos as habilidades de leitura, escrita e contagem 2. Desenvolver um vocabulário que permita o enriquecimento de seus alunos; 3. Desenvolver o raciocínio, visando facilitar a resolução de seus problemas e os de sua comunidade; 4. Formar hábitos e atitudes positivas, em relação ao trabalho; 5. Desenvolver a criatividade, a fim de melhorar as condições de vida, aproveitando os recursos disponíveis; 6. Levar os alunos: • A conhecerem seus direitos e deveres e as melhores formas de participação comunitária; • A se empenharem na conservação da saúde e melhoria das condições de higiene pessoal, familiar e da comunidade; • A se certificarem da responsabilidade de cada um, na manutenção e melhoria dos serviços públicos de sua comunidade e na conservação dos bens e instituições; • A participarem do desenvolvimento da comunidade, tendo em vista o bem-estar das pessoas. Os técnicos do MOBRAL defendiam que o método utilizado baseava-se no aproveitamento das experiências significativas dos alunos. Desta forma, embora divergisse ideologicamente do método de Paulo Freire utilizava-se, semelhantemente a este, de palavras geradoras e de uma série de procedimentos para o processo de alfabetização: 1. Apresentação e exploração do cartaz gerador; 2. Estudo da palavra geradora, depreendida do cartaz; 3. Decomposição silábica da palavra geradora; 4. Estudo das famílias silábicas, com base nas palavras geradoras; 5. Formação e estudos de palavras novas; 6. Formação e estudos de frases e textos A principal e essencial diferença na utilização destes procedimentos em relação ao método Paulo Freire era o fato de no Mobral haver uma uniformização do material utilizado em todo o território nacional, não traduzindo assim a linguagem e as necessidades do povo de cada região, principal característica da metodologia freiriana. 1.4 A EVOLUÇÃO DA EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS: DO REGIME MILITAR AO SEU CONTEXTO ATUAL Em 1974, foi implantado o CES (Centro de Estudos Supletivos), que dava a oportunidade de uma certificação rápida, mas superficial, com um ensino tecnicista e auto instrucional. Esse ensino supletivo foi implantado em acordo com a Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação, LDBE 5592/71. Nesta lei um capítulo foi dedicado especificamente a Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Em 1974 o MEC lança o CES. A década de 1980 foi marcada pelo desenvolvimento de projetos e pesquisas na área da alfabetização de adultos. Em 1985, o Mobral foi cessado, dando lugar a Fundação EDUCAR que apoiava tecnicamente e financeiramente as iniciativas de alfabetização existentes. Nos anos 80, difundiram-se várias pesquisas acerca da língua escrita que de certa forma refletiam na EJA. Com a promulgação da constituição de 1988 o Estado passou a ampliar o seu dever ante a Educação de Jovens e Adultos. De acordo com o artigo 208 da constituição brasileira de 1988: “O dever do Estado com a Educação será efetivado mediante a garantia de: I – ensino fundamental obrigatório e gratuito, assegurado inclusive sua oferta gratuita para todos os que a ele não tiveram acesso na idade própria.” A importância da Educação de Jovens e Adultos passou a ser reconhecida internacionalmente mediante as conferências organizadas pela UNESCO nos anos 1990. A partir de então, surgiu no Brasil uma mobilização nacional no sentido de diagnosticar metas e ações da EJA. A LDBE de 1996 garante igualdade de acesso e permanência na escola e ensino de qualidade, além da valorização experiência extraescolar. Ainda nos anos 1990, emergiram iniciativas em favor da EJA, onde o governo incumbiu também a municípios a engajarem-se nesta política, ocorrem parcerias com ONG’s, municípios, universidades, grupos informais, populares, fóruns estaduais e nacionais e através de fóruns a história da EJA passou a ser registrada no intitulado “Boletim da Ação Educativa”. O antigo ensino supletivo passou a se chamar Educação de Jovens e Adultos, e ganhou um sentido mais amplo: preparar e inserir ou reinserir o estudante no mercado de trabalho. Os objetivos da educação no país são revistos, cabendo agora à escola a responsabilidade de formar o adulto trabalhador. Recentemente, novas iniciativas como a EJA e o Proeja, têm surgido a fim de garantir metodologias adequadas a discentes com esse perfil. Em 2000, o Conselho Nacional de Educação estabeleceu, no parecer nº 11, (das Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais para a Educação de Jovens e Adultos), as funções e as bases legais da EJA fundamentadas na LDBE, nos Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais e nas Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais O decreto nº 5478/05, institui o Programa Nacional de Integração da Educação Profissional à Educação Básica na Modalidade de Educação de Jovens e Adultos – Proeja, abrangendo a formação inicial e continuada de trabalhadores e a Educação Profissional Técnica de nível médio. Eventos onde são gerados debates e trocadas experiências, como os fóruns EJA, têm sido importantes e primordiais na estruturação da EJA e de seus objetivos. É notório que nesta fase da história da Educação brasileira, a EJA possui foco amplo. Para haver uma sociedade igualitária e uma Educação eficaz é necessário que todas as áreas da Educação sejam focadas e valorizadas, não é possível desvencilhar uma da outra. 2. REFLEXÕES ACERCA DA ALFABETIZAÇÃO A alfabetização é definida como o processo de aprendizagem onde se desenvolve a habilidade de ler e escrever de maneira adequada e a utilizar esta habilidade como um código de comunicação com o seu meio. É o processo onde os educadores procuram dar mais atenção durante o período de educação inicial escolar, através do desenvolvimento das atividades da alfabetização, que envolvem o aprendizado do alfabeto e dos números, a coordenação motora e a formação de palavras, sílabas e pequenas frases. Através destas tarefas, o indivíduo consegue adquirir a habilidade de leitura, de compreensão de textos e da linguagem de maneira geral, incluindo a operação de números, que são competências necessárias para avançar aos níveis escolares seguintes. A alfabetização consegue desenvolver também a capacidade de socialização do indivíduo, uma vez que possibilita novas trocas simbólicas com a sociedade, além de possibilitar o acesso a bens culturais e outras facilidades das instituições sociais. A incapacidade de adquirir a habilidade da leitura e da escrita é chamada de analfabetismo ou iliteracia. 2.1 ANÁLISE HISTÓRICO-ANTROPOLÓGICA ACERCA DA ESCRITA E A ALFABETIZAÇÃO A comunicação oral antecede a comunicação escrita. É oralmente que se expressam a maioria das pessoas desde os tempos mais remotos. A história nos mostra que até mesmo os povos humanos da pré-história utilizavam símbolos gráficos para fazer registros em cavernas, em grutas, em rochas e etc., ou seja, já havia a necessidade de expressão gráfica. Bajard diz que: “[...] A escrita surgiu na mesopotâmia por volta do ano 4000 a.C., entre os Sumérios. Era uma escrita representada por desenhos, figuras rupestres e etc. que indicavam ações cotidianas e corriqueiras desses povos como a caça ou a pesca; essa fase ficou conhecida como pictográfica, após ela veio a fase ideográfica, onde os símbolos já representavam também alguma ideia, tornou-se fonética, depois alfabética e a partir daí a escrita foi evoluindo-se, alfabetos foram surgindo de acordo com as particularidades de cada língua.”(BAJARD, 2001, p. 15). A fase alfabética determinou a necessidade da transformação de códigos alfabéticos escritos, dando início ao que hoje chamamos de alfabetização. Ferreiro cita que: “[...] A invenção da escrita foi um processo histórico de construção de um sistema de representação, não um processo de codificação. Uma vez construído, poder-se-ia pensar que o sistema de representação é aprendido pelos novos usuários, como um sistema de codificação. Entretanto, não é assim, no caso dos dois sistemas envolvidos no início da escolarização (o sistema de codificação seria dos números e o sistema de representação seria da linguagem). As dificuldades que as crianças enfrentam são dificuldades conceituais semelhantes as da construção do sistema, e por isso pode-se dizer em ambos os casos que a criança reinventa esses sistemas, no caso da Educação para Jovens e Adultos, esse processo também poderá acontecer mediante a participação ativa do estudante e o empenho do mestre que para ele leciona. Bem entendido, não se trata de que as crianças reinventem as letras nem os números, mas que para poderem se servir desses elementos como elementos de um sistema, deve compreender seu processo de construção e suas regras de produção, o que coloca o problema epistemológico fundamental: Qual é a natureza da relação entre o real e a sua representação?” (FERREIRO, 2001, p. 12). A alfabetização não é uma ação prioritária para a fase infantil da vida. Ferreiro cita que: “[...] é recente a tomada de consciência sobre a importância da alfabetização inicial como a única solução real para o problema da alfabetização remediativa (de adolescentes e adultos)”. (FERREIRO, 2001, p. 09). 2.2 ALFABETIZAÇÃO E PRAGMATISMO: CONCEITOS ACERCA DA LEITURA E ESCRITA NO ÂMBITO EDUCACIONAL Alfabetizar é um tema que está ligado ao ensino da leitura e da escrita de códigos alfabéticos, existem inúmeros significados para essa problemática atual. Larousse limita o significado de alfabetizar a ensinar a ler. “[...] Vários conceitos definem alfabetizar como o ato de ensinar a ler, aos poucos esses conceitos vem mudando, ainda que livros e dicionários definam-no assim. Hoje muitos educadores e alfabetizadores utilizam o termo “letramento”, letrar vai além de alfabetizar, se trata da compreensão da leitura e escrita, a criança, o jovem ou o adulto estão alfabetizados ao saberem ler e escrever e letrados ao compreenderem o que leram e escreveram, estão letrados quando dominam a leitura e a escrita e fazem o uso social de ambos.” (LAROUSSE, 2003, p. 21). Soares, acerca do assunto, cita ao ser questionada sobre tal definição: “Letramento é de certa forma o contrário de analfabetismo, aliás, houve um momento em que as palavras letramento e alfabetismo se alteravam para nomear o mesmo conceito. Ainda hoje há quem prefira a palavra letramento, eu mesmo acho a palavra alfabetismo mais vernácula que letramento, que é uma tentativa da palavra inglesa literary, mas curvo-me ao poder das tendências linguísticas, que estão dando preferência a letramento. Analfabetismo é definido como o estado de quem não sabe ler e escrever, seu contrário, alfabetismo ou letramento, é o estado de quem sabe ler e escrever, ou seja, letramento é o estado em que vive o indivíduo que não só sabe ler e escrever, mas que poderá exercer as práticas sociais de leitura e escrita que circulam na sociedade em que vivem.” (SOARES, 2007). . Os Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais (PCN’s) da Língua Portuguesa (Brasil, 2001, p. 21) fala explicitamente sobre este termo, mas a sua proposta vai de encontro as propostas do letramento, isso é perceptível ao observar o que é citado nos PCN’s a respeito de pesquisas e investigações referentes a alfabetização nas séries escolares. A alfabetização é um processo contínuo, inicia-se desde os primeiros anos de vida, com a linguagem e a partir daí tudo que a pessoa aprende serve como base para uma aprendizagem eficaz. A alfabetização, como a educação em geral, é um direito de todos, infelizmente para muitos ela não pode acontecer na infância, a preocupação de como fazê-la com qualidade e êxito impulsiona investigações de como alfabetizar para compreender a leitura e a escrita. Ferreiro cita que: “[...] É difícil falar de alfabetização evitando as posturas dominantes neste campo, por um lado, o discurso oficial e, por outro, o discurso meramente ideologizante, que chamarei “discurso da denúncia”. O discurso oficial centra-se nas estatísticas, o outro despreza essas cifras tratando de desvelar “a face oculta” da alfabetização, onde o discurso oficial fala de quantidade de escolas inauguradas, o discurso da denúncia enfatiza a má qualidade dessas construções ou desses locais improvisados que carecem do indispensável para a realização de ações propriamente educativas.” (FERREIRO, 2005, p. 09). A Alfabetização de Jovens e Adultos não é uma ação recente, teve início desde a colonização apesar de ter sido reconhecida oficialmente somente após o ano de 1945, muitos motivos interferem o processo de alfabetização na infância de alguns jovens e adultos, outros nem sequer iniciam esse processo, logo nesta fase e ao longo dos anos sentem a necessidade de alfabetizar-se. Segundo Moll: “[...] Nesse sentido, quando falamos “em adultos em processo de alfabetização” no contexto social brasileiro, nos referimos a homens e mulheres marcados por experiências de infância na qual não puderam permanecer na escola pela necessidade de trabalhar, por concepções que as afastavam da escola como de que “mulher não precisa aprender” ou “saber os rudimentos da escrita já é suficiente”, ou ainda, pela seletividade construída internamente na rede escolar que produz ainda hoje itinerários descontínuos de aprendizagens formais. Referimo-nos a homens e mulheres que viveram e vivem situações limite nas quais os tempos de infância foi, via de regra, tempo de trabalho e de sustento das famílias.” (MOLL, 2004, p. 11). Ler e escrever são uma arte, principalmente para muitos que não aprenderam a ler e escrever na infância e consequentemente na vida adulta sentem falta desses atos, nas últimas décadas a oferta de ensino aumentou bastante, porém o acesso ainda é limitado para muitos, nem todos os brasileiros tiveram ou tem a oportunidade de alfabetizar-se na infância diversos fatores contribuem ou contribuíram para isso, como a necessidade de trabalhar nessa fase da vida, a falta de acesso a escola, ou até mesmo a falta de interesse, ao chegar na juventude ou na fase adulta a pessoa percebe o quanto a educação básica lhe faz falta e começa a persistir em busca do conhecimento. No decorrer da história da educação a alfabetização de jovens e adultos teve diferentes focos e contou com significantes projetos de alfabetização como o MOBRAL e Método Paulo Freire que será visto neste trabalho. O processo de aquisição da leitura e da escrita não é uma preocupação apenas de professores e alfabetizadores, a alfabetização é a base para uma educação eficaz, portanto para o aluno estar bem nas séries posteriores ele precisa de uma alfabetização sólida. Vivemos atualmente na sociedade do conhecimento, não só do conhecimento do senso comum como sempre foi, mas do conhecimento científico que facilita aos indivíduos uma vivência social de acordo com as imposições do meio e para tal o conhecimento transferido no ambiente escolar é fundamental. Atualmente a EJA tem objetivos maiores além da alfabetização por parte dos alunos, da necessidade de estar capacitado para o mercado de trabalho, ser atuante na sociedade e também o interesse político de reduzir o máximo a estatística de analfabetismo no país, este fator favorecerá com a pretensão de um dia o Brasil se tornar uma grande potência mundial. As primeiras formas de alcançar melhores condições de trabalho e ampliar conhecimento é que faz com que muitos jovens e adultos que não se alfabetizaram na infância ingressem em uma turma de EJA oferecida pelas escolas ou por grupos comunitários que desenvolvem projetos de alfabetização, ser alfabetizado nestas fases da vida depende de muita motivação e força de vontade, não basta apenas querer, a alfabetização de jovens e adultos ocorre de maneira intencional e consciente, segundo Pinto: “Os conceitos de “necessitar saber” vem da origem do interior do ser, considerado em sua plena realidade, enquanto o de “saber” e “não saber” (como fatos empíricos) coloca-se na superfície do ser humano, é um acidente social, além de ser impossível definir com rigor absoluto os limites entre o “saber e o não saber” (daí que não há uma fronteira exata entre o alfabetizado e o analfabeto). Porque o “necessitar” é uma coisa que ou é satisfeita (se é exigência interior) ou, se não é, não permite ao indivíduo subsistir como tal entre (por exemplo: as necessidades biológicas). O “necessitar” ao qual se referem a leitura e a escrita é de caráter social (uma vez que tem por fundamento o trabalho).” (PINTO, 2007, p. 92). É válido ressaltar que o direito a educação de Jovens e Adultos é assegurado por lei e as instituições de ensino devem realizá-la de maneira que atenda tal clientela sem ignorar suas limitações. Alfabetizar jovens e adultos é muito mais que transferir-lhes noções de leitura e escrita, o jovem ou adulto ao ingressar em uma escola ele tem um objetivo delimitado e compreende a escola como um meio para alcançar tal objetivo, o professor alfabetizador se torna então um mediador entre o aluno e o conhecimento, por isso ele precisa estar bem informado, motivado e querendo realizar um trabalho de construção. Há algumas décadas era comum grupos de pessoas adultas se reunirem para aprender escrever o nome e conhecer as letras do alfabeto, tais pessoas ficavam extremamente maravilhadas, pois dentro do contexto delas tal aprendizado era suficientemente satisfatório. Atualmente grupos ainda se reúnem, mas as expectativas são outras, só o aprendizado do próprio nome não é suficiente, o mercado de trabalho exige mais, até mesmo o simples fato de precisar identificar o itinerário do ônibus requer leitura. Segundo Libâneo: “A escola de hoje precisa não apenas conviver com outras modalidades de educação não formal, informal e profissional, mas também articular-se e integrar-se a elas, a fim de formar cidadãos mais preparados e qualificados para um novo tempo”. (LIBÂNEO, 2003, p. 53). Para isso o ensino escolar deve contribuir para: • Formar indivíduos capazes de pensar e de aprender permanentemente; • Prover formação global para atender à necessidade de maior e melhor qualificação profissional; • Desenvolver conhecimentos, capacidades e qualidades para o exercício consciente da cidadania; • Formar cidadãos éticos e solidários. A motivação é a chave para o sucesso da educação de jovens e adultos, desmotivados eles não conseguirão enfrentar as barreiras cotidianas, tudo se tornará mais difícil, cabe aos professores e a escola em geral incentivá-los para que não desistam. 2.3 O ANALFABETISMO COMO ANTAGONIA AO ALFABETISMO O analfabetismo é a qualidade de analfabeto, uma palavra de origem latina (analphabētus) que se refere àquelas pessoas que não sabem ler nem escrever. Porém, o termo costuma ter um uso mais extenso e é usado para fazer alusão aos indivíduos que são ignorantes ou que carecem de instrução elementar em alguma disciplina. O analfabetismo surge perante a falta de aprendizagem. Por isso, nos países que contam com programas de escolarização obrigatória, o analfabetismo é minoritário, mesmo para além do facto de que a compreensão de leitura das pessoas possa ser deficiente. Analfabeto é a pessoa que não sabe ler nem escrever. Segundo definição da UNESCO, “uma pessoa funcionalmente analfabeta é aquela que não pode participar de todas as atividades nas quais a alfabetização é requerida para uma atuação eficaz em seu grupo e comunidade, e que lhe permitem, também, continuar usando a leitura, a escrita e o cálculo a serviço do seu próprio desenvolvimento e do desenvolvimento de sua comunidade”. O analfabetismo no país ainda continua sendo um obstáculo para o progresso e desenvolvimento da humanidade. O importante é ressaltar que não estamos falando de ignorância. Analfabeto Funcional: sabe ler e escrever textos e frases curtas, mas não consegue interpretá-los, também não sabem realizar operações de matemática. Existem três níveis de Analfabetismo funcional: Existem três níveis distintos de alfabetização funcional, a saber: • Nível 1 - também conhecido como alfabetização rudimentar, compreende aqueles que apenas conseguem ler e compreender títulos de textos e frases curtas; e apesar de saber contar, têm dificuldades com a compreensão de números grandes e em fazer as operações aritméticas básicas; • Nível 2 - também conhecido como alfabetização básica, compreende aqueles que conseguem ler textos curtos, mas só conseguem extrair informações espessas no texto e não conseguem tirar uma conclusão a respeito do mesmo; e também conseguem entender números grandes, conseguem realizar as operações aritméticas básicas, entretanto sentem dificuldades quando é exigida uma maior quantidade de cálculos, ou em operações matemáticas mais complexas. • Nível 3 - também conhecido como alfabetização plena, compreende aqueles que detêm pleno domínio da leitura, escrita, dos números e das operações matemáticas (das mais básicas às mais complexas). Pode-se afirmar que, nos dias de hoje, a sociedade está experimentando uma nova forma de analfabetismo, chamado de analfabetismo digital. Este tipo de carência está relacionado com a falta de conhecimento necessário para utilizar computadores pessoais, celulares e agendas eletrônicas e dominar os sistemas que operam estas máquinas como, por exemplo, navegar na rede mundial de computadores. O grave problema do analfabetismo no mundo continua sendo um dos grandes temas prioritários a solucionar desde que se realizou a Conferência Mundial da Educação para Todos, ocorrida em 1990, em Jomtiem, Tailândia. Esta conferência foi assistida por representantes do mundo todo e chegou-se à conclusão de que a alfabetização é um dos fatores chave para resolver um dos problemas mais urgentes da sociedade, que a realização plena do ser humano só se dá através da educação e promovê-la é fundamental para o desenvolvimento das nações. Assim sendo, a educação é uma ferramenta extremamente útil para combater a pobreza e a desigualdade, elevar os níveis de saúde e bem estar social, criar as bases para um desenvolvimento econômico sustentável e a manutenção de uma democracia duradoura. Por este motivo a educação foi incluída na lista dos oito Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio das Nações Unidas, que fixou para o ano de 2015 a data limite para alcançar 100% de educação primária para todas as crianças do planeta. Para o plano ideológico da história da Educação de Jovens e Adultos, pode-se afirmar que tais medidas, no Estado brasileiro, refletiram na queda da taxa de analfabetismo ao longo dos anos. Segundo o professor doutor em filosofia do Instituto Federal de Pernambuco campus Belo Jardim, Dawson de Barros Monteiro, o modelo teórico das iniciativas de alfabetização de jovens e adultos, mesmo tendo um cunho mais político no processo, este pôde remeter-se na queda do índice de habitantes analfabetos no Brasil, desde o Estado Novo ao governo Lula, esta ideologia teórica levou à pratica, uma nova visão de Brasil, uma perspectiva de habitantes mais preocupados com sua educação, ao menos ter o alicerce de poder gozar pelo menos do próprio saber a ler e a escrever, mesmo em um plano inicial. Mostra-se aí que as políticas educacionais mesmo sem o principal intuito de alfabetizar a população geraram programas que foram fomentados e mastigados pela população, que estes puderam ao menos voltar às salas de aula, a quem desistira quando jovem; ou mesmo entrar no âmbito educacional e conhecer de perto o ensino e a escola para aqueles que não puderam nem entrar nesta. A seguir o gráfico mostra como o índice de analfabetos decaiu a partir dos programas para a erradicação do analfabetismo primordialmente com a Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Figura 1. Gráfico com a queda da taxa de analfabetismo no Brasil no período de 1940 e 2010 É observado que a partir dos anos 1940, no governo Getúlio Vargas e o Estado Novo, o índice era de que em cada 100 pessoas quase 56 encontravam-se vítimas do analfabetismo no Brasil, número que ao passar dos anos vai declinando, chegando em 2010 com um índice em torno que, em cada 100 pessoas quase 10 encontravam-se analfabetas, isso é uma conquista tanto para o Estado que cresce no plano internacional, para a educação nacional que remete a ideia que os programas funcionam de forma ótima, e para o estudante que ingressa em uma sala da EJA. O próximo gráfico traz o índice por regiões brasileiras entre um plano de uma década, 2000 a 2010. Trazendo luz a queda no índice da taxa percentual. Figura 2. Gráfico com a taxa de analfabetismo por regiões do Brasil entre 2000 e 2010 Por fim, concluísse que com os programas educacionais de Educação de Jovens e Adultos, pôsse à erradicação e diminuição brusca do índice de percentual de analfabetos no país, uma vez que esses tendem ao cunho da erradicação dessas taxas que fazem com que a perspectiva do Brasil seja favorável ou desfavorável no plano internacional, já que a educação na contemporaneidade é fundamental para o crescimento do país. 3. REFEXÕES TEÓRICAS SOBRE A EDUCAÇÃO DE JOVENS E ADULTOS Ao abordar a Educação de Jovens e Adultos como tema é fundamental conhecer e destacar o pensamento de alguns autores e educadores como Paulo Freire e outros que ao longo da vida profissional dedicaram-se a alfabetizar e que contribuem para a formação docente continuada. Este capítulo aborda tais reflexões e as particularidades do tema. 3.1 PENSAMENTO DE PAULO FREIRE SOBRE A EDUCAÇÃO POPULAR Educação popular é uma educação comprometida e participativa orientada pela perspectiva de realização de todos os direitos do povo. Quando se pensa em educação popular nos remetemos à imagem de Paulo Freire que foi o grande mentor, é uma educação que visa à formação do indivíduo com valores, conhecimento e consciência de cidadania, busca utilizar o que a pessoa já tem de conhecimento popular para transformar na matéria-prima do ensino. Esta educação popular é muito utilizada em assentamentos rurais, favelas, aldeias indígenas, pequenas comunidades, ONG’s dentre outras; por se tratar de uma educação que atende as necessidades em comum de um povo, uma educação em que tem os mesmos interesses em ampliar os seus conhecimentos e tornar cidadãos conscientes do seu papel na sociedade. Paulo Freire, o mais célebre educador brasileiro, tinha o pensamento de que a escola tinha que ensinar o aluno a “ler o mundo” para obter transformações, tendo em vista que se o aluno não saber a realidade do mundo em que vive não é possível lutar em busca de melhorias; para que haja transformação é essencial a conscientização, por isso Paulo Freire criou o seu método de ensino, pois não acreditava que uma pessoa adulta dor nordeste por exemplo que não conhecia “uva” pudesse aprender a ler e escrever apenas utilizando cartilhas com frases: EVA VIU UVA, pensou em aproximar os alunos a sua própria realidade, à sua rotina do dia a dia com as palavras geradoras. De acordo com a revista Nova Escola “Grandes Pensadores”: Freire dizia que ninguém ensina nada a ninguém, mas as pessoas também não aprendem sozinhas, os homens se educam entre si mediados pelo mundo. O pensamento de Paulo Freire é que o professor não é detentor do conhecimento e que não domina todas as áreas do conhecimento e é de fundamental importância a troca de experiências entre professor e aluno, o conhecimento de um completa o outro, todos nós somos dotados de inteligências e exercemos inteligências, porém nem todos a desenvolvem para a mesma área, muitas vezes um professor é excelente na sua profissão e não tem habilidades como pedreiro e o pedreiro constrói lindas casas e edifícios, mas não é alfabetizado e quando esse professor encontra este pedreiro podem trocar experiências distintas e ambos aprendem entre si. Para Freire um professor dedicado para a educação popular tem que acreditar em mudanças, não pode ensinar apenas a ler e escrever, é preciso haver uma mudança de paradigma, e transmitir esperanças, fazer com que o aluno se transforme em sujeito pensante, crítico e consciente do que lhe envolve no dia a dia, o professor tem que ter prazer, alegria e transmitir aos alunos. Paulo Freire diz que: “Há uma relação entre a alegria necessária à atividade educativa e a esperança. A esperança de que professor e alunos juntos podemos aprender, ensinar, inquietar-nos, produzir e juntos igualmente resistir aos obstáculos à nossa alegria. Na verdade, do ponto de vista da natureza humana a esperança não é algo que a ela se justaponha. A esperança faz parte da natureza humana.” (FREIRE, 2002, p. 80). Para Freire é importante que o professor tenha esperança, uma vez que os jovens e adultos se espelham nos professores, e com esperança pode se acreditar em uma mudança de direção para a vida e para o mundo, para a sociedade, cita uma história popular que um passarinho viu um incêndio na floresta e correu para chamar os amigos para apagar o fogo, mas ninguém quis ir, então resolveu ir sozinho apagar o fogo, viu um rio e foi pegando água e jogando no fogo, certamente esse pássaro sabia que sozinho não poderia apagar toso o fogo, mas teve esperança que tomando a iniciativa talvez os outros pudessem acreditar que também seria capaz. Podemos comparar Paulo Freire a este passarinho, pois ele apenas deu início a essa educação e a cada dia pessoas se juntam a suas ideologias a fim de transformar a educação no nosso país e começam a mudar este paradigma. 3.2 ACERCA DO MÉTODO FREIRIANO O Método Paulo Freire consiste numa proposta para a alfabetização de adultos desenvolvidos pelo educador Paulo Freire, que em sua implementação concorreu com programas como o de Frank Laubach. Freire afirmou ter desenvolvido o método enquanto era diretor do Departamento de Extensões Culturais da Universidade do Recife, quando formou um grupo para testar o método na cidade de Angicos, no Rio Grande do Norte. 3.2.1 ETAPAS DO MÉTODO 1. Etapa de investigação: busca conjunta entre professor e aluno das palavras e temas mais significativos da vida do aluno, dentro de seu universo vocabular e da comunidade onde ele vive. 2. Etapa de tematização: momento da tomada de consciência do mundo, através da análise dos significados sociais dos temas e palavras. 3. Etapa de problematização: etapa em que o professor desafia e inspira o aluno a superar a visão mágica e acrítica do mundo, para uma postura conscientizada. 3.2.2 O MÉTODO • As palavras geradoras: o processo proposto por Paulo Freire inicia-se pelo levantamento do universo vocabular dos alunos. Através de conversas informais, o educador observa os vocábulos mais usados pelos alunos e a comunidade e, assim, seleciona as palavras que servirão de base para as lições. A quantidade de palavras geradoras pode variar entre 18 a 23 palavras, aproximadamente. Depois de composto o universo das palavras geradoras, elas são apresentadas em cartazes com imagens. Então, nos círculos de cultura, inicia-se uma discussão para dar-lhes significado dentro da realidade daquela turma. • A silabação: uma vez identificadas, cada palavra geradora passa a ser estudada através da divisão silábica, semelhantemente ao método tradicional. Cada sílaba se desdobra em sua respectiva família silábica, com a mudança da vogal. Por exemplo: BA-BE-BI-BO-BU. • As palavras novas: o passo seguinte é a formação de palavras novas. Usando as famílias silábicas agora conhecidas, o grupo forma palavras novas. • A conscientização: um ponto fundamental do método é a discussão sobre os diversos temas surgidos a partir das palavras geradoras. Para Paulo Freire, alfabetizar não pode se restringir aos processos de codificação e decodificação. Dessa forma, o objetivo da alfabetização de adultos é promover a conscientização acerca dos problemas cotidianos, a compreensão do mundo e o conhecimento da realidade social. 3.2.3 AS FASES DE APLICAÇÃO DO MÉTODO Freire propõe a aplicação de seu método nas cinco fases seguintes: • 1ª fase: levantamento do universo vocabular do grupo. Nessa fase, ocorrem as interações de aproximação e conhecimento mútuo, bem como a anotação das palavras da linguagem dos membros do grupo, respeitando seu linguajar típico. • 2ª fase: escolha das palavras selecionadas, seguindo os critérios de riqueza fonética, dificuldades fonéticas - numa sequência gradativa das mais simples para as mais complexas, do comprometimento pragmático da palavra na realidade social, cultural, política do grupo e/ou sua comunidade. • 3ª fase: criação de situações existenciais características do grupo. Trata-se de situações inseridas na realidade local, que devem ser discutidas com o intuito de abrir perspectivas para a análise crítica consciente de problemas locais, regionais e nacionais. • 4ª fase: criação das fichas-roteiro neles havia indicações de possíveis subtemas ligadas as palavras geradoras e sugestões de encaminhamentos para análise dos temas selecionados que funcionam como roteiro para os debates, as quais fossem apenas sugestões esses roteiros eram de grande valia, principalmente no inicio do trabalho quando a alfabetizador era também iniciante. • 5ª fase: criação de fichas de palavras para a decomposição das famílias fonéticas correspondentes às palavras geradoras. 3.2.4 HISTÓRIA Freire aplicou publicamente seu método pela primeira vez no Centro de Cultura Dona Olegarinha, um círculo de cultura do Movimento de Cultura Popular no Recife. Foi aplicado inicialmente a cinco alunos, dos quais três aprenderam a ler e escrever em 30 horas e outros dois desistiram antes de concluir. Baseado na experiência de Angicos, em janeiro de 1963, onde em 45 dias, alfabetizaram-se 300 trabalhadores, João Goulart, presidente do Brasil na época, chamou Paulo Freire para organizar o Plano Nacional de Alfabetização. Este plano, iniciado em janeiro de 1964, tinha como objetivo alfabetizar 2 milhões de pessoas em 20 000 círculos de cultura, e já contava com a participação da comunidade - só no estado da Guanabara, se inscreveram 6 000 pessoas. Mas, com o Golpe de Estado no Brasil em 1964, em abril, toda essa mobilização social foi reprimida e Paulo Freire foi considerado subversivo, sendo preso e, depois, exilado. Assim, esse projeto foi abortado. Em seu lugar, surgiu o Movimento Brasileiro de Alfabetização, igualmente uma iniciativa para a alfabetização, porém distinta do método freiriano. 3.3 O PERFIL DO PROFESSOR ALFABETIZADOR Alfabetizar jovens e adultos é uma ação peculiar e nem sempre se dá da mesma forma com se alfabetiza uma criança na infância o professor alfabetizador deve partir dor princípios de açãoreflexão-ação e deve estar aliado à formação continuada. A formação continuada permite refletir suas ações e repensar a sua prática, elaborando planos e/ou projetos que possam aprimorar a sua prática educativa. Alfabetizar na EJA envolve também a afetividade, o gosto e a responsabilidade. É fundamental que o professor da EJA tenha a consciência da valorização do outro, é importante valorizar o conhecimento que este aluno possui, pois durante toda a vida o aluno adquire um vasto conhecimento do senso comum e valorize também as suas experiências de vida, entretanto o diálogo tem que estar presente nas aulas, o professor tem que usar uma linguagem simples e acessível. O professor é um incentivador um meio para alcançar a motivação dos alunos e nesta fase da vida motivação é um aspecto fundamental. A prática da ação-reflexão-ação permite ao professor lançar estratégias para o sucesso do processo de ensino-aprendizagem. Ao observar turmas da EJA é comum observar que os professores regentes em tais turmas são geralmente professores experientes que despertam a confiança em seus alunos e que acreditam na educação como foco de mudança. Segundo Leal: “O conhecimento na ação, ou o conhecimento tácito, seria aquele constituído na prática cotidiana do exercício profissional. Concebemos que esse é um saber que se constrói com base nos conhecimentos prévios de formação inicial, articulado com os saberes gerados na prática cotidiana, de forma assistemática e muitas vezes sem tomada de consciência acerca dos modos de construção. Para um projeto de formação numa base reflexiva, torna-se fundamental conhecer e valorizar esses conhecimentos que são constituídos pelos professores, seja através de uma reflexão teórica, seja através desses processos eminentemente assistemáticos.” (LEAL, 2005, p. 114). A aprendizagem não pode ser simplesmente transmitida, ela é um processo de construção onde professora busca oferecer meios que favoreçam tal construção, a do conhecimento: tudo o que já foi vivido pelo aluno serve como base, o professor deve utilizar também a vivência e o conhecimento prévio do aluno para ajudá-lo na construção do saber. Aquilo que é oferecido ao alfabetizando deve fazer sentido para ele, se o professor partir de um ponto desconhecido que foge à realidade do aluno ele poderá não alcançar a compreensão necessária ao letramento. A principal função do professor na EJA é mediar, interagir o aluno com o meio, usar metodologias que favoreçam o processo de construção de ensino-aprendizagem, o aluno da atualidade espera muito mais que aprender a assinar o nome, portanto exercício de mera memorização, atividades mecânicas não permitem o êxito na EJA. A interdisciplinaridade deve fazer parte também desse processo os temas transversais como, ética, valores e cidadania são temas que norteiam a construção do conhecimento nesta fase. A educação de Jovens e Adultos traz muitos desafios tanto para professores quanto para alunos e são esses desafios que constroem práticas eficazes de alfabetização. Kelly Camargo Pulice in Moll esclarece muito bem o papel do educador na EJA, ao citar: “O papel do educador é pensar formas de intervir e transformar a realidade, problematizando-a, dialogando com o educando. Em sala de aula o importante não é “depositar” conteúdos, mas despertar uma nova forma de relação com a experiência vivida. Portanto, antes de qualquer coisa, é preciso conhecer o aluno: conhecê-lo como indivíduo num contexto social, com seus problemas, seus medos, suas necessidades, valorizando seu saber, sua cultura, sua oralidade, seus desejos, seus sonhos, isto possibilita uma aprendizagem integradora, abrangente, não compartimentalizada, não fragmentada.” (MOLL, 2004, p. 11). 3.4 PERFIL DO ESTUDANTE DA EJA E OS MOTIVOS DE EVASÃO Os alunos da EJA são geralmente pessoas vindas de famílias de baixa renda, sendo que muitas vezes os pais também não são alfabetizados, isso faz com que muitas vezes se sentem discriminados pela sociedade; vivemos em uma sociedade que para toda a nossa rotina é necessário a leitura,para se tomar um ônibus é necessário conseguir identificá-lo, para fazer compras tem que conhecer os números, contudo esse aluno da EJA pode se sentir excluído da sociedade, quando pensamos em exclusão nos remetemos a pessoas com deficiência, mas a exclusão não se limita a deficiência intelectuais e mentais, para esses alunos que por alguns motivos não estudaram nos primeiros anos de vida este termo também cabe. O autor Bieler fala sobre a importância da inclusão. “[...] A perspectiva da educação inclusiva vai além da deficiência. Esta é apenas uma das áreas que seriam beneficiadas com ela (educação inclusiva) A qualidade da educação é que está em debate porque hoje não se considera (nos sistemas educacionais ) a diversidade dos alunos, os níveis de necessidade e as características individuais. A proposta da educação inclusiva melhoraria a qualidade do ensino para todos. Não se trata só de incluir deficientes nas sala de aula.” (BIELER, 2004, p. 11). O aluno da EJA possui necessidade educacional especial independente de ter ou não deficiência física. Uma vez que estes alunos vão para a escola após um longo dia de serviço, sua mente já está cansada, ao contrario de uma criança que não trabalha e nem tem preocupações com a família, como os adultos. A maioria destes alunos da EJA tem a necessidade de voltar a escola para se sentir incluído na sociedade, procuram melhores condições de vida , almeja um melhor cargo no trabalho, muitos buscam a leitura com o objetivo de ser mais participativos e críticos na sociedade e até por motivos religiosos como o sonho de aprender ler para conseguir ler a bíblia, entretanto boa parte destes alunos busca uma realização pessoal, principalmente os mais idosos que as vezes são motivos de chacotas por estarem estudando nesta fase da vida. Os alunos da EJA por se tratarem de adolescentes acima de 14 anos e adultos, já tem suas experiências de vida, muitas vezes até traumas podem ter sido criados por não ter conseguido estudar anteriormente por vários motivos, desta forma os alunos criam um bloqueio, por isto o professor deve estar seguro para tentar quebrar estes bloqueios. Às vezes estes alunos podem estar com sua autoestima muito baixa, aí entra o papel do professor para traçar práticas adequadas para incentivá-los a motivação. A autoestima é fundamental para este processo de alfabetização, pois quando há esperanças se tem forças para vencer os desafios na busca de um objetivo. As turmas da EJA funcionam geralmente a noite que é o horário disponível para pessoas que trabalham diariamente, deve haver muita força de vontade e incentivo para jovens e adultos concluírem o curso. O número de evasão na EJA é muito grande, os alunos se sentem desmotivados e cansados; a grande maioria trabalha o dia inteiro, pegam ônibus lotado, muitas mulheres não trabalham fora, porém trabalham em casa. É fundamental que os professores da EJA sejam dinâmicos, aproximem o conteúdo à realidade do aluno, procurem sempre inovar e não criem barreiras para afastar esses alunos. O professor da EJA tem que estar motivado para conseguir motivar os alunos, todavia que os alunos são reflexos dos professores. Quando se pensa em evasão na EJA é de suma importância conhecer o perfil destes alunos, para tentar entender por que se dá esta evasão. As causas evasão na EJA são muitas, podemos destacar o cansaço após um dia de serviço, a distância entre casa/escola que aumenta as possibilidades de assaltos, entre outros fatores que se dá por conta da violência urbana. Outro fator é o apoio da família que nem sempre existe, o apoio do governo, da escola, direção, professores muitas vezes não estimulam os alunos; e também o desinteresse interfere sobre esta questão. É notório que existem fatores que contribuem direta ou indiretamente na evasão escolar, isso é uma preocupação de muitos, tais como escola, gestão escolar, governo, entre outras instituições. O fracasso escolar também é uma das causas de evasão, na Proposta Curricular para o 1º segmento do ensino fundamental (1997) consta que: “No público que efetivamente frequenta os programas de educação de jovens e adultos, é cada vez mais reduzido o número daqueles que não tiveram nenhuma passagem anterior pela escola. É também cada vez mais dominante a presença de adolescentes e jovens recém saídos do ensino regular, por onde tiveram passagens acidentadas.” É fundamental que aluno e professor compreendam que erros podem ser transformados em aprendizagem, é possível aprender com eles, os erros não podem ser contribuintes para causar evasão. De acordo com Cortella (1999, p. 112): “[...] O erro não ocupa um lugar externo ao processo de conhecer, investigar é bem diferente de receber uma revelação límpida, transparente e perfeita. O erro é parte integrante do conhecer não porque “errar é humano”, mas porque nosso conhecimento sobre o mundo dá-se em uma relação viva e cambiante (sem o. (shrink)

It is commonly assumed that personalization technologies used by Google for the purpose of tailoring search results for individual users create filter bubbles, which reinforce users’ political views. Surprisingly, empirical evidence for a personalization-induced filter bubble has not been forthcoming. Here, we investigate whether filter bubbles may result instead from a searcher’s choice of search queries. In the first experiment, participants rated the left-right leaning of 48 queries (search strings), 6 for each of 8 topics (abortion, benefits, climate change, sex (...) equality, immigration, nuclear family, Islam, and taxation). An independent sample of participants were then asked to select one of these queries for each of the 8 topics. With the exception of the topic of Islam, participants were significantly more likely to select a query corresponding to their own political leaning, compared to other queries, explaining between 12% and 39% of the variance. A second experiment investigated the effect of the political leaning of the same queries on the overall political leaning of Search Engine Result Pages (SERPs) in Google Search. The top six results of each SERP were rated collectively by a third group of participants, explaining 36.3% of the variance across all 48 search terms (p < .00001). That is, (1) participants in our experiments tended to select own-side search queries, and (2) using those queries tended to yield own-side search results when using the Google search engine. Our results are consistent with the notion of a self-imposed filter bubble in which query selection plays a salient role. (shrink)

There is no agreement on whether any invertebrates are conscious and no agreement on a methodology that could settle the issue. How can the debate move forward? I distinguish three broad types of approach: theory-heavy, theory-neutral and theory-light. Theory-heavy and theory-neutral approaches face serious problems, motivating a middle path: the theory-light approach. At the core of the theory-light approach is a minimal commitment about the relation between phenomenal consciousness and cognition that is compatible with many specific theories of consciousness: the (...) hypothesis that phenomenally conscious perception of a stimulus facilitates, relative to unconscious perception, a cluster of cognitive abilities in relation to that stimulus. This “facilitation hypothesis” can productively guide inquiry into invertebrate consciousness. What is needed? At this stage, not more theory, and not more undirected data gathering. What is needed is a systematic search for consciousness-linked cognitive abilities, their relationships to each other, and their sensitivity to masking. (shrink)

This paper investigates whether search engines and other new modes of online communication should be covered by free speech principles. It criticizes the analogical reason-ing that contemporary American courts and scholars have used to liken search engines to newspapers, and to extend free speech coverage to them based on that likeness. There are dissimilarities between search engines and newspapers that undermine the key analogy, and also rival analogies that can be drawn which don’t recommend free speech protection for search engines. (...) Partly on these bases, we argue that an analogical approach to questions of free speech coverage is of limited use in this context. Credible verdicts about how free speech principles should apply to new modes of online com-munication require us to re-excavate the normative foundations of free speech. This method for deciding free speech coverage suggests that only a subset of search engine outputs and similar online communication should receive special protection against government regulation. (shrink)

Marine and coastal ecosystems are crucial in maintaining human livelihood, facilitating social development, and reducing climate change impacts. Studies have examined how the benefit perception of aquatic ecosystems, knowledge, and emotion about climate change affect peoples’ support for marine protection. However, their interaction effects remain understudied. The current study explores the intricate interaction effect of the benefit perception of aquatic ecosystems, knowledge, and worry about climate change on marine protection support. Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics was employed on a dataset (...) of 709 stakeholders from 42 countries generated by MaCoBioS—a research project funded by the European Commission Horizon 2020. The statistical analysis shows that the impacts of benefit perception of ocean ecosystems, knowledge, and worry about climate change on marine protection support vary due to their interactions. Specifically, when stakeholders perceive ocean ecosystems to have little utility in mitigating climate change, greater climate change knowledge and concern are associated with a higher level of marine protection support. Nevertheless, in the scenarios where stakeholders perceive the benefits of ocean ecosystems, the effect of climate change knowledge becomes conditional on the worry level. If stakeholders are concerned about climate change, those with a greater level of climate change knowledge will associate with a higher level of marine protection support. Otherwise, greater climate change knowledge will result in lower support. These findings highlight emotion’s importance in directing climate change knowledge’s effect on marine protection support. Linking people’s “objects of care” to the consequences of climate change can help improve climate change communication effectiveness. (shrink)

A set of visual search experiments tested the proposal that focused attention is needed to detect change. Displays were arrays of rectangles, with the target being the item that continually changed its orientation or contrast polarity. Five aspects of performance were examined: linearity of response, processing time, capacity, selectivity, and memory trace. Detection of change was found to be a self-terminating process requiring a time that increased linearly with the number of items in the display. Capacity for orientation was found (...) to be about 5 items, a value comparable to estimates of attentional capacity. Observers were able to filter out both static and dynamic variations in irrelevant properties. Analysis also indicated a memory for previously-attended locations. These results support the hypothesis that the process needed to detect change is much the same as the attentional process needed to detect complex static patterns. Interestingly, the features of orientation and polarity were found to be handled in somewhat different ways. Taken together, these results not only provide evidence that focused attention is needed to see change, but also show that change detection itself can provide new insights into the nature of attentional processing. (shrink)

Most consciousness researchers, almost no matter what their views of the metaphysics of consciousness, can agree that the first step in a science of consciousness is the search for the neural correlate of consciousness (the NCC). The reason for this agreement is that the notion of ‘correlation’ doesn’t by itself commit one to any particular metaphysical view about the relation between (neural) matter and consciousness. For example, some might treat the correlates as causally related, while others might view the correlation (...) as evidence for identity between conscious states and brain states. The common ground therefore seems to be that the scientific search for the NCC is largely independent of the metaphysics of consciousness. (shrink)

This paper addresses a fundamental line of research in neuroscience: the identification of a putative neural processing core of the cerebral cortex, often claimed to be “canonical”. This “canonical” core would be shared by the entire cortex, and would explain why it is so powerful and diversified in tasks and functions, yet so uniform in architecture. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the search for canonical explanations over the past 40 years, discussing the theoretical frameworks informing this research. (...) It will highlight a bias that, in my opinion, has limited the success of this research project, that of overlooking the dimension of cortical development. The earliest explanation of the cerebral cortex as canonical was attempted by David Marr, deriving putative cortical circuits from general mathematical laws, loosely following a deductive-nomological account. Although Marr’s theory turned out to be incorrect, one of its merits was to have put the issue of cortical circuit development at the top of his agenda. This aspect has been largely neglected in much of the research on canonical models that has followed. Models proposed in the 1980s were conceived as mechanistic. They identified a small number of components that interacted as a basic circuit, with each component defined as a function. More recent models have been presented as idealized canonical computations, distinct from mechanistic explanations, due to the lack of identifiable cortical components. Currently, the entire enterprise of coming up with a single canonical explanation has been criticized as being misguided, and the premise of the uniformity of the cortex has been strongly challenged. This debate is analyzed here. The legacy of the canonical circuit concept is reflected in both positive and negative ways in recent large-scale brain projects, such as the Human Brain Project. One positive aspect is that these projects might achieve the aim of producing detailed simulations of cortical electrical activity, a negative one regards whether they will be able to find ways of simulating how circuits actually develop. (shrink)

An introductory logic textbook where the central concept is not deduction but search and logical form. (Deduction - logical consequence - drops out as a special case. TIt is meant for a class-based rather than a lecture-based course, and for students with general interests.

I analyse the impact of search engines on our cognitive and epistemic practices. For that purpose, I describe the processes of assessment of documents on the Web as relying on distributed cognition. Search engines together with Web users, are distributed assessment systems whose task is to enable efficient allocation of cognitive resources of those who use search engines. Specifying the cognitive function of search engines within these distributed assessment systems allows interpreting anew the changes that have been caused by search (...) engine technologies. I describe search engines as implementing reputation systems and point out the similarities with other reputation systems. I thus call attention to the continuity in the distributed cognitive processes that determine the allocation of cognitive resources for information gathering from others. (shrink)

How should we think about the ways search engines can go wrong? Following the publication of Safiya Noble’s Algorithms of Oppression (Noble 2018), a view has emerged that racist, sexist, and other problematic results should be thought of as indicative of algorithmic bias. In this paper, I offer an alternative angle on these results, building on Noble’s suggestion that search engines are complicit in a racial contract (Mills 1990). I argue that racist and sexist results should be thought of as (...) part of the workings of the social system of white ignorance. Along the way, I will argue that we should think about search engines not as sources of testimony, but as information-classification systems, and make a preliminary case for the importance of the social epistemology of technology. (shrink)

How a Semantic Search Algorithm for unedited sources may look. - The basics for the Philosophy Dictionary of Arguments.

This article examines two questions about scientists’ search for knowledge. First, which search strategies generate discoveries effectively? Second, is it advantageous to diversify search strategies? We argue pace Weisberg and Muldoon, “Epistemic Landscapes and the Division of Cognitive Labor”, that, on the first question, a search strategy that deliberately seeks novel research approaches need not be optimal. On the second question, we argue they have not shown epistemic reasons exist for the division of cognitive labor, identifying the errors that led (...) to their conclusions. Furthermore, we generalize the epistemic landscape model, showing that one should be skeptical about the benefits of social learning in epistemically complex environments. (shrink)

Knowledge has almost always been treated as good, better than mere true belief, but it is remarkably difficult to explain what it is about knowledge that makes it better. I call this “the value problem.” I have previously argued that most forms of reliabilism cannot handle the value problem. In this article I argue that the value problem is more general than a problem for reliabilism, infecting a host of different theories, including some that are internalist. An additional problem is (...) that not all instances of true belief seem to be good on balance, so even if a given instance of knowing p is better than merely truly believing p, not all instances of knowing will be good enough to explain why knowledge has received so much attention in the history of philosophy. The article aims to answer two questions: What makes knowingp better than merely truly believing p? The answer involves an exploration of the connection between believing and the agency of the knower. Knowing is an act in which the knower gets credit for achieving truth. What makes some instances of knowing good enough to make the investigation of knowledge worthy of so much attention? The answer involves the connection between the good of believing truths of certain kinds and a good life. In the best kinds of knowing, the knower not only gets credit for getting the truth but also gets credit for getting a desirable truth. The kind of value that makes knowledge a fitting object of extensive philosophical inquiry is not independent of moral value and the wider values of a good life. (shrink)

This paper pursues the idea that human and non-human great apes share a common set of directive (imperative) gestures and their meanings. We investigate gestures that are multifunctional, in that they have different effects in different contexts, focusing on non-human ape gestures that communicate “Stop that” in some contexts, and “Move away” in others. What may superficially appear to be lexical ambiguity can be derived from a single abstract lexical entry, “Not X!”, concluded to be a candidate for a universal (...) building block of meaning, shared by human and non-human great apes, reflections of which may also be found in the pragmatic gestures in humans. (shrink)

The Hyperuniverse Programme, introduced in Arrigoni and Friedman (2013), fosters the search for new set-theoretic axioms. In this paper, we present the procedure envisaged by the programme to find new axioms and the conceptual framework behind it. The procedure comes in several steps. Intrinsically motivated axioms are those statements which are suggested by the standard concept of set, i.e. the `maximal iterative concept', and the programme identi fies higher-order statements motivated by the maximal iterative concept. The satisfaction of these statements (...) (H-axioms) in countable transitive models, the collection of which constitutes the `hyperuniverse' (H), has remarkable 1st-order consequences, some of which we review in section 5. (shrink)

In the spirit of explanatory pluralism, this chapter argues that causal and noncausal explanations of a phenomenon are compatible, each being useful for bringing out different sorts of insights. After reviewing a model-based account of scientific explanation, which can accommodate causal and noncausal explanations alike, an important core conception of noncausal explanation is identified. This noncausal form of model-based explanation is illustrated using the example of how Earth scientists in a subfield known as aeolian geomorphology are explaining the formation of (...) regularlyspaced sand ripples. The chapter concludes that even when it comes to everyday "medium-sized dry goods" such as sand ripples, where there is a complete causal story to be told, one can find examples of noncausal scientific explanations. (shrink)

A very influential idea in the epistemology of modality is that we acquire knowledge of metaphysical modality through knowledge of essence. As a consequence, the epistemology of essence becomes crucial in the attempt to answer the question of how we come to know modal propositions. In this paper I investigate Lowe’s and Hale’s approach to the epistemology of essence and argue that both of them remain in a crucial, structural sense incomplete. Systematizing this criticism against Lowe and Hale, I then (...) break down desiderata of what I call a structurally complete picture of the epistemology of essence. Finally, I discuss Husserl’s epistemology of essence and defend it against a notorious objection. However, Husserl’s approach also seems to remain incomplete, due to its appeal to imagination, which operates on the basis of background assumptions that are themselves in need of justification. I indicate, however, that a Husserlian theory of intuitive awareness of universals might supply us with (direct) justification of these background assumptions and, hence, that we might be able to paint a structurally complete picture of the epistemology of essence with Husserlian means. (shrink)

Doxastic involuntarists, as I categorize them, say that it’s impossible to form a belief as an intentional action. But what exactly is it to form a belief, as opposed to simply getting yourself to have one? This question has been insufficiently addressed, and the lacuna threatens the involuntarists’ position: if the question isn’t answered, their view will lack any clear content; but, after considering some straightforward ways of answering it, I argue that they would make involuntarism either false or insignificant. (...) I also examine several involuntarist arguments, and find them faltering at just this point: inadequate attention to belief-formation results in unsound arguments or insignificant conclusions. The viability of involuntarism as a meaningful position, I conclude, turns on whether the notion of belief-formation can be further developed. (shrink)

The significance of and the role played by Knowledge Management (KM) is ever increasing in today's business and organizational decision-making environment. This paper attempts to underline the importance of organizing knowledge not for its own sake, but for its efficient use in organizational decision making. The tremendous explosion of knowledge resources, both electronic and conventional, within the last few decades calls for an understanding of how knowledge is organized for management of data and information. This is so for the reason (...) that they can be proficiently employed to create value and utility. This also calls for a search for 'relevance' in KM with regard to its situated nature in different contexts within which knowledge is situated, and that which nevertheless indirectly refers to its ontological scaffolding. We have devised two simple mathematical models of reference with regard to the design of the systems mostly intended for organizing knowledge in knowledge organizations for its most efficient utilization. The model specifies several unique scenarios aided by discovery of arguments related to its ontological framework within which knowledge is situated. Several contexts were drawn to draw inferences from the research study. The results bear relevance to knowledge managers who make important decisions for realization of organizational goals and objectives. (shrink)

We can attend to the logic of Anselm's ontological argument, and amuse ourselves for a few hours unraveling its convoluted word-play, or we can seek to look beyond the flawed logic, to the search for God it expresses. From the perspective of this second approach the Ontological Argument might be seen as more than a mere argument - indeed, as something of a contemplative exercise. One can see in the argument a tantalizing attempt to capture in logical form the devotee’s (...) experience of the presence of God in the contemplation of God. It is a peculiarity of the argument that it can seem hopelessly silly or richly evocative depending upon which of these approaches one takes. In this essay I examine the flawed logic of the Ontological Argument, but then attempt to reflect upon the contemplative experience that may underlie it. (shrink)

What are intuitions? Stereotypical examples may suggest that they are the results of common intellectual reflexes. But some intuitions defy the stereotype: there are hard-won intuitions that take d...

In this paper I develop a philosophical account of actual mathematical infinity that does not demand ontologically or epistemologically problematic assumptions. The account is based on a simple metaphor in which we think of indefinitely continuing processes as defining objects. It is shown that such a metaphor is valid in terms of mathematical practice, as well as in line with empirical data on arithmetical cognition.

This study aims to describe the COVID-19 related information searching behaviors and the relationship between those behaviors and the satisfaction with the COVID-19 related information searched on the Internet among university students during first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam.

Classical presentations of the Buddhist path prescribe the cultivation of various good qualities that are necessary for spiritual progress, from mindfulness and loving-kindness to faith and wisdom. Examining the way in which such qualities are described and classified in early Buddhism—with special reference to their treatment in the Visuddhimagga by the fifth-century Buddhist thinker Buddhaghosa—the present article employs a comparative method in order to identify the Buddhist catalog of virtues. The first part sketches the characteristics of virtue as analyzed by (...) neo-Aristotelian theories. Relying on these accounts, the second part considers three lists from early Buddhism as possible catalogs of virtue: the components of ethical conduct, the 37 factors that contribute to awakening, and the wholesome or beautiful mental factors. I then raise the question of why the Buddhist tradition developed several classifications of virtue, whereas the Western tradition of virtue ethics used a single category. Appealing to the connection between the virtues and living well in the eudaimonistic version of virtue ethics, I propose that one of the reasons why Buddhism developed multiple lists of virtues is its pluralistic acceptance of different modalities of living well and associated practices, in MacIntyre’s sense of the term. These modalities and practices are not equal, but are ordered hierarchically. Accordingly, I conclude that Buddhist ethics ought to be seen as a pluralist-gradualist system rather than a universalist theory. (shrink)

Social norms – rules governing which behaviours are deemed appropriate or inappropriate within a given community – are typically taken to be uniquely human. Recently, this position has been challenged by a number of philosophers, cognitive scientists, and ethologists, who have suggested that social norms may also be found in certain non-human animal communities. Such claims have elicited considerable scepticism from norm cognition researchers, who doubt that any non-human animals possess the psychological capacities necessary for normative cognition. However, there is (...) little agreement among these researchers about what these psychological prerequisites are. This makes empirical study of animal social norms difficult, since it is not clear what we are looking for and thus what should count as behavioural evidence for the presence (or absence) of social norms in animals. To break this impasse, we offer an approach that moves beyond contested psychological criteria for social norms. This approach is inspired by the animal culture research program, which has made a similar shift away from heavily psychological definitions of ‘culture’ and to become organized around a cluster of more empirically tractable concepts of culture. Here, we propose an analogous set of constructs built around the core notion of a normative regularity, which we define as a socially maintained pattern of behavioural conformity within a community. We suggest methods for studying potential normative regularities in wild and captive primates. We also discuss the broader scientific and philosophical implications of this research program with respect to questions of human uniqueness, animal welfare and conservation. (shrink)

This paper applies a virtue epistemology approach to using the Internet, as to improve our information-seeking behaviours. Virtue epistemology focusses on the cognitive character of agents and is less concerned with the nature of truth and epistemic justification as compared to traditional analytic epistemology. Due to this focus on cognitive character and agency, it is a fruitful but underexplored approach to using the Internet in an epistemically desirable way. Thus, the central question in this paper is: How to use the (...) Internet in an epistemically virtuous way? Using the work of Jason Baehr, it starts by outlining nine intellectual or epistemic virtues: curiosity, intellectual autonomy, intellectual humility, attentiveness, intellectual carefulness, intellectual thoroughness, open-mindedness, intellectual courage and intellectual tenacity. It then explores how we should deploy these virtues and avoid the corresponding vices when interacting with the Internet, particularly search engines. Whilst an epistemically virtuous use of the Internet will not guarantee that one will acquire true beliefs, understanding or even knowledge, it will strongly improve one’s information-seeking behaviours. The paper ends with arguing that teaching and assessing online intellectual virtues should be part of school and university curricula, perhaps embedded in critical thinking courses, or even better, as individual units. (shrink)

This chapter appeared in: G. J. van Nes et al. (eds.), Relational Anthropology for Contemporary Economics. Dordrecht: Springer, 121-132. -/- Abstract: This chapter is a comment on the contribution of Rebecca Klein in this volume, preceded by a conceptual analysis of the argument that is developed in the Homo Amans position paper. The main question that is raised is twofold and concerns the relation between science and worldview on the one hand, and between science and economic life on the other. (...) With respect to the science – worldview relationship, it is doubted that science can play the role the authors of the Homo Amans project expect it can have. What they have in mind is that science helps in validating and legitimizing a biblically informed concept of love. This author disagrees, to a large extent. Science can indeed orient itself on ideas and intuitions that are based on one’s worldview. But it cannot prove the truth of these intuitions and ideas. To think so, is to commit a naturalistic fallacy. With respect to the relationship between science and economic life, the author is also not convinced that science and philosophy as academic disciplines will by themselves be able (and should be expected to be able) to transform deeply ingrained, institutionally anchored economic practices. New theories, concepts, and paradigms are a precondition for change, but they do not bring about change by themselves. What is needed is a change in the practices themselves, a change that is both personal and comprehensive. What is needed is a clear, succinct, and encompassing view on the intrinsic normativity of economic interactions between relevant stakeholders in what we call ‘the’ economy. This is a huge undertaking, that requires painstaking ‘phenomenological’ analyses of a wide variety of economic practices. The chapter agrees with most of Klein’s observations and concerns with respect to the position paper. These observations and concerns gain even more depth and relief given the conceptual distinctions that are made in the chapter. (shrink)

In Search of the Girl Soldiers of Aboke Abstract In a story about class, power, belonging, disappearance, and political tension, journalist Els De Temmerman tells the story of one hundred and thirty-nine girls abducted from the Aboke School in Uganda, raped, given as wives to the soldiers, and forced to kill other children. Collectively, their stories become the voice of all children abducted into heinous armies; this is a summary of their disappearance, struggle, death, and, for some, liberation. The Lord’s (...) Resistance Army is run by Joseph Kony, a man with meager education and plans to “overthrow the government in Uganda and then rule the country by the Ten Commandments” (Temmerman 15). Temmerman begins each chapter with a Scripture, such as “‘The lion has come up from the thicket, and the destroyer of the gentiles is on his way; he is gone forth from his place to make thy land desolate’” (Temmerman 1). Kony believes his twisted movement has Biblical backing, thus justifying their crimes. These Scriptures describe what is taking place throughout Uganda. Like Ocol in Ugandan Okot p’Bitek’s Song of Lawino, the LRA think they are bringing civilization, “drunk with the illusion of real power” (p’Bitek 136), cleansing the world of evil. They believe that they are God’s chosen people. This is also the story of Sister Rachele’s plea to the Pope and the rulers of nations to rescue these children. President Obama is the first U. S. President to send in American troops. In Search of the Girl Soldiers of Aboke Works Cited . (shrink)

This thesis is a work of experimental physics, a search for new physics with the ATLAS experiment. I post this thesis on the PhilArchive because it includes a pedagogical summary of quantum mechanics and the standard model of particle physics in the combination of chapters 1-2 and appendix A. This was my attempt at the end of my PhD of giving a bird's eye view of the standard model, with a thorough bibliography of the publication trail that lead to its (...) development. I find myself pointing to it at philosophy conferences. // -/- This thesis presents a review of work on the performance of the reconstruction and identification of hadronic tau decays and studies of events reconstructed with a ditau final state with the ATLAS detector at the Large Hadron Collider. The first cut-based tau identification used with ATLAS data and the first observations of W→τν and Z→ττ at ATLAS are described, as well as many of the issues concerning the calibration and systematic uncertainties of reconstructed taus. The first measurement of the Z→ττ cross section at ATLAS with 2010 dataset is reviewed. Last, results are presented from the first search for high-mass resonances decaying to ττ at ATLAS with the 2011 dataset. (shrink)

Epistemologists are engaged, among other things, in the business of formulating epistemic norms. That is, they formulate principles that tell us what we should believe and to what degree of confidence, or how to evaluate such epistemic states. In The End of Epistemology As We Know It, Brian Talbot argues that thus far, most of the theories resulting from these efforts are flawed. In this critical notice I examine three of his arguments.

In this paper, we outline a comprehensive approach to composed analogies based on the theory of conceptual spaces. Our algorithmic model understands analogy as a search procedure and builds upon the idea that analogical similarity depends on a conceptual phenomena called ‘dimensional salience.’ We distinguish between category-based, property-based, event-based, and part-whole analogies, and propose computationally-oriented methods for explicating them in terms of conceptual spaces.

Experiments are presented showing that visual search for Mueller-Lyer (ML) stimuli is based on complete configurations, rather than component segments. Segments easily detected in isolation were difficult to detect when embedded in a configuration, indicating preemption by low-level groups. This preemption—which caused stimulus components to become inaccessible to rapid search—was an all-or-nothing effect, and so could serve as a powerful test of grouping. It is shown that these effects are unlikely to be due to blurring by simple spatial filters at (...) early visual levels. It is proposed instead that they are due to more sophisticated processes that rapidly bind contour fragments into spatially-extended assemblies. These results support the view that rapid visual search cannot access the primitives formed at the earliest stages of visual processing; rather, it can access only higher-level, more ecologically-relevant structures. (shrink)