The European project European and Latin American Systems of Ethics Regulation of Biomedical Research Project (EULABOR) has carried out the first comparative analysis of ethics regulation systems for biomedical research in seven countries in Europe and Latin America, evaluating their roles in the protection of human subjects. We developed a conceptual and methodological framework defining ‘ethics regulation system for biomedical research’ as a set of actors, institutions, codes and laws involved in overseeing the ethics of biomedical research on humans. This (...) framework allowed us to develop comprehensive national reports by conducting semi-structured interviews to key informants. These reports were summarised and analysed in a comparative analysis. The study showed that the regulatory framework for clinical research in these countries differ in scope. It showed that despite the different political contexts, actors involved and motivations for creating the regulation, in most of the studied countries it was the government who took the lead in setting up the system. The study also showed that Europe and Latin America are similar regarding national bodies and research ethics committees, but the Brazilian system has strong and noteworthy specificities. (shrink)

Background: Several countries have recently changed their model of consent for organ donation from opt-in to opt-out. We undertook a systematic review to determine public knowledge and attitudes towards these models in Europe. Methods: Six databases were explored between 1 January 2008 and 15 December 2017. We selected empirical studies addressing either knowledge or attitudes towards the systems of consent for deceased organ donation by lay people in Europe, including students. Study selection, data extraction, and quality assessment were conducted by (...) two or more reviewers independently. Findings: Awareness of the consent model was lower in opt-out countries than in opt-in countries. A majority of the public agrees with opt-in, regardless of the law in their own country. There are ambivalent attitudes regarding the opt-out system. The public tend to prefer opt-in and mandatory choice over opt-out when several options are offered. Interpretation: The assumption that people in opt-out countries are aware of the legal requirements to be excluded from the pool of potential donors is not supported by the results of this review. This is a concern, since ignorance hinders people's autonomy regarding organ donation decision-making. Higher awareness of consent model in opt-in countries may reflect greater efforts to inform the public through campaigns to motivate donation. Legal moves towards opt-out are at odds with people's expressed preferences. Main limitations of this review are the lack of data from some countries, study population heterogeneity, and methodological shortcomings. (shrink)

Using the KenKen puzzle may improve students’ performance in operating integers. Quasi-experimental research was conducted to determine the effectiveness of this intervention on the performance and attitude of students in a collaborative learning environment. One hundred four purposively selected Grade 7 students in Nueva Ecija served as respondents and the experimentation lasted four days following the K to 12 Learners Manual. An increase in the student’s performance was found after utilizing the KenKen puzzle, where a significant difference between the posttest (...) and pretest was recorded after the four days of utilization of the puzzle. Besides, students’ attitude toward operating integers showed positivity as it is enjoyable, interesting, challenging, and developing creativity and critical thinking. Moreover, a strong relationship was found between the students’ performance and attitude in operating integers. This suggests that the KenKen puzzle helped improve the students’ performance and attitude in operating integers in a collaborative learning environment. (shrink)

The Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) provides that “an individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead.” We show that the UDDA contains two conflicting interpretations of the phrase “cessation of functions.” By one interpretation, what matters for the determination of death is the cessation of spontaneous functions only, regardless of their generation by artificial means. By the (...) other, what matters is the cessation of both spontaneous and artificially supported functions. Because each UDDA criterion uses a different interpretation, the law is conceptually inconsistent. A single consistent interpretation would lead to the conclusion that conscious individuals whose respiratory and circulatory functions are artificially supported are actually dead, or that individuals whose brain is entirely and irreversibly destroyed may be alive. We explore solutions to mitigate the inconsistency. (shrink)

As touch remains commonly defined by the closeness it physically implies and it rhetorically evokes, the mere notion of distant touch and of distal haptic perception seems peculiar. But Aristotle’s perspective, which I wish to take as a point of departure, is firm: we perceive the objects of touch, the hot and the cold, the hard and the soft, the curved and the sharp, through other things: δι' ἑτέρων. In this article, I would like to explore this ἕτερος by showing (...) how the otherness of perception always implies an intermediary, a middle point (μέσος), i.e. an other not so other, an other that is able to translate the much more distant otherness of the perceived object. To explore these forgotten layers of alterity that fall into what we commonly conceive of as the impalpable emptiness of distance, I propose to study the idea of distant touch from the perspective of phenomenological aesthetics. In order to do so, I will first examine some aspects of the Husserlian account of perception and will then focus on the phenomenology of distant touch in Alejandra Costamagna’s novel El Sistema del Tacto [The System of Touch] (2018). (shrink)

Drawing on Husserl, Ingarden and Levinas’ works, this article explores Ibsen’s Rosmersholm from a phenomenological perspective, aiming to shed light both on this play and on the phenomenology of hunger and theatre, as well as on the larger meaning of alimentary enjoyment.

There is a relationship between touch and language at the heart of which lies the philosophical problem of the secret. As Derrida points out, since Aristotle touch has been qualified as ἄδηλον: secret, nocturnal, barely apparent. After some brief etymological remarks, in this article, I explore the mystery that touch represents for language through Levinas’ concept of the secret, thematizing two levels: first, that of the contemporary critique of ocularcentrism, then the level of the tactile experiences that can hardly be (...) put into words. (shrink)

Alireza Bagheri supports a policy on organ procurement where individuals could choose their own definition of death between two or more socially accepted alternatives. First, we claim that such a policy, without any criterion to distinguish accepted from acceptable definitions, easily leads to the slippery slope that Bagheri tries to avoid. Second, we suggest that a public discussion about the circumstances under which the dead donor rule could be violated is more productive of social trust than constantly moving the line (...) between life and death. (shrink)

Laura Specker Sullivan (2022) makes a fairly compelling case for the value of the perspectives of Buddhist practitioners in neuroethics. In this study, Tibetan Buddhist monks have been asked, among other things, whether consciousness, in brain-injured patients in a minimally conscious state, entails a duty to preserve life. In our view, some of the participants’ responses could be used to inform the bioethical debate on death determination.

The classification of preserved hypothalamic activity in brain death and brainstem death as functional or non-functional has become a subject of debate. While proponents of the neurological criterion claim that these activities lack functional significance (Shemie et al. 2014), Nair-Collins and Joffe (2023) argue for their functional physiological role. However, the interpretation of the term "function" within the medico-legal framework, where death is characterized by the irreversible cessation of all brain functions, remains unclear. -/- My intention here is not to (...) engage in a debate over the validity of different viewpoints regarding the functional significance of preserved activities in the hypothalamus or the heart. Rather, I aim to highlight the critical importance of exploring and defining the concept of function in medicine, which currently lacks clarity. My point is that, whatever our position in the brain death debate, reaching a consensus on this conceptual matter would minimize misunderstandings and establish a robust foundation for further insightful analysis. (shrink)

Goal: To assess public knowledge and attitudes towards the family’s role in deceased organ donation in Europe. -/- Methods: A systematic search was conducted in CINHAL, MEDLINE, PAIS Index, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science on December 15th, 2017. Eligibility criteria were socio-empirical studies conducted in Europe from 2008 to 2017 addressing either knowledge or attitudes by the public towards the consent system, including the involvement of the family in the decision-making process, for post-mortem organ retrieval. Screening and data collection (...) were performed by two or more independent reviewers for each record. -/- Results: Of the 1482 results, 467 studies were assessed in full-text form, and 33 were included in this synthesis. When the deceased has not expressed any preference, a majority of the public support the family's role as a surrogate decision-maker. When the deceased expressly consented, the respondents' answers depend on whether they see themselves as potential donors or as a deceased's next-of-kin. Answers also depend on the relationship between the deceased and the decision-maker(s) within the family, and on their ethnic or cultural background. -/- Conclusions: Public views on the authority of the family in organ donation decision-making require further research. A common conceptual framework and validated well-designed questionnaires are needed for future studies. The findings should be considered in the development of Government policy and guidance regarding the role of families in deceased organ donation. (shrink)

The work of Emmanuel Levinas has been both abundantly recognized and criticized in moral philosophy. This Janus-faced attitude is also present in ecological theories, which find fertile ground in Levinas’ thought without being able to explain its apparent anthropocentrism. Opposing hermeneutical paths tend to focus either on otherness as an absolute alterity, implying a potentially unlimited responsibility for all alterities, or on otherness as a re-foundation of humanism, leading to the conclusion that responsibility is unlimited only among humans. Here I (...) seek to disentangle Levinas from these two extreme interpretations, first by reviewing ecological readings of his philosophy, in both the Francophone and Anglophone spheres, and second by analyzing specific Levinasian terms that might be particularly helpful for a non-anthropocentric or deep ecology. The main results of this investigation are a distinction between the ethics of responsibility and the ethics of vulnerability, an explanation of Levinasian compulsory or methodological humanism, and a schematic model of sensibility as enjoyment/vulnerability capable of supporting deep ecology without the traditional notions of free will, rights, or values. (shrink)

Objectives To increase postmortem organ donation rates, several countries are adopting an opt-out (presumed consent) policy, meaning that individuals are deemed donors unless they expressly refused so. Although opt-out countries tend to have higher donation rates, there is no conclusive evidence that this is caused by the policy itself. The main objective of this study is to better assess the direct impact of consent policy defaults per se on deceased organ recovery rates when considering the role of the family in (...) the decision-making process. This study does not take into account any indirect effects of defaults, such as potential psychological and behavioural effects on individuals and their relatives. -/- Design Based on previous work regarding consent policies, we created a conceptual model of the decision-making process for deceased organ recovery that included any scenario that could be directly influenced by opt-in or opt-out policies. We then applied this model to internationally published data of the consent process to determine how frequently policy defaults could apply. -/- Main outcome measures We measure the direct impact that opt-in and opt-out policies have per se on deceased organ recovery. -/- Results Our analysis shows that opt-in and opt-out have strictly identical outcomes in eight out of nine situations. They only differ when neither the deceased nor the family have expressed a preference and defaults therefore apply. The direct impact of consent policy defaults is typically circumscribed to a range of 0%–5% of all opportunities for organ recovery. Our study also shows that the intervention of the family improves organ retrieval under opt-in but hinders it under opt-out. -/- Conclusions This study may warn policy makers that, by emphasising the need to introduce presumed consent to increase organ recovery rates, they might be overestimating the influence of the default and underestimating the power granted to families. (shrink)

Families play an essential role in deceased organ procurement. As the person cannot directly communicate his or her wishes regarding donation, the family is often the only source of information regarding consent or refusal. We provide a systematic description and analysis of the different roles the family can play, and actions the family can take, in the organ procurement process across different jurisdictions and consent systems. First, families can inform or update healthcare professionals about a person’s donation wishes. Second, families (...) can authorize organ procurement in the absence of deceased’s preferences and the default is not to remove organs, and oppose donation where there is no evidence of preference but the default is to presume consent; in both cases, the decision could be based on their own wishes or what they think the deceased would have wanted. Finally, families can overrule the known wishes of the deceased, which can mean preventing donation, or permitting donation when the deceased refused it. We propose a schema of 4 levels on which to map these possible family roles: no role, witness, surrogate, and full decisional authority. We conclude by mapping different jurisdictions onto this schema to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the consent system for organ donation and some important nuances about the role of families. This classificatory model aims to account for the majority of the world’s consent systems. It provides conceptual and methodological guidance that can be useful to researchers, professionals, and policymakers involved in organ procurement. (shrink)

This dissertation focuses on teleology and functions in biology. More precisely, it focuses on the scientific legitimacy of teleofunctional attributions and explanations in biology. It belongs to a multi-faceted debate that can be traced back to at least the 1970s. One aspect of the debate concerns the naturalization of functions. Most authors try to reduce, translate or explain functions and teleology in terms of efficient causes so that they find their place in the framework of the natural sciences. Our approach (...) here is radically different, as we question the premise that teleological explanations are disguised causal explanations. On the contrary, we defend that they are acceptable in natural sciences and in biology in particular. We challenge the idea that teleological explanations are immature causal explanations, as well as the idea that teleology and functions are some sort of intentional explanations. We therefore reject the accusations of anthropomorphism, vitalism and finalism. On the contrary, we defend that teleology, causality and intentionality correspond to different, autonomous and complementary modes of representation of the outside world. -/- ———[FRANÇAIS]——— -/- Ce travail de thèse porte sur la téléologie et les fonctions en biologie. Plus précisément, il porte sur la légitimité scientifique des attributions et des explications téléofonctionnelles en biologie. Il s’inscrit dans le cadre d’un débat à plusieurs facettes que l’on peut faire remonter au moins jusqu’aux années 1970 et qui est encore très actif aujourd’hui. L’un des aspects du débat porte sur la naturalisation des fonctions, c’est-à-dire sur la manière de les réduire, de les traduire ou de les expliciter en termes de causes efficientes de sorte qu’elles trouvent leur place dans le cadre des sciences de la nature. Notre approche ici est radicalement différente, car nous remettons en question la prémisse selon laquelle les explications téléologiques seraient des explications causales déguisées. Nous défendons au contraire qu’elles sont acceptables en tant que telles aussi bien de façon générale que dans le domaine scientifique et en particulier en biologie. De façon générale, nous remettons en question l’idée selon laquelle la pensée téléologique serait une pensée causale immature, ainsi que sa dépendance présumée vis-à-vis de la psychologie, c’est-à-dire de l’intentionnalité. Nous rejetons donc les accusations d’anthropomorphisme, de vitalisme et de finalisme formulées contre elle. Nous défendons au contraire que la téléologie, la causalité et l’intentionnalité correspondent à des modes différents, autonomes et complémentaires de représentation du monde extérieur. (shrink)

[ENGLISH] This article discusses the potential of synthetic biology to address fundamental questions in the philosophy of biology regarding the nature of life and biological functions. Synthetic biology aims to reduce living organisms to their simplest forms by identifying the minimal components of a cell and also to create novel life forms through genetic reprogramming, biobrick assembly, or novel proteins. However, the technical success of these endeavors does not guarantee their conceptual success in defining life. There is a lack of (...) consensus among researchers on how to define and classify the entities produced in the lab, whether they should be considered living or categorized differently. The criteria for minimal cells and minimal life are subject to arbitrary choices and varying interpretations. The concept of function, crucial to synthetic biology, is also difficult to define. The article highlights the need to consider the minimal set of functions that characterize life before determining the smallest genomes that code for those functions. The arbitrary nature of defining both life and function complicates the understanding and classification of these entities. The article suggests that the traditional dichotomy between the living and the non-living may no longer be valid and that the concept of life itself may not require precise scientific definition. As synthetic biology advances, the article emphasizes the importance of redefining or constructing new categories to encompass the expanding possibilities and creations in the field. The ability to create new life forms raises questions about recognition, identification, and ethical implications, requiring a conceptual and philosophical engagement beyond the technical achievements of synthetic biology. -/- [FRENCH] L'article aborde le potentiel de la biologie synthétique pour répondre à des questions fondamentales de la philosophie de la biologie concernant la nature de la vie et des fonctions biologiques. La biologie synthétique vise à réduire les organismes vivants à leurs formes les plus simples en identifiant les composants minimaux d'une cellule et à créer de nouvelles formes de vie grâce à la reprogrammation génétique, à l'assemblage de biobriques ou à des protéines nouvelles. Cependant, le succès technique de ces approches ne garantit pas leur réussite conceptuelle dans la définition de la vie. Il n'y a pas de consensus parmi les chercheurs sur la façon de définir et de classer les entités produites en laboratoire, qu'elles doivent être considérées comme vivantes ou catégorisées différemment. Les critères des cellules minimales et de la vie minimale sont soumis à des choix arbitraires et à des interprétations variables. La notion de fonction, essentielle en biologie synthétique, est également difficile à définir. L'article met en évidence la nécessité de prendre en compte l'ensemble minimal de fonctions qui caractérisent la vie avant de déterminer les plus petits génomes qui codent ces fonctions. La nature arbitraire de la définition de la vie et de la fonction complique la compréhension et la classification de ces entités. L'article suggère que la dichotomie traditionnelle entre le vivant et le non-vivant pourrait ne plus être valable et que le concept même de vie ne nécessite pas une définition scientifique précise. À mesure que la biologie synthétique progresse, l'article souligne l'importance de redéfinir ou de construire de nouvelles catégories pour englober les possibilités et créations croissantes dans le domaine. La capacité à créer de nouvelles formes de vie soulève des questions de reconnaissance, d'identification et d'implications éthiques, nécessitant une réflexion conceptuelle et philosophique au-delà des avancées techniques de la biologie synthétique. (shrink)

Finality, design and purpose have started to be excluded from the language of the natural sciences since the XVIIth century. Darwin succeeded in excluding them from his theory of evolution appealing to a blind and mechanical natural selection. Today, the most usual definitions for the concept of biological function take for granted that functions: 1) are not dependent on a goal; 2) are not dependent on observers, but only on nature; 3) are explicable in causal terms, either with reference to (...) the causal history of the organ (etiological definition), or with reference to its present structure and causal capabilities (dispositional definition). However, we shall see that such presuppositions cannot take into account the normative character of the concept of biological function. We show that a generalization of the concept of scientific objectivity lets us affirm that functions: 1’) are dependent on a goal; 2’) are dependent on both observers and nature; 3’) cannot be reduced to causality, nor break the laws of physics; and yet, 4) are truly objective. (shrink)

Is the boundary between the normal and the pathological real or fiction? Are health and disease just a matter of fact or are they value-laden? Here we present some examples of how alleged diseases can be invented and propagated by the industry (disease mongering) or by the methodology of medical science itself. We show that the boundary between health and disease is blurred and depends on individual and social representations, culture relative ways of categorising things and people, and by the (...) society’s degree of medicalisation. However, we do not mean that it is not real, rather that it is more complex than expected, as the subjectivity of social constructions and individual experiences makes them no less real. Finally, we conclude that health and disease belong to both objective and subjective kinds of reality, so the fictional can be real. (shrink)

50 years after its introduction, brain death remains controversial among scholars. The debates focus on one question: is brain death a good criterion for determining death? This question has been answered from various perspectives: medical, metaphysical, ethical, and legal or political. Most authors either defend the criterion as it is, propose some minor or major revisions, or advocate abandoning it and finding better solutions to the problems that brain death was intended to solve when it was introduced. Here I plead (...) for a different approach that has been overlooked in the literature: the philosophy of science approach. Some scholars claim that human death is a matter of fact, a biological phenomenon whose occurrence can be determined empirically, based on science. We should take this claim seriously, whether we agree with it or not. The question is: how do we know that human death is a scientific matter of fact? Taking the philosophy of science approach means, among other things, examining how the determination of human death became an object of scientific inquiry, exploring the nature of the brain death criterion itself, and analysing the meaning of its core concepts such as “irreversibility” and “functions”. (shrink)

ABSTRACT This article interprets a recently recovered manuscript, Tratado de astronomía y la reformaçión del tiempo, composed by Antonio Sánchez in New Granada c.1696, in the context of the Spanish and Renaissance cosmographies. Sánchez’s Tratado proposes a spherical astronomy, in which celestial bodies – including comets — move in orbs containing pyramidal knots that explain the changing speed observed in the motion of planets. From this astronomy and following the peninsular style of repertorios, Sánchez derives two major conclusions: the corrected (...) length of the solar year and a revised birth date of Jesus. Taking as center of reference Vélez, where Sánchez was based, these claims led to conclusions in domains ranging from calendric astronomy to eschatology, including the incorporation of the indigenous peoples into salvation narrative and a demonstration of the arrangement of the celestial orbs at the Last Judgment. Sánchez’s Tratado constitutes an expansion of the Spanish mathematical cosmography that sheds light on the production of knowledge in the Spanish-American world and, at the same time, provides elements to reassess our understanding of the global circulation of Renaissance and early modern ideas. (shrink)

Background Consent policies for post-mortem organ procurement (OP) vary throughout Europe, and yet no studies have empirically evaluated the ethical implications of contrasting consent models. To fill this gap, we introduce a novel indicator of governance quality based on the ideal of informed support, and examine national differences on this measure through a quantitative survey of OP policy informedness and preferences in seven European countries. -/- Methods Between 2017–2019, we conducted a convenience sample survey of students (n = 2006) in (...) Austria (AT), Belgium (BE), Denmark (DK), Germany (DE), Greece (GR), Slovenia (SI) and Spain (ES), asking participants about their donation preferences, as well as their beliefs and views about the policy in place. From these measures, we computed indices of informedness, policy support, and fulfilment of unexpressed preferences, which we compared across countries and consent systems. -/- Results Our study introduces a tool for analyzing policy governance in the context of OP. Wide variation in policy awareness was observed: Most respondents in DK, DE, AT and BE correctly identified the policy in place, while those in SI, GR and ES did not. Respondents in opt-out countries (AT, BE, ES and GR) tended to support the policy in place (with one exception, i.e., SI), whereas those in opt-in countries (DE and DK) overwhelmingly opposed it. These results reveal stark differences in governance quality across countries and consent policies: We found a preponderance of informed opposition in opt-in countries and a general tendency towards support–either informed or uninformed–in opt-out countries. We also found informed divergence in opt-in countries and a tendency for convergence–either informed or uninformed–among opt-out countries. -/- Conclusion Our study offers a novel tool for analyzing governance quality and illustrates, in the context of OP, how the strengths and weaknesses of different policy implementations can be estimated and compared using quantitative survey data. (shrink)

The counter majoritarian difficulty is one of the main objections against the judicial review. In this paper, this objection is analyzed from the standpoint of the norm formulation/norm distinction. By stressing the distinc- tion between norm formulations and norms, I claim that when judicial review prevents the application of a norm to an individual case the counter majoritarian difficulty objection does not hold.

In the field of Evidence Law the relation between truth and law has been a somewhat non- debated topic in the past years. It is a given that such a connection exists and, it is understood as the notion of the ascertainment of the truth of disputed questions of fact through legal evidence. The thesis that I have reconstructed in this paper has been presented by Prof. Jordi Ferrer who grounds the connection between truth and law in the role of (...) the legal system as a tool for guiding the behavior of the governed. I call this thesis the theory of the structural clause of truth. In this paper I shall present a possible reconstruction of this theory, I shall raise two objections against it and I shall present five possible interpretations of the relation between truth and law. (shrink)

This paper puts forward three critiques of pardo’s second-order proof rules thesis. The first criticism states that these rules are not suitable to guide the interpretation of standards of proof rules because they confuse matters of legal interpretation with matters of epistemology. The second criticism states that second-order proof rules are affected by the same indeterminacy problems they are designed to resolve, thereby rendering them unsuitable for the task they are purposely designed for. The third criticism renders pardo’s proposal redundant. (...) a reconceptualization of second-order proof rules is offered. (shrink)

Since 1968, the irreversible loss of functioning of the whole brain, called brain death, is assimilated to individual’s death. The almost universal acceptance of this neurological criterion of death had decisive consequences for the contemporary medicine, such as the withdrawal of mechanical ventilation in these patients and organ retrieval for transplantation. The new criterion was successfully accepted in part because the assimilation of brain death state to death was presented by medicine --and acritically assumed by most of societies-- as a (...) scientific and objective fact. Nevertheless, many people do not think that the patients suffering brain death are actually dead. We show here that those people are not necessarily wrong. It can be argued that, in fact, the justification of the neurological criterion is not scientific but moral. We outline the thesis that the problem surrounding the vital status of brain dead patients is due to a confusion between factual and normative questions. Furthermore, we claim that the donation of organs and the withdrawal of life-support could be ethically acceptable even if the patients suffering brain death are considered as alive. As an alternative to the dead donor rule, we propose a justification for organ donation of brain-dead patients based on the (moral) concepts of harm and consent : what truly justifies the procurement of organs on those patients is not that they are dead, but that they wish to donate their organs and that, since they have irreversibly lost their brain, they cannot be harmed. (shrink)

Many current problems surrounding science revolve around the complex epistemological framework that shapes a new vision of knowledge about reality. The traditional epistemological positions are characterized by the explanation of nature by means of concatenated facts; that is, as bricks attached to each other giving shape to the edifice of science. A conception of this nature showed that the idea of certainty was nothing more than a mere illusion, opening the way, on the contrary, to the idea of the uncertainty (...) of knowledge based on the descriptions of quantum physics, also a product of the non-reductionist conception of reality, thus criticizing the specular representation. This article addresses the main problems surrounding the critical conceptions that the emerging epistemology reveals about knowledge, pointing towards a much more complex vision of reality. (shrink)

This paper analyses the arguments for and against what we have called automatic organ procurement model in relation to the organs of the deceased. For this purpose, this work provides empirical evidence to assess the potential impact of this model on donation rates and on public opinion. Specifically, we examine first the reasons supporting this model, with special reference to utilitarian and justice arguments. On the other hand, we analyse both the approaches based on the violation of pre mortem and (...) post mortem interests opposing this theoretical model and the rejection the model would generate in the population. Finally, we point out the aspects that, in our opinion, should be exhaustively regulated if this model were implemented. In particular, we refer to the legal status of the human body, the treatments for end-of-life patients, the incentives for health professionals and the recognition of the right to conscientious objection. (shrink)

Altruism and solidarity are concepts that are closely related to organ donation for transplantation. On the one hand, they are typically used for encouraging people to donate. On the other hand, they also underpin the regulations in force in each country to different extents. They are often used indistinctly and equivocally, despite the different ethical implications of each concept. This paper aims to clarify to what extent we can speak of altruism and solidarity in the predominant models of organ donation. (...) It also raises the ethical question of whether these categories are adequate as a basis for such models, bearing in mind that organs are a scarce resource and that a shortage of them may mean that fewer lives are saved or improved. (shrink)

Several European countries are approving legislative reforms moving to a presumed consent system in order to increase organ donation rates. Nevertheless, irrespective of the consent system in force, family's decisional capacity probably causes a greater impact on such rates. In this contribution we have developed a systematic methodology in order to analyse and compare European organ procurement laws, and we clarify the weight given by each European law to relatives' decisional capacity over individual's preferences (expressed or not while alive) regarding (...) the destination of his or her organs after death. In this sense, the results constitute the first comprehensive and comparative legislative mapping on European transplantation laws. (shrink)

Bibliografía exhaustiva de Dalmacio Negro Pavón (1963-2022), con casi ochocientas entradas verificadas y clasificadas con doble criterio tanto cronológico como específico: A. Libros (15); B. Ediciones (26); C. Capítulos de libro (84); D. Artículos (220); E. Prólogos (48); F. Voces enciclopédicas (60); G. Memorias Académicas (1); H. Recensiones (65); I. Antologías (11); J. Colaboraciones en prensa (274). Registro bibliográfico elaborado junto a J. Molina Cano (Universidad de Murcia).

En Diseño moviendo al Mundo se recopilan investigaciones donde el denominador de los artículos es pensar al diseño como disciplina holística que al extender lazos a otros mundos del saber aporta herramientas conceptuales y estrategias proyectuales para desenredar problemas e inspirar gráficos, objetos, servicios y sistemas para la buena vida de las personas.

Revelación y religiones es el título del libro editado por Xavier Morlans i Molina, publicado en el 2016 por la editorial Herder. De manera sencilla y sin recargar los capítulos de información sobre las religiones tratadas, los autores se abocan a la misión de buscaranalogías y diferencias de la idea de revelación en dichas tradiciones. El orden que tiene el libro es cronológico, es decir, según la aparición histórica de cada tradición religiosa.

On several occasions, Báñez considered Suárez the main supporter of the Molinist doctrine along with Molina himself. According to Báñez, the main mistake of Molinism is its misunderstanding of freedom. This led him to refine his personal Thomistic theory of freedom. Free will is radically in the intellect and formally in the will. Intellect is the root of freedom because the most important indifference is found in the object, whose connection with the end is understood as not necessary. The (...) intellect aware of this indifference causes a formally free volition that is not incompatible with the effective divine motion. (shrink)

Pedro de Ledesma is one of the Dominican theologians of the School of Salamanca involved in the De Auxiliis controversy, i.e., the disputes around a famous book by Luis de Molina on the relation between divine foreknowledge and providence and our free will. Studying an unpublished manuscript by Ledesma and his 1611 book on this subject, the article shows that he opposed Molina with a Thomistic position that we call deflationary. According to this interpretation, God, in moving the (...) created will to do good actions, does not bring about an entity distinct from volition itself. Contrary to other Thomists, he does not think that the immediate effect of the divine motion of the will is an intermediary entity used by God to produce, with the will, the created free act. Ledesma defends his thesis by using some elements of Aristotelian-Thomistic metaphysics, in particular, a minimalist interpretation of the relation between action and passion already present in Domingo de Soto and the specific causality of immanent acts. (shrink)

In a series of recent papers John Martin Fischer argues that the Molinist solution to the problem of reconciling divine omniscience with human freedom does not offer such a solution at all. Instead, he maintains, Molina simply presupposes theological compatibilism. However, Fischer construes the problem in terms of sempiternalist omniscience, whereas classical Molinism adopts atemporalism. I argue that, moreover, an atemporalist reformulation of Fischer’s argument designed to show that Molinism is not even consistent is unsuccessful as well, since it (...) employs a transfer principle about causal inaccessibility that Molina rightfully rejects. (shrink)

Over the past four decades, the issue of the relationship between divine omniscience and human freedom has been the subject of a great debate in the context of Analytic Philosophy of Religion. Many authors have contributed to the debate by formulating some ‘solutions’, taking inspiration from the thought of classical authors (e.g. Boethius, Aquinas, Ockham). One of these, is inspired by Luis de Molina’s thought. The Author, therefore, aims to present the main theoretical thesis of this solution, following the (...) development in the various publications about this question. The Author also tries to show how the thought of Molina has beeen “translated” in contemporary discourse, the limits of the solution, and make understandable the transition occurred within the debate, which led to the Molinist solution and then to the Open Theism. (shrink)

The article explores the modern distrust of God as a threat to human freedom. The teachings on the relationship between freedom and grace sustained by the Spanish theologian Luis de Molina have some features that could be related to this distrust. Divine providence is preserved in his system by a somewhat deterministic conception of the human psyche. Thus, freedom is not completely safeguarded but a certain suspicion about Divine power is introduced nevertheless. As an answer to these difficulties, the (...) author proposes an alternative Thomist consideration to contemplate the relationship between God and man in a harmonious way. (shrink)

Luis de Molina was a leading figure in the remarkable sixteenth-century revival of Scholasticism on the Iberian peninsula.

In this article I present the most important works by Domingo Báñez on the so-called De auxiliis controversy, on divine predestination, divine will and divine grace, and human freedom. It is a polemic against Luis de Molina and Francisco Suárez, mainly. I review the works published by Báñez and his unpublished manuscripts, providing new historical data on them.

To commemorate the 400th anniversary of the death of St. Robert Bellarmine, this article pays attention to his significant contribution to the De Auxiliis controversy. The main milestones of his intervention are considered: Bellarmine’s internal censure of the Concordia by Molina made for Aquaviva, as well as some details of his relationship with Pope Clement VIII. He composed several opuscules on these topics, most of which have already been published. Here we transcribe an unpublished manuscript from the last years (...) of De Auxiliis Congregations. It is a report written for Pope Paul V on the divine knowledge of conditioned futures. This question provides Bellarmine with another opportunity to criticize the doctrine of physical predetermination. According to the Jesuit cardinal, such a thesis was more dangerous a doctrine than the erroneous affirmations that even he could recognize in the Concordia by Molina. (shrink)

Contrary to the commonly held position of Luis de Molina, Thomas Flint and others, I argue that counterfactuals of divine freedom are pre-volitional for God within the Molinist framework. That is, CDFs are not true even partly in virtue of some act of God’s will. As a result, I argue that the Molinist God fails to satisfy an epistemic openness requirement for rational deliberation, and thus she cannot rationally deliberate about which world to actualize.

According to the thesis of divine ‘middle knowledge’, first propounded by the Jesuit theologian Luis de Molina in the sixteenth century, subjunctive conditionals stating how free agents would freely respond under counter-factual conditions may be straightforwardly true, and thus serve as the objects of divine knowledge. This thesis has provoked considerable controversy, and the recent revival of interest in middle knowledge, initiated by Anthony Kenny, Robert Adams and Alvin Plantinga in the 1970s, has led to two ongoing debates. One (...) is a theoretical debate over the very intelligibility of middle knowledge;1 the other is a practical debate over its philosophical and theological utility.2. (shrink)

While many philosophers of religion are familiar with the reconciliation of grace and freedom known as Molinism, fewer by far are familiar with that position initially developed by Molina’s erstwhile rival, Domingo Banez (i.e., Banezianism). My aim is to clarify a serious problem for the Banezian: how the Banezian can avoid the apparent conflict between a strong notion of freedom and apparently compatibilist conclusions. The most prominent attempt to defend Banezianism against compatibilism was (in)famously endorsed by Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange. Even (...) if it were true that freedom does not require alternative possibilities, Banezians have a grounding problem. (shrink)

This article transcribes three unpublished manuscripts by Domingo Báñez. The first is a review on the opuscule by Chrysostom Javelli on predestination. Báñez believes that this writing is Pelagian and advances several arguments which he will later use against Luis de Molina and the Molinists. The second is the last preserved writing by Báñez: a letter to the Master General of the Dominicans where he mentions his hope of seeing an end to the dispute on grace and free will. (...) The third is the account of Báñez’s death including his last words, in which he mentions the famous controversy de auxiliis. (shrink)

INTRODUÇÃO Segundo Pond (1975), os antepassados mais remotos dos suínos remontam há 40 milhões de anos, e parece que seu parente mais distante é o porco-do-cabo (Orycteropus afer), que viveu na região da Etiópia. Este é da ordem dos tubulidentados com focinho e orelhas alongadas, de hábitos noturnos e que se alimenta de insetos e raízes. Embora não exista um consenso unânime ao respeito, estima-se que a domesticação do porco doméstico atual iniciou-se na Europa entre os anos 7.000 e 3.000 (...) a. C., embora investigadores chineses reivindiquem a origem chinesa do porco doméstico atual que havia iniciado na região sul do país entre o ano 10.000 a. C. Aceita-se que a domesticação tenha se realizado de maneira lenta e progressiva e que os primeiros porcos eram pequenos e estavam em rebanhos pouco numerosos. Os porcos atuais pertencem ao gênero Sus e compreendem os porcos asiáticos (Sus vittatus) de tamanho pequeno; os célticos (Sus scrofa) provenientes do javali europeu e os porcos ibéricos (Sus mediterraneaus) de origem africana, de tamanho maior que os anteriores e introduzidos em todas as regiões do sul da Europa. A capacidade de adaptação do porco às diferentes condições climáticas determinou que sua exploração se realize em todos os continentes e em quase todos os países do mundo, com exceção daqueles onde, por razões de ordem cultural e religiosa, a sua exploração é vedada. O seu caráter cosmopolita está relacionado a sua grande capacidade de adaptação aos variados regimes alimentares, já que sua qualidade de onívoro lhes permite transformar diferentes produtos e subprodutos, alimentando-se tanto de recursos vegetais quanto de animais. Pode ser explorado de forma tradicional com recursos limitados ou de forma intensiva, combinando as mais sofisticadas técnicas de manejo relacionado à alimentação, sanidade, reprodução, transformação e comercialização. POPULAÇÃO MUNDIAL DE SUÍNOS DE RAÇAS LOCAIS Não existem estatísticas diferenciadas para a população mundial de suínos de raças locais. A Organização das Nações Unidas para a Agricultura e Alimentação (FAO), estima que a população mundial de suínos em 2018 foi de 781,3 milhões de cabeças, que compreendem 460 milhões de cabeças na Ásia, 155 milhões na União Europeia, 75 milhões na América do Norte, 70 milhões na América Central e do Sul e 21 milhões de cabeças na África e Oceania. Observe o anexo e o gráfico: Figura 1: População mundial de suínos de produção industrial em 2018. Fonte: FAO, 2019. -/- G 1: Efetivo suíno mundial em 2018. FAO, 2019. G 2: 11 maiores países criadores de suínos em 2018. FAO, 2019. A elevada população de suínos no continente asiático é um indicador da importância que estes animais têm na alimentação dos habitantes dessa região. Na China, que possui o maior efetivo suíno do mundo, 440 milhões (FAO, 2019), os porcos estão geralmente incorporados sob sistemas integrados com a agricultura. O mesmo ocorre no Vietnã, onde a maior parte dos milhões de cabeças também estão em sistemas tradicionais de produção. Sobressaem, em importância, as raças Mong Cai, Thouc Nhieu e Ba Xuyen ambas com milhares e até milhões de exemplares cada uma. Na Indonésia, dados desatualizados obtidos por Aritonang et. al. 1993, a população de suínos chegou a 8,6 milhões de cabeças, e que esses porcos locais representavam mais de 95% da população de distritos como Deli Serdang, North Tapanuli e Nias em Sumatra. As raças asiáticas, com as suas múltiplas características, foram objeto, nos respectivos países, de programas especiais para melhorar a sua produção. Outros países, principalmente a França e os Estados Unidos da América, iniciaram estudos sobre as raças asiáticas com o propósito de aproveitar alguns fatores genéticos próprios destas, como a alta fertilidade. Na Europa, países como Portugal e Espanha, tentaram conservar alguns genótipos de raças locais. Segundo dados do Anuário Estatístico do Ministério da Agricultura (1985), citado por Paz Saez e Hernández Crespo (Sf.), a Espanha tinha em 1996 uma população suína local estimada em 1,5 milhões de cabeças das raças ibérica, celta, morcego e suas cruzes. As referências relativas à presença de suínos locais são escassas na África. Sarniguet, citado por D’Orgeval Dubouchet (1997), dava conta que em 1985 existiam apenas 564 porcos exóticos, o que põe em evidência a importância do rebanho local. No Burkina Faso (Kabore, 1996), a exploração de suínos ocupa o quarto lugar entre as explorações animais e, em 1994, contava com uma população de 552,3 mil cabeças, sendo ao dizer da autora, «a raça local de maior presença». Tal como noutros países, a informação é genérica e a maioria dos autores sustenta que os suínos locais apresentam uma grande variedade e que se distinguem em três tipos: pequenos, grandes e pesados. Os genótipos são de grande rusticidade e de baixa produtividade, mas de boa adaptação às mais variadas formas de manejo e sistemas de alimentação. A América Latina, conta com uma população significativa de porcos locais, provenientes dos porcos introduzidos por Colombo, em sua segunda viagem ao Novo Continente em 1493, e de outros que foram introduzidos posteriormente à medida que se generalizou a conquista do continente. Infelizmente, não existem dados precisos sobre a população de suínos locais em cada um dos países e os dados oficiais generalizam, quando sustentam que estas populações são «maioritárias». Na Colômbia, um trabalho realizado por C. Espinosa (comunicação pessoal em 1997) indica que o porco local, conhecido como crioulo ou "zungo" provém dos porcos ibéricos conhecidos como lisos ou pelados e que estes localizaram-se inicialmente no departamento de Córdoba e depois no resto do país. Demonstra que os suínos locais estão a desaparecer rapidamente em consequência da introdução de "raças modernas". No entanto, não se quantifica o seu número e sustenta-se que, até há algumas décadas, constituíam a maioria dos animais explorados pelos camponeses das regiões afastadas. Na Bolívia, Amurrio (1996) indica que, segundo o Instituto Nacional de Estatísticas, a população suína total era de 2,2 milhões de cabeças, que forneceram 25% da carne consumida. Embora não precise da população local, considera-se que este genótipo «é menor do que no passado» e que os animais que se encontram com maior frequência provém de cruzamentos com raças importadas. No Equador, os trabalhos realizados por Alvarado e Gómez (1982) e por Molina (1988-1995), põem em evidência que os rebanhos locais estão compostos em 50% dos casos por 1-4 mães e que contribuem com 25% da produção nacional de carne e com 30% da gordura. Iaso indica a sua importância na alimentação. Em um trabalho realizado por Benítez (1995), descobriu-se que no país existiam 2,1 milhões de suínos explorados no sistema tradicional, e que desta população tão somente de 3 a 5%, segundo a região, eram animais provenientes das raças ibéricas. Na zona central e no sul do país encontram-se genótipos provenientes dos suínos ibéricos conhecidos como «runas», «jungas» ou «crioulos». A população de suínos tende a aumentar em quase todos os países da América Latina como resultado dos cruzamentos entre as populações de raças ibéricas e as raças modernas. No Equador, há uma população de porcos de 2,7 milhões de cabeças (FAO, 2000). O Banco Central do Equador, no Boletim Anuário 19 (1997), assinala que em 1996 existiam 2,7 milhões de suínos e que produziram 36 mil toneladas de carne. Quanto ao Brasil, a deficiência de dados acerca do plantel de suínos locais é resultado das grandes críticas relativas aos sistemas de produção tradicionais e integrados. No entanto, dados obtidos pela FAO revelam que o efetivo total de suínos em 2018 foi de 38,8 milhões de cabeças, fazendo do país o quarto maior criador e produtor de suínos do mundo, gerando movimentação de toda cadeia produtiva de R$ 150 bilhões de reais, um produto bruto de R$ 62 bilhões de reais e 1,1 milhões de empregos diretos e indiretos (ABCS, 2016). É indiscutível que, pelas suas características zootécnicas e por terem sido explorados de maneira tradicional, sem investimentos maiores de tempo, recursos e tecnologia, os suínos locais não foram objeto de muitos estudos que permitam conhecer o seu verdadeiro potencial genético e a sua capacidade produtiva. -/- IMPORTÂNCIA DOS SISTEMAS DE PRODUÇÃO INTEGRADOS Desde os primórdios da civilização, o homem tem tentado obter alimentos suficientes. Infelizmente, em muitos países, por variadas razões, ainda há muita gente mal alimentada e que sofre com a fome. No início do século XXI, a subordinação afetou 800 milhões de habitantes e mais de 100 milhões têm uma alimentação desequilibrada (FAO, 1995). Enquanto, nos países industrializados, os excedentes produtivos tornam-se elementos desestabilizadores da economia e dão lugar à especulação. Geralmente, os animais, principalmente os monogástricos, são considerados como concorrentes do homem por recursos alimentares. Esquece-se que são também importantes transformadores de produtos e subprodutos não comestíveis diretamente pelos seres humanos e que uma adequada e racional exploração deles pode realizar-se a complementação das necessidades alimentares das populações. Os sistemas produtivos compreendem uma série de elementos que interagem com a finalidade de aumentar a produção. Os sistemas pecuários integram um território, as forragens e outros alimentos, as práticas, os rebanhos, as instalações, os recursos financeiros e a comercialização. Diversas espécies animais que coexistem na mesma exploração constituem subsistemas (Gibon, 1981). Os sistemas integrados de produção permitem a participação de diferentes espécies domésticas, incluindo os suínos. Sua capacidade de transformação digestiva assegura a eliminação, segundo Ensminger (1976), de até 36 toneladas de excrementos para cada 1.000 kg de peso vivo por ano, isto é, 3.600 kg anuais de excremento por animal de 100 kg. Por exemplo, um animal de 45 kg, peso aproximado dos porcos locais, elimina diariamente 3,5 kg entre fezes e urina, conforme Jensen (1974). Estes resíduos são de grande utilidade para manter a fertilidade dos solos, bem como para servir de alimento a espécies com grande poder de transformação como os peixes (Little e Edwars, 2001) e palmípedes, além de servir para o mercado de produção de gás através dos biodigestores. Nos sistemas tradicionais, a sua utilização adequada permitiu a exploração de sistemas integrados com várias espécies de peixes como a tilápia (Tilapia spp.), carpas (Cyprinus spp.) e peixes-gato (Clarias spp.). Segundo Holmess (1991), entre cinquenta e sessenta suínos produzem suficientes efluentes para satisfazer as necessidades alimentares de 20 mil a 50 mil peixes por hectare, com uma produção anual de 3,5 a 5,0 ton./ha/ano de peixes. Em algumas explorações, em particular nos países asiáticos, os suínos desempenham um papel importante nos sistemas integrados. Além de transformar produtos e subprodutos agrícolas e agroindustriais, suas excreções recicladas para a agricultura são utilizadas para gerar biogás em biodigestores (FAO). A energia produzida por este meio, satisfaz as necessidades das famílias tanto para a preparação de alimentos, usos artesanais e até mesmo aquecimento de moradias. Holnees (1991), sustenta que sete porcos são suficientes para produzir o biogás necessário como combustível para uma família de cinco membros. A necessidade de aprofundar-se em estudos relacionados com a integração de sistemas, é mais evidente se tiver em conta que os sistemas intensivos requerem um elevado investimento econômico e tecnológico, e que muitas vezes originam uma grande contaminação. Chirgwin et. al. (1997) expressam que no balanço de «eficiência» esses fatores se mostram pouco rentáveis, se considerar a «energia consumida em insumos e serviços requerida para gerar o produto». As experiências acumuladas nos países asiáticos (FAO), e em alguns outros países da África e da América Latina, mostram que os sistemas integrados de produção estão mais próximos de cumprir com os postulados universais de produzir para garantir um adequado nível nutricional da população, através da utilização de tecnologias que não alteram nem deterioram o ambiente. Não há dúvida de que ainda são necessários grandes esforços como o empreendido pela FAO, que permita a combinação de tecnologias, de programas sanitários, de produção e de marketing. A abordagem holística deve constituir a base de futuros programas para uma adequada utilização da energia para converter o porco, e outros animais, em transformadores de produtos e subprodutos com rendimento para a população humana. CONCENTRADORES DE NUTRIENTES A conformação gástrica do porco, em particular a estrutura anatômica do seu intestino e a sua qualidade de onívoro, permite-lhe consumir todos os tipos de alimentos. Dotado de um estômago com uma capacidade de armazenamento de 6 kg (para um porco de 100 kg), dispõe de um intestino delgado que pode atingir até 14 vezes o comprimento do corpo do animal e de um fígado volumoso que permite um adequado metabolismo, garantindo uma grande capacidade de transformação dos alimentos e de assimilação. Proporcionalmente, tem um intestino equivalente ao dobro do de um homem adulto (Serres, 1973). No porco, a baixa transformação do azoto inorgânico é compensada pela disponibilidade de uma variada e rica microflora intestinal, localizada ao longo do intestino, o que lhe permite uma excelente utilização de amidos e de gorduras, provenientes de cereais e leguminosas. Os porcos nos sistemas tradicionais, na maioria das vezes, recebem uma alimentação desequilibrada. No entanto, a sua rusticidade e o seu instinto de sobrevivência permitem-lhes encontrar uma dieta que assegure, além de sua mantença, a sua reprodução e produção, fornecendo energia e proteínas à dieta humana. Esta grande capacidade transformadora de alimentos é o que permitiu ao porco, de maneira ancestral e às novas raças, a integração nos sistemas industriais com grandes benefícios econômicos, como consequência da melhoria das taxas de conversão alimentar. SUÍNOS LOCAIS E A ECONOMIA RURAL A economia dos camponeses, em particular dos países em desenvolvimento, é majoritariamente rural, com disponibilidade de pequenas parcelas e onde os cultivos e as espécies animais exploradas são adaptadas às mais variadas condições climáticas. Nestas unidades de produção, a tecnologia utilizada é ancestral, os ciclos produtivos são regidos pelo costume, os calendários astrais de suas respectivas culturas e condicionados às condições climáticas. A tecnologia utilizada não foi inovada senão de uma forma muito parcial. Não são efetuados investimentos em fatores de produção externos e, muitas vezes, grande parte das colheitas perdem-se durante o armazenamento. Em muitos casos, apesar da grande variedade de culturas por parcela (CATER, 1982), a produtividade é baixa e apenas satisfaz as necessidades familiares com escassos remanescentes para ao câmbio ou «troca» e com uma quase nula disponibilidade de excedentes para a comercialização (Benitez et. al., 1987). A pecuária, nestas unidades de produção, caracteriza-se pela diversidade de espécies, entre as quais predominam os animais menores: porcos, cabras, galinhas, patos, e espécies autóctones, como os cuyes e camelídeos nos países andinos (Benitez, 1987), roedores como a capivara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) nos países amazônicos e pequenos ruminantes e roedores nos países africanos (Malaisse In. CIUF, 1987). Neste contexto, os suínos, alimentados com produtos e subprodutos provenientes da propriedade, com desperdícios de cozinha e de restaurantes, com resíduos de plantações industriais, de fábricas e mesmo das lixeiras das pequenas e grandes cidades, constituem-se na esperança econômica das populações de baixos rendimentos que assentam sua economia na possibilidade de economizar por este mecanismo (Benitez, 1995). Com o propósito de dispor de recursos para satisfazer urgentes necessidades derivadas de suas atividades religiosas, sociais e culturais, os moradores contam com pequenos rebanhos de animais de 1 a 4 matrizes (Alvarado e Gómez, 1982; Benitez, 1995), ou pequenos rebanhos de 2,5 animais em média (Proaño e Chávez, 1998), que são alimentados com os recursos alimentares locais. Quando os excedentes são suficientes, os pequenos produtores mantêm um ou mais animais para engorda, mas a grande maioria das crias é destinada à venda. Os suínos destinados a criação ou engorda são uma fonte de poupança para a família. As fêmeas em gestação, como os animais de acabamento, quando alimentados com milho ou com produtos regionais: banana, tubérculos, cana e outros produtos geralmente pobres em proteínas, tentam satisfazer as suas necessidades nutricionais escavando a terra em busca de raízes, insetos e pequenos animais ricos em proteínas. Os animais entram em engorda quando deixam de ser utilizados como reprodutores e os machos são, geralmente castrados. O ciclo de engorda ou de acabamento pode durar entre dois e quatro meses, dependendo da disponibilidade de alimentos, depois são destinados à venda em feiras ou na unidade de produção até onde chegam os intermediários e compradores. A vida média destes animais ultrapassa largamente um ano de idade e pode chegar aos sete e nove anos, como no caso dos reprodutores que são engordados quando terminam o seu ciclo reprodutivo. Em todo o caso, a poupança, a disponibilidade de gordura e de proteínas são a contribuição substancial para uma família de escassos recursos. ZOONOSES E ANTROPOZOONOSES Embora uma grande variedade de doenças parasitárias, bacterianas, virais, micóticas e até nutricionais possam afetar os porcos, sua curta vida produtiva faz com que estas tenham uma mínima expressão nos ciclos produtivos, principalmente quando são prestados os cuidados necessários. Está provado que os suínos, e outros animais explorados extensivamente, não são atacados por doenças infectocontagiosas como acontece nas explorações intensivas com densidades elevadas. No entanto, estas doenças podem existir, como foi o caso dos suínos ibéricos que sofreram da Peste Suína Africana com graves perdas nos rebanhos e na economia dos produtores. Somente um trabalho organizado e grandes investimentos do Estado permitiram sua erradicação e declarar a Espanha livre dela em 1995. No entanto, existem algumas doenças zoonóticas que merecem a atenção dos criadores para evitar o contágio, entre as quais destaco: 1. Enfermidades bacterianas Tuberculose: Tem como agente etiológico no homem o Mycobacterium tuberculosis, entretanto, algumas outras espécies como M. bovis, M. avium, M. intracelular e M. tuberculose, podem atacar o porco. M. bovis é a causa de até 90% da doença em suínos, produzindo lesões hiperplásicas a nível intestinal, inflamação na região orofaríngea e nos gânglios submaxilares. O contágio ocorre geralmente em contato com pessoas ou bovinos doentes, através de alimentos para animais, de resíduos alimentares de leitaria, de cozinha, de hospitais e de outros produtos contaminados. A vacinação nas áreas endêmicas reduziu a incidência desta doença. Brucelose: É uma doença generalizada em todo o mundo, causada pelas bactérias do gênero Brucella, do qual se conhecem seis espécies e múltiplos biotipos, sendo as mais difundidas: B. abortus, B. melitensis e B. suis, na sua ordem. Os suínos são atacados pela B. suis, principalmente, mas as outras espécies de brucelas podem também produzir a doença. Os animais são infectados no coito. Os sintomas são abortos e baixa fertilidade do rebanho. Os casos de artrite e a presença de nodulações, também podem ser indicadores da doença. Um reconhecimento atempado da doença e o destino adequado dos animais doentes pode evitar a presença de portadores e o contágio. 2 Enfermidades virais Febre aftosa: É uma doença que ataca o porco na sua qualidade de animal biungulado, produzida pelos vírus do genoma ARN, gênero Aphtovirus, com sete tipos: A, O, C; SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 e Ásia 1, facilmente modificáveis. Em todo o mundo, existem áreas que se livraram da doença com a vacinação, controles migratórios e abate de animais, principalmente. Entretanto, uma grande superfície do planeta fica sob observação permanente. A presença de vesículas na cavidade bucal, inflamação ou perda dos cascos e dificuldade ao caminhar, põem em evidência a doença. A introdução de animais contaminados e de produtos à base de carne pode acelerar a disseminação da doença, ao passo que a vacinação da maioria dos animais com a estirpe adequada evita as epizootias. 3. Enfermidades parasitárias Cisticercose: É uma parasitose associada às condições higiênicas e à pobreza, encontra-se em todos os países onde o porco é explorado de maneira tradicional. Os animais são infestados pelo consumo de excrementos de seres humanos contendo os embriões hexacantos da Taenia solium. Estes embriões, também conhecidos como óvulos, ao penetrar no intestino passam por via sanguínea aos diferentes músculos onde continuam seu desenvolvimento embrionário para logo se transformarem em cisticercos. A parasitose é assintomática nos porcos, mas podem-se palpar ou observar nodulações, in vivo, na língua do animal e em algumas ocasiões na pálpebra interna, enquanto que a inspeção, post morten, podem ser observados cisticercos na língua, coração, diafragma, masseteres, glúteos, dorsais e músculo psoas, principalmente. As pessoas adquirem a tênia consumindo carne parasitada na qual os cisticercos estão vivos. A teníase é a causa da terrível parasitose humana, conhecida como neurocisticercose, que é estabelecida como resultado do alojamento de cistos no cérebro humano, derme, epiderme e região ocular. Pode causar graves transtornos patológicos no homem e inclusive a morte. O portador de T. solium se converte no transmissor da neurocisticercose já que as proglotis da tênia adulta, que são expulsos em número de 3 a 7 diariamente, contêm entre 40 e 60 mil filhotes, que, por contato ou contágio de alimentos, podem ser transmitidos às pessoas. Em muitos casos, o fecalismo ao ar livre, ou próximo das vertentes de água, pode causar contaminação de porcos coprofágicos e das culturas, principalmente hortaliças ou outras de sistema radicular e caule curto. Triquinose: A triquinose do porco é produzida por um nematódeo conhecido como Trichinella spiralis. As pessoas são infestadas com carne de porco que contém larvas de triquina. As larvas entram no intestino onde amadurecem rapidamente e se reproduzem para depois, por meio dos vasos linfáticos, chegar aos músculos estriados onde se encapsulam. As larvas alojadas nos músculos lisos geralmente morrem. Os suínos são contaminados pelo consumo de resíduos de alimentos à base de carne contendo triquinas. A emaciação e a dor muscular das extremidades posteriores servem para dificultar o diagnóstico. Segundo Acha e Szyfres (1986), um porco de 100 kg parasitado pode infestar 360 pessoas. Estes autores também sustentam que a parasitose tende a desaparecer no mundo, sendo sua incidência, em muitos países europeus, inferior a 0,1%, e que em países como Brasil, Paraguai, Colômbia, Venezuela e Equador não se detectou esta parasitose. No caso equatoriano, os trabalhos realizados por Ayabaca e Vizuete (1997) confirmam a inexistência da doença no país. CONCLUSÃO A criação de suínos é de extrema importância para o mundo agropecuário. Seja nas criações de pequenos produtores, ou mesmo de grandes produtores, os suínos têm papel importante na obtenção de proteína para a alimentação humana, de emprego para milhões de pessoas, de renda, de produtos diversos, de gordura, de biogás etc. O sistema consorciado da criação de suínos com o meio agrícola é uma criação majoritária e presente em todos os países. Os suínos beneficiam o solo com suas excretas; o homem, por meio delas obtém o biogás necessário para produção de energia, de aquecimento etc. Milhões de camponeses criadores de suínos consorciados com outras culturas animais e vegetais, demonstram a eficiência da modalidade para o mundo contemporâneo e que podem, em muitos casos, obter renda necessária para sustento de suas famílias e da comunidade local. Todavia, vale salientar que os suínos tradicionais são resistentes à inúmeros agentes patogênicos, porém além de serem resistentes, a falta de higiene e profilaxia, além da medicina preventiva, podem ser cruciais para a disseminação da doença e morte total do plantel de animais. Os suínos produzem carne, produzem renda, produzem emprego, produzem a comunhão local, os suínos são animais peculiares, transformadores e contemporâneos. Pense, crie, recrie! (shrink)

The “theses of Alcalá” were two controversial statements defended by certain Jesuits at the University of Alcalá de Henares in 1601. One of them was perceived by the Pope as particularly offensive: “It does not belong to Faith that this concrete man, for example, Clement VIII, is the Roman Pontiff”. When Pope Clement learned of this theological act, the Spanish Inquisition intervened, since it attempted to prevent the Supreme Pontiff from reserving the cause for himself. In this article, we delve (...) into these events thanks to several hitherto unpublished manuscripts. Among these documents we highlight several by F. Peña, a Spaniard who interpreted this statement as a subterfuge by the Society of Jesus to avoid the supposedly imminent condemnation of Luis de Molina, a Jesuit whose book on divine predestination and human freedom was being examined in Rome at the time. The documents transcribed here provide us with new details, such as the precise text of the conclusions defended in Alcalá. In addition, it is noteworthy that Peña was the first to understand correctly the position of the Dominican Domingo Báñez, because according to him it does belong to faith that Clement VIII is Pope, even though not in a primary way. (shrink)

Throughout the history of Thomism, interpretations of the ontology of God’s physical premotion of human free will have been divided mainly into two main groups. Most authors have thought that physical premotion constitutes a certain “entity” infused by God in the creature, although not all of them accept the account of Cabrera, who affirmed that premotion was a “quality”. On the other hand, there are some authors who understand premotion as a direct intervention of God in the vital act of (...) the creature which does not originates any entity prior to the created deliberate action itself. Báñez himself never spoke of any such entity, although some of his disciples soon adopted this view. One of his disciples, Pedro de Ledesma, is the author who best developed this minimalist approach in his treatise published on the occasion of the Controversy De auxiliis. This paper studies the main reasons used by Ledesma in his book to defend such an interpretation. (shrink)

Divine grace is the hand of Christ that sustains the Christian in his acts: such is the mystery explored at the end of the 16th century in the profound studies carried out by various Catholic theologians in a debate in Spain known as the “Controversy on divine aids” (de auxiliis). Its problematic covers both the drama of the loving agreement between divine initiative and human response, as well as the subtle questions of causal determinism or freedom of the will. In (...) this book, the participation of one of the main Dominicans involved in this dispute, Pedro de Ledesma, one of the last members of the School of Salamanca, is studied for the first time. For this purpose, his manuscript work is reviewed, contrasting it with the teachings of other Dominicans of the time. This also makes it possible to show that among the theologians of the Order of Preachers, despite their profound coincidences, there were also different approaches to providence, predestination and divine grace. Thus, this book provides a specific introduction to Ledesma, whose understanding of physical premotion is quite original, but it also provides a broad overview of the early years of the controversy on grace in the Iberian Peninsula. (shrink)

Spanish translation of Cajetan’s commentary on quaestiones 22 and 116 of the first part of the 'Summa'. The translator precedes the text of Cajetan with a broad introduction in which he compares the views of the author with the interpretation of the same problems by Báñez in the context of the 'De Auxiliis' controversy. According to the translator, Báñez would have been more faithful to the thought of Saint Thomas than Cajetan. However, the core of the contribution of this great (...) commentator will also be assumed by Báñez; it was so important for him that he implicitly quoted it in his last words. (shrink)