After the discoveries of such scholars as J. H. Poincaré, E. N. Lorenz, I. Prigogine, etc. the term ‘chaos’ is used actively by representatives of various scientific fields; however, one important aspect remains uninvestigated: which attitude one should have toward chaotic phenomena. This is a philosophical question and my dissertation aims to find the answer in the history of philosophy, where chaos theme has had its investigators from ancient philosophy to the philosophical theories of the 21st century. My (...) dissertation is based on the idea that sciences and philosophy can achieve significant success in exploring chaos theme when their efforts are combined. This dissertation research is designed to help in the planning of conscious, rational actions towards chaotic phenomena, since it is aimed at exploration and systematic presentation, as well as comprehension of possible systems of such actions – philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos. -/- Results of the dissertation are the following. I reveal, reconstruct, and explain the content of six possible strategies for interacting with chaos that were worked out in history of philosophical thought: ordering, avoiding, transfiguring, preventing, controlling, and integrating. I argue that the first philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos were worked out in the 19th century by German philosophers K. W. F. Schlegel and F. W. Nietzsche on the basis of their rethinking the ideas which were expressed by different thinkers during classical antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the modern period. I show that ideas of strategic views towards chaos were also elaborated by such 20th-century thinkers as H. Rickert, N. Berdyaev, I. Prigogine, H. Haken, G. Deleuze, Q. Meillassoux, and others. I outline the main stages of the evolution of philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos as well as its regularities. The dissertation shows perspectives of further development of each one of the six strategies for interacting with chaos. -/- In contemporary scientific and philosophical research on chaos, my exploration contributes to the new approach to improving the understanding of aims of acts towards chaotic phenomena. I think that knowing a range of different strategic views of chaos help researchers of chaotic phenomena to choose the most appropriate and rational reactions. In the area of history of philosophy, my research contributes detailed data about development and conceptual transformations of the notion of ‘chaos’ through all periods of Western philosophy. -/- The dissertation consists of five chapters: 1) Literature Review, Methodology and Key Research Terms, 2) Ancient and Medieval Philosophical Ideas about Chaos, 3) Genesis of the First Strategies for Interacting with Chaos, 4) Strategies for Interacting with Chaos in the 20th and 21st Centuries, 5) Regularities and Prospects of the Development of Philosophical Strategies for Interacting with Chaos. In the first chapter I analyze more than five hundred books, articles, and other philosophical and scientific sources in which the chaos theme is raised. I also argue the necessity of applying methods such as analysis, the structural method, the hermeneutic method of interpretation, and the comparative method in my dissertation research. Moreover, in this chapter, I define key terms for my dissertation – ‘chaos’ and ‘philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos.’ -/- Then, in the next chapter, I analyze the appearance and development of Ancient and Medieval philosophical ideas about chaotic phenomena and order. Particularly, I explore thoughts of philosophers such as Anaxagoras, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine of Hippo, Bernard Silvestris, Ramon Llull, etc. In this chapter I also compare the first Western ideas about chaos with similar thoughts from Eastern philosophy, analyzing Indian and Chinese philosophical ideas about disorder. -/- In the third chapter I explore transformations in understanding the meaning of the term ‘chaos’ in philosophy from the 15th to the end of the 19th century. I analyze ideas about chaos and order from thinkers such as M. Ficino, Paracelsus, F. Bacon, P. Bayle, Voltaire, J. G. Herder, I. Kant, F. W. J. Schelling and other philosophers from the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, and the German idealist period, showing that these thinkers’ new approaches to interpreting the notion of ‘chaos’ were the background for K. W. F. Schlegel’s and F. W. Nietzsche’s creations of the first strategies for interacting with chaos in the 19th century. I finish the chapter with detailed analysis of K. W. F. Schlegel’s strategy for transfiguring chaos and F. W. Nietzsche’s strategy for ordering chaos. -/- The development of philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos in the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century is the topic of the fourth chapter. I research new ideas about ordering chaos (H. Rickert) and transfiguring chaos (N. Berdyaev). Also, I reveal thoughts about avoiding chaos (A. Camus), preventing chaos (J. Ortega y Gasset), integrating chaos (G. Deleuze, Q. Meillassoux). Moreover, I analyze a philosophical component of the strategy for chaos control (I. Prigogine, H. Haken). In the final fifth chapter of the dissertation I trace the major features of philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos and find out the main conditions and periods of their development. Then I outline the prospects for the development of the philosophical strategies for interacting with chaos and show the most productive ways of their progress. (shrink)

Vocal fry is a phonation, or voicing, in which an individual drops their voice below its natural register and consequently emits a low, growly, creaky tone of voice. Media outlets have widely acknowledged it as a generational vocal style characteristic of millennial women. Critics of vocal fry often claim that it is an exclusively female vocal pattern, and some say that the voicing is so distracting that they cannot understand what is being said under the phonation. Claiming that a phonation (...) is so distracting as to prevent uptake of the semantic content of an utterance associated with it is an extreme reaction, especially when accompanied by demands for women to change their phonation. We argue that this reaction limits women's communicative autonomy. We analyze the extreme reaction to female vocal fry, which we characterize as a non-content-based response, from the perspectives of philosophy of language, feminist epistemology, and linguistics. We argue that when fry is heard as annoying and distracting, it is because the hearer interprets the speaker as echoing an utterance from a position of authority to which she is not entitled. We show that this reaction encodes conscious or unconscious sexist attitudes toward women's voices. (shrink)

Đám học trò xóm chim gật gù, ra vẻ đăm chiêu lắm, nhưng thực chả hiểu ra làm sao. Chuyện xóm xưa nay vẫn vận, kệ thôi...

Dạo gần đây mưa nhiều, cây cối tốt tươi, cá tôm đầy ao. Chim ở các nơi tấp nập kéo đến sinh sống.

Whether the hands-on experience of creating inventions can promote Students’ interest in pursuing a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) career has not been extensively studied. In a quantitative study, we drew on the attitude-behavior-outcome framework to explore the correlates between hands-on making attitude, epistemic curiosities, and career interest. This study targeted students who joined the selection competition for participating in the International Exhibition of Young Inventors (IEYI) in Taiwan. The objective of the invention exhibition is to encourage young students (...) to make innovative projects by applying STEM knowledge and collaborative design. We collected 220 valid data from participants in the 2021 Taiwan IEYI selection competition and conducted a confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses. Results indicated that: (1) hands-on making attitude was positively related to two types of epistemic curiosity; (2) interest-type epistemic curiosity (IEC) and deprivation-type epistemic curiosity (DEC) were positively associated with STEM career interest; additionally, DEC had a higher coefficient on STEM career interest than IEC; (3) both types of EC had a mediating role between hands-on making attitude and STEM career interest. It is expected that encouraging students to participate in invention exhibition competitions can raise both types of EC and increase their interest in pursuing STEM careers. (shrink)

Recent psychological research shown that the places where we live are linked to our personality traits. Geographical aggregation of personalities has been observed in many individualistic nations; notably, the mountainousness is an essential component in understanding regional variances in personality. Could mountainousness therefore also explain the clustering of personality-types in collectivist countries like China? Using a nationwide survey (29,838 participants) in Mainland China, we investigated the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and mountainousness indicators at the provincial level. Multilevel (...) modelling showed significant negative associations between the elevation coefficient of variation (Elevation CV) and the Big Five personality traits, whereas mean elevation (Elevation Mean) and the standard deviation in elevation (Elevation STD) were positively associated with human personalities. Subsequent machine learning analyses showed that, for example, Elevation Mean outperformed other mountainousness indicators regarding correlations with neuroticism, while Elevation CV performed best relative to openness models. Our results mirror some previous findings, such as the positive association between openness and Elevation STD, while also revealing cultural differences, such as the social desirability of people living in China’s mountainous areas. (shrink)

Philosophy and Memory Traces defends two theories of autobiographical memory. One is a bewildering historical view of memories as dynamic patterns in fleeting animal spirits, nervous fluids which rummaged through the pores of brain and body. The other is new connectionism, in which memories are 'stored' only superpositionally, and reconstructed rather than reproduced. Both models, argues John Sutton, depart from static archival metaphors by employing distributed representation, which brings interference and confusion between memory traces. Both raise urgent issues about control (...) of the personal past, and about relations between self and body. Sutton demonstrates the role of bizarre body fluids in moral physiology, as philosophers from Descartes and Locke to Coleridge struggled to control their own innards and impose cognitive discipline on 'the phantasmal chaos of association'. Going on to defend connectionism against Fodor and critics of passive mental representations, he shows how problems of the self are implicated in cognitive science. (shrink)

Oftentimes, reality seems to us a chaos that we try to control with our theories. This article starts from the antithetic standpoint, inspired by Antonio Rosmini’s works: reality is intelligible, and originates our thinking. From this perspective, any research that tries to reach the truth is determined by the real, not the contrary. Moreover, interdisciplinarity, far from being a solipsistic enterprise, aims at achieving truth and guaranteeing scientific advancement. Here, we analyze the distinctive character of Rosminian encyclopedism and his (...) principles for preventing human errors. We then clarify why it is impossible to achieve perfection, and why such an impossibility is not problematic for the interdisciplinary dialogue. (shrink)

continent. 1.1 : 3-13. / 0/ – Introduction I want to propose, as a trajectory into the philosophically weird, an absurd theoretical claim and pursue it, or perhaps more accurately, construct it as I point to it, collecting the ground work behind me like the Perpetual Train from China Mieville's Iron Council which puts down track as it moves reclaiming it along the way. The strange trajectory is the following: Kant's critical philosophy and much of continental philosophy which has followed, (...) has been a defense against horror and madness. Kant's prohibition on speculative metaphysics such as dogmatic metaphysics and transcendental realism, on thinking beyond the imposition of transcendental and moral constraints, has been challenged by numerous figures proceeding him. One of the more interesting critiques of Kant comes from the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land stating, “Kant’s critical philosophy is the most elaborate fit of panic in the history of the Earth.” And while Alain Badiou would certainly be opposed to the libidinal investments of Land's Deleuzo-Guattarian thought, he is likewise critical of Kant's normative thought-bureaucracies: Kant is the one author for whom I cannot feel any kinship. Everything in him exasperates me, above all his legalism—always asking Quid Juris? Or ‘Haven’t you crossed the limit?’—combined, as in today’s United States, with a religiosity that is all the more dismal in that it is both omnipresent and vague. The critical machinery he set up has enduringly poisoned philosophy, while giving great succour to the academy, which loves nothing more than to rap the knuckles of the overambitious [….] That is how I understand the truth of Monique David-Menard’s reflections on the properly psychotic origins of Kantianism. I am persuaded that the whole of the critical enterprise is set up to to shield against the tempting symptom represented by the seer Swedenborg, or against ‘diseases of the head’, as Kant puts it. An entire nexus of the limits of reason and philosophy are set up here, namely that the critical philosophy not only defends thought from madness, philosophy from madness, and philosophy from itself, but that philosophy following the advent of the critical enterprise philosophy becomes auto-vampiric; feeding on itself to support the academy. Following Francois Laruelle's non-philosophical indictment of philosophy, we could go one step further and say that philosophy operates on the material of what is philosophizable and not the material of the external world. [1] Beyond this, the Kantian scheme of nestling human thinking between our limited empirical powers and transcendental guarantees of categorical coherence, forms of thinking which stretch beyond either appear illegitimate, thereby liquefying both pre-critical metaphysics and the ravings of the mad in the same critical acid. In rejecting the Kantian apparatus we are left with two entities – an unsure relation of thought to reality where thought is susceptible to internal and external breakdown and a reality with an uncertain sense of stability. These two strands will be pursued, against the sane-seal of post-Kantian philosophy by engaging the work of weird fiction authors H.P. Lovecraft and Thomas Ligotti. The absolute inhumanism of the formers universe will be used to describe a Shoggothic Materialism while the dream worlds of the latter will articulate the mad speculation of a Ventriloquil Idealism. But first we must address the relation of philosophy to madness as well as philosophy to weird fiction. /1/ – Philosophy and Madness There is nothing that the madness of men invents which is not either nature made manifest or nature restored. Michel Foucault. Madness and Civilization. The moment I doubt whether an event that I recall actually took place, I bring the suspicion of madness upon myself: unless I am uncertain as to whether it was not a mere dream. Arthur Schopenhauer. The World as Will and Idea, Vol. 3. Madness is commonly thought of as moving through several well known cultural-historical shifts from madness as a demonic or otherwise theological force, to rationalization, to medicalization psychiatric and otherwise. Foucault's Madness and Civilization is well known for orientating madness as a form of exclusionary social control which operated by demarcating madness from reason. Yet Foucault points to the possibility of madness as the necessity of nature at least prior to the crushing weight of the church. Kant’s philosophy as a response to madness is grounded by his humanizing of madness itself. As Adrian Johnston points out in the early pages of Time Driven pre-Kantian madness meant humans were seized by demonic or angelic forces whereas Kantian madness became one of being too human. Madness becomes internalized, the external demonic forces become flaws of the individual mind. Foucault argues that, while madness is de-demonized it is also dehumanized during the Renaissance, as madmen become creatures neither diabolic nor totally human reduced to the zero degree of humanity. It is immediately clear why for Kant, speculative metaphysics must be curbed – with the problem of internal madness and without the external safeguards of transcendental conditions, there is nothing to formally separate the speculative capacities for metaphysical diagnosis from the mad ramblings of the insane mind – both equally fall outside the realm of practicality and quotidian experience. David-Menard's work is particularly useful in diagnosing the relation of thought and madness in Kant's texts. David-Menard argues that in Kant's relatively unknown “An Essay on the Maladies of the Mind” as well as his later discussion of the Seer of Swedenborg, that Kant formulates madness primarily in terms of sensory upheaval or other hallucinatory theaters. She writes: “madness is an organization of thought. It is made possible by the ambiguity of the normal relation between the imaginary and the perceived, whether this pertains to the order of sensation or to the relations between our ideas” Kant's fascination with the Seer forces Kant between the pincers of “aesthetic reconciliation” – namely melancholic withdrawal – and “a philosophical invention” – namely the critical project. Deleuze and Guattari's schizoanalysis is a combination and reversal of Kant's split, where an aesthetic over engagement with the world entails prolific conceptual invention. Their embrace of madness, however, is of course itself conceptual despite all their rhizomatic maneuvers. Though they move with the energy of madness, Deleuze and Guattari save the capacity of thought from the fangs of insanity by imbuing materiality itself with the capacity for thought. Or, as Ray Brassier puts it, “Deleuze insists, it is necessary to absolutize the immanence of this world in such a way as to dissolve the transcendent disjunction between things as we know them and as they are in themselves”. That is, whereas Kant relied on the faculty of judgment to divide representation from objectivity Deleuze attempts to flatten the whole economy beneath the juggernaut of ontological univocity. Speculation, as a particularly useful form of madness, might fall close to Deleuze and Guattari’s shaping of philosophy into a concept producing machine but is different in that it is potentially self destructive – less reliant on the stability of its own concepts and more adherent to exposing a particular horrifying swath of reality. Speculative madness is always a potential disaster in that it acknowledges little more than its own speculative power with the hope that the gibbering of at least a handful of hysterical brains will be useful. Pre-critical metaphysics amounts to madness, though this may be because the world itself is mad while new attempts at speculative metaphysics, at post-Kantian pre-critical metaphysics, are well aware of our own madness. Without the sobriety of the principle of sufficient reason we have a world of neon madness: “we would have to conceive what our life would be if all the movements of the earth, all the noises of the earth, all the smells, the tastes, all the light – of the earth and elsewhere, came to us in a moment, in an instant – like an atrocious screaming tumult of things”. Speculative thought may be participatory in the screaming tumult of the world or, worse yet, may produce its spectral double. Against theology or reason or simply commonsense, the speculative becomes heretical. Speculation, as the cognitive extension of the horrorific sublime should be met with melancholic detachment. Whereas Kant's theoretical invention, or productivity of thought, is self -sabotaging, since the advent of the critical project is a productivity of thought which then delimits the engine of thought at large either in dogmatic gestures or non-systematizable empirical wondrousness. The former is celebrated by the fiction of Thomas Ligotti whereas the latter is espoused by the tales of H.P. Lovecraft. /2/ – Weird Fiction and Philosophy. Supernatural horror, in all its eerie constructions, enables a reader to taste treats inconsistent with his personal welfare. Thomas Ligotti Songs of a Dead Dreamer. I choose weird stories because they suit my inclination best—one of my strongest and most persistent wishes being to achieve,momentarily, the illusion of some strange suspension or violation of the galling limitations of time, space, and natural law which forever imprison us and frustrate our curiosity about the infinite cosmic spaces beyond the radius of our sight and analysis H.P. Lovecraft. “Notes on Writing Weird Fiction” Lovecraft states that his creation of a story is to suspend natural law yet, at the same time, he indexes the tenuousness of such laws, suggesting the vast possibilities of the cosmic. The tension that Lovecraft sets up between his own fictions and the universe or nature is reproduced within his fictions in the common theme of the unreliable narrator; unreliable precisely because they are either mad or what they have witnessed questions the bounds of material reality. In “The Call of Cthulhu” Lovecraft writes: The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents. We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the deadly light into the peace and safety of a new dark age. Despite Lovecraft's invocations of illusion, he is not claiming that his fantastic creations such as the Old Ones are supernatural but, following Joshi, are only ever supernormal. One can immediately see that instead of nullifying realism Lovecraft in fact opens up the real to an unbearable degree. In various letters and non-fictional statements Lovecraft espoused strictly materialist tenets, ones which he borrowed from Hugh Elliot namely the uniformity of law, the denial of teleology and the denial of non-material existence. Lovecraft seeks to explore the possibilities of such a universe by piling horror upon horror until the fragile brain which attempts to grasp it fractures. This may be why philosophy has largely ignored weird fiction – while Deleuze and Guattari mark the turn towards weird fiction and Lovecraft in particular, with the precursors to speculative realism as well as contemporary related thinkers have begun to view Lovecraft as making philosophical contributions. Lovecraft's own relation to philosophy is largely critical while celebrating Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. This relationship of Lovecraft to philosophy and philosophy to Lovecraft is coupled with Lovecraft's habit of mercilessly destroying the philosopher and the figure of the academic more generally in his work, a destruction which is both an epistemological destruction and an ontological destruction. Thomas Ligotti's weird fiction which he has designated as a kind of “confrontational escapism” might be best described in the following quote from one of his shortstories, “The human phenomenon is but the sum of densely coiled layers of illusion each of which winds itself on the supreme insanity. That there are persons of any kind when all there can be is mindless mirrors laughing and screaming as they parade about in an endless dream”. Whereas Lovecraft's weirdness draws predominantly from the abyssal depths of the uncharted universe, Ligotti's existential horror focuses on the awful proliferation of meaningless surfaces that is, the banal and every day function of representation. In an interview, Ligotti states: We don't even know what the world is like except through our sense organs, which are provably inadequate. It's no less the case with our brains. Our whole lives are motored along by forces we cannot know and perceptions that are faulty. We sometimes hear people say that they're not feeling themselves. Well, who or what do they feel like then? This is not to say that Ligotti sees nothing beneath the surface but that there is only darkness or blackness behind it, whether that surface is on the cosmological level or the personal. By addressing the implicit and explicit philosophical issues in Ligotti's work we will see that his nightmarish take on reality is a form of malevolent idealism, an idealism which is grounded in a real, albeit dark and obscure materiality. If Ligotti's horrors ultimately circle around mad perceptions which degrade the subject, it takes aim at the vast majority of the focus of continental philosophy. While Lovecraft's acidic materialism clearly assaults any romantic concept of being from the outside, Ligotti attacks consciousness from the inside: Just a little doubt slipped into the mind, a little trickle of suspicion in the bloodstream, and all those eyes of ours, one by one, open up to the world and see its horror [...] Not even the solar brilliance of a summer day will harbor you from horror. For horror eats the light and digests it into darkness. Clearly, the weird fiction of Lovecraft and Ligotti amount to a anti-anthrocentric onslaught against the ramparts of correlationist continental philosophy. /3/ – Shoggothic Materialism or the Formless Formless protoplasm able to mock and reflect all forms and organs and processes—viscous agglutinations of bubbling cells—rubbery fifteen-foot spheroids infinitely plastic and ductile—slaves of suggestion, builders of cities—more and more sullen, more and more intelligent, more and more amphibious, more and more imitative—Great God! What madness made even those blasphemous Old Ones willing to use and to carve such things? H.P. Lovecraft. “At the Mountains of Madness” On the other hand, affirming that the universe resembles nothing and is only formless amounts to saying that the universe is something like a spider or spit. Georges Bataille. “Formless”. The Shoggoths feature most prominently in H.P. Lovecraft's shortstory “At the Mountains of Madness” where they are described in the following manner: It was a terrible, indescribable thing vaster than any subway train – a shapeless congeries of protoplasmic bubbles, faintly self -luminous, and with myriads of temporary eyes forming and un-forming as pustules of greenish light all over the tunnel-filling front that bore down upon us, crushing the frantic penguins and slithering over the glistening floor that it and its kind had swept so evilly free of all litter. The term is a litmus test for materialism itself as the Shoggoth is an amorphous creature. The Shoggoths were living digging machines bio engineered by the Elder Things, and their protoplasmic bodies being formed into various tools by their hypnotic powers. The Shoggoths eventually became self aware and rose up against their masters in an ultimately failed rebellion. After the Elder Ones retreated into the oceans leaving the Shoggoths to roam the frozen wastes of the Antarctic. The onto-genesis of the Shoggoths and their gross materiality, index the horrifyingly deep time of the earth a concept near and dear to Lovecraft's formulation of horror as well as the fear of intelligences far beyond, and far before, the ascent of humankind on earth and elsewhere. The sickly amorphous nature of the Shoggoths invade materialism at large, where while materiality is unmistakably real ie not discursive, psychological, or otherwise overly subjectivist, it questions the relation of materialism to life. As Eugene Thacker writes: The Shoggoths or Elder Things do not even share the same reality with the human beings who encounter them—and yet this encounter takes place, though in a strange no-place that is neither quite that of the phenomenal world of the human subject or the noumenal world of an external reality. Amorphous yet definitively material beings are a constant in Lovecraft's tales. In his tale “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadatth” Lovecraft describes Azathoth as, “that shocking final peril which gibbers unmentionably outside the ordered universe,” that, “last amorphous blight of nethermost confusion which blashphemes and bubbles at the centre of all infinity,” who, “gnaws hungrily in inconceivable, unlighted chambers beyond time”. Azathoth's name may have multiple origins but the most striking is the alchemy term azoth which is both a cohesive agent and a acidic creation pointing back to the generative and the decayed. The indistinction of generation and degradation materially mirrors the blur between the natural and the unnatural as well as life and non-life. Lovecraft speaks of the tension between the natural and the unnatural is his short story “The Unnameable.” He writes, “if the psychic emanations of human creatures be grotesque distortions, what coherent representation could express or portray so gibbous and infamous a nebulousity as the spectre of a malign, chaotic perversion, itself a morbid blasphemy against Nature?”. Lovecraft explores exactly the tension outlined at the beginning of this chapter, between life and thought. At the end of his short tale Lovecraft compounds the problem as the unnameable is described as “a gelatin—a slime—yet it had shapes, a thousand shapes of horror beyond all memory”. Deleuze suggests that becoming-animal is operative throughout Lovecraft's work, where narrators feel themselves reeling at their becoming non-human or of being the anomalous or of becoming atomized. Following Eugene Thacker however, it may be far more accurate to say that Lovecraft's tales exhibit not a becoming-animal but a becoming-creature. Where the monstrous breaks the purportedly fixed laws of nature, the creature is far more ontologically ambiguous. The nameless thing is an altogether different horizon for thought. The creature is either less than animal or more than animal – its becoming is too strange for animal categories and indexes the slow march of thought towards the bizarre. This strangeness is, as aways, some indefinite swirling in the category of immanence and becoming. Bataille begins “The Labyrinth” with the assertion that being, to continue to be, is becoming. More becoming means more being hence the assertion that Bataille's barking dog is more than the sponge. This would mean that the Shoggotth is altogether too much being, too much material in the materialism. Bataille suggests that there is an immanence between the eater and the eaten, across the species and never within them. That is, despite the chaotic storm of immanence there must remain some capacity to distinguish the gradients of becoming without reliance upon, or at least total dependence upon, the powers of intellection to parse the universe into recognizable bits, properly digestible factoids. That is, if we undo Deleuze's aforementioned valorization of sense which, for his variation of materialism, performed the work of the transcendental, but refuse to reinstate Kant's transcendental disjunction between thing and appearance, then it must be a quality of becoming-as-being itself which can account for the discernible nature of things by sense. In an interview with Peter Gratton, Jane Bennett formulates the problem thusly: What is this strange systematicity proper to a world of Becoming? What, for example, initiates this congealing that will undo itself? Is it possible to identify phases within this formativity, plateaus of differentiation? If so, do the phases/plateaus follow a temporal sequence? Or, does the process of formation inside Becoming require us to theorize a non-chronological kind of time? I think that your student’s question: “How can we account for something like iterable structures in an assemblage theory?” is exactly the right question. Philosophy has erred too far on the side of the subject in the subject-object relation and has furthermore, lost the very weirdness of the non-human. Beyond this, the madness of thought need not override. /4/ - Ventriloquial Idealism or the Externality of Thought My aim is the opposite of Lovecraft's. He had an appreciation for natural scenery on earth and wanted to reach beyond the visible in the universe. I have no appreciation for natural scenery and want the objective universe to be a reflection of a character. Thomas Ligotti. “Devotees of Decay and Desolation.” Unless life is a dream, nothing makes sense. For as a reality, it is a rank failure [….] Horror is more real than we are. Thomas Ligotti. “Professor Nobody's Little Lectures on Supernatural Horror”. Thomas Ligotti's tales are rife with mannequins, puppets, and other brainless entities which of replace the valorized subject of philosophy – that of the free thinking human being. His tales such as “The Dream of the Manikin” aim to destroy the rootedness of consciousness. James Trafford has connected the anti-egoism of Ligotti to Thomas Metzinger – where the self is at best an illusion and we plead desperately for someone else to acknowledge that we are real. Trafford has stated it thus, “Life is played out as an inescapable puppet show, an endless dream in which the puppets are generally unaware that they are trapped within a mesmeric dance of whose mechanisms they know nothing and over which they have no control”. An absolute materialism, for Ligotti, implies an alienation of the idea which leads to a ventriloquil idealism. As Ligotti notes in an interview, “the fiasco and nightmare of existence, the particular fiasco and nightmare of human existence, the sense that people are puppets of powers they cannot comprehend, etc.” And then further elaborates that,“[a]ssuming that anything has to exist, my perfect world would be one in which everyone has experienced the annulment of his or her ego. That is, our consciousness of ourselves as unique individuals would entirely disappear”. The externality of the idea leads to the unfortunate consequence of consciousness eating at itself through horror which, for Ligotti, is more real than reality and goes beyond horror-as-affect. Beyond this, taking together with the unreality of life and the ventriloquizing of subjectivity, Ligotti's thought becomes an idealism in which thought itself is alien and ultimately horrifying. The role of human thought and the relation of non-relation of horror to thought is not completely clear in Ligotti's The Conspiracy Against the Human Race. Ligotti argues in his The Conspiracy Against the Human Race,that the advent of thought is a mistake of nature and that horror is being in the sense that horror results from knowing too much. Yet, at the same time, Ligotti seems to suggest that thought separates us from nature whereas, for Lovecraft, thought is far less privileged – mind is just another manifestation of the vital principal, it is just another materialization of energy. In his brilliant “Prospects for Post-Copernican Dogmatism” Iain Grant rallies against the negative definition of dogmatism and the transcendental, and suggests that negatively defining both over-focuses on conditions of access and subjectivism at the expense of the real or nature. With Schelling, who is Grant's champion against the subjectivist bastions of both Fichte and Kant, Ligotti's idealism could be taken as a transcendental realism following from an ontological realism. Yet the transcendental status of Ligotti's thought move towards a treatment of the transcendental which may threaten to leave beyond its realist ground. Ligotti states: Belief in the supernatural is only superstition. That said, a sense of the supernatural, as Conrad evidenced in Heart of Darkness, must be admitted if one's inclination is to go to the limits of horror. It is the sense of what should not be- the sense of being ravaged by the impossible. Phenomenally speaking, the super-natural may be regarded as the metaphysical counterpart of insanity, a transcendental correlative of a mind that has been driven mad. Again, Ligotti equates madness with thought, qualifying both as supernatural while remaining less emphatic about the metaphysical dimensions of horror. The question becomes one of how exactly the hallucinatory realm of the ideal relates to the black churning matter of Lovecraft's chaos of elementary particles. In his tale “I Have a Special Plan for This World” Ligotti formulates thus: A: There is no grand scheme of things. B: If there were a grand scheme of things, the fact – the fact – that we are not equipped to perceive it, either by natural or supernatural means, is a nightmarish obscenity. C: The very notion of a grand scheme of things is a nightmarish obscenity. Here Ligotti is not discounting metaphysics but implying that if it does exist the fact that we are phenomenologically ill-equipped to perceive that it is nightmarish. For Ligotti, nightmare and horror occur within the circuit of consciousness whereas for Lovecraft the relation between reality and mind is less productive on the side of mind. It is easier to ascertain how the Kantian philosophy is a defense against the diseases of the head as Kant armors his critical enterprise from too much of the world and too much of the mind. The weird fiction of both Lovecraft and Ligotti demonstrates that there is too much of both feeding into one another in a way that corrodes the Kantian schema throughly, breaking it down into a dead but still ontologically potentiated nigredo. The haunting, terrifying fact of Ligotti's idealism is that the transcendental motion which brought thought to matter, while throughly material and naturalized, brings with it the horror that thought cannot be undone without ending the material that bears it either locally or completely. Thought comes from an elsewhere and an elsewhen being-in-thought. The unthinkable outside thought is as maddening as the unthought engine of thought itself within thought which doesn't exist except for the mind, the rotting décor of the brain. /5/ - Hyperstitional Transcendental Paranoia or Self -Expelled Thought Weird fiction has been given some direct treatment in philosophy in the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land. Nick Land along with others in the 1990s created the Cyber Culture Research Unit as well as the research group Hyperstition. The now defunct hyperstitional website, an outgrowth of the Cyber Culture Research Unit, defined hyperstition in the following fourfold: 1-Element of effective culture that makes itself real. 2-Fictional quantity functional as a time-traveling device. 3-Coincidence intensifier. 4-Call to the Old Ones. The distinctively Lovecraftian character of hyperstition is hard to miss as is its Deleuzo-Guattarian roots. In the opening pages of A Thousand Plateaus Deleuze and Guattari write, “We have been criticized for over-quoting literary authors. But when one writes, the only question is which other machine the literary machine can be plugged into”. The indisinction of literature and philosophy mirrors the mess of being and knowing as post-correlationist philosophy, where philosophy tries to make itself real where literature, especially the weird, aims itself at the brain-circuit of horror. The texts of both Lovecraft and Ligotti work through horror as epistemological plasticity meeting with proximity as well as the deep time of Lovecraft and the glacially slow time of paranoia in Ligotti. Against Deleuze, and following Brassier, we cannot allow the time of consciousness, the Bergsonian time of the duree, to override natural time, but instead acknowledge that it is an unfortunate fact of existence as a thinking being. Horror-time, the time of consciousness, with all its punctuated moments and drawn out terrors, cannot compare to the deep time of non-existence both in the unreachable past and the unknown future. The crystalline cogs of Kant's account of experience as the leading light for the possibility of metaphysics must be throughly obliterated. His gloss of experience in Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics could not be more sterile: Experience consists of intuitions, which belong to the sensibility, and of judgments, which are entirely a work of the understanding. But the judgments which the understanding makes entirely out of sensuous intuitions are far from being judgments of experience. For in the one case the judgment connects only the perceptions as they are given in sensuous intuition [....] Experience consists in the synthetic connection of appearances in consciousness, so far as this connection is necessary. Here it is difficult to dismiss the queasiness that Kant's legalism induces upon sight for both Badiou and David-Menard. Kant's thought becomes, as Foucault says when reflecting on Sade's text in relation to nature, “the savage abolition of itself”. For Badiou, Kant's philosophy simply closes off too much of the outside, freezing the world of thought in an all too limited formalism. Critical philosophy is simply the systematized quarantine on future thinking, on thinking which would threaten the formalism which artificially grants thought its own coherency in the face of madness. Even the becoming-mad of Deleuze, while escaping the rumbling ground, makes grounds for itself, mad grounds but grounds which are thinkable in their affect. The field of effects allows for Deleuze's aesthetic and radical empiricism, in which effects and/or occasions make up the material of the world to be thought as a chaosmosis of simulacra. Given a critique of an empiricism of aesthetics, of the image, it may be difficult to justify an attack on Kantian formalism with the madness of literature, which does not aim to make itself real but which we may attempt to make real. That is, how do Lovecraft's and Ligotti's materials, as materials for philosophy to work on, differ from either the operative formalisms of Kant or the implicitly formalized images of Deleuzian empiricism? It is simply that such texts do not aim to make themselves real, and make claims to the real which are more alien to us than familiar, which is why their horror is immediately more trustworthy. This is the madness which Blanchot discusses in The Infinite Conversation through Cervantes and his knight – the madness of book-life, of the perverse unity of literature and life a discussion which culminates in the discussion of one of the weird's masters, that of Kafka. The text is the knowing of madness, since madness, in its moment of becoming-more-mad, cannot be frozen in place but by the solidifications of externalizing production. This is why Foucault ends his famous study with works of art. Furthermore extilligence, the ability to export the products of our maligned brains, is the companion of the attempts to export, or discover the possibility of intelligences outside of our heads, in order for philosophy to survive the solar catastrophe. To borrow again from Deleuze, writing is inseparable from becoming. The mistake is to believe that madness is reabsorbed by extilligence, by great works, or that it could be exorcised by the expelling of thought into the inorganic or differently organic. Going out of our heads does not guarantee we will no longer mean we cannot still go out of our minds. This is simply because of the outside, of matter, or force, or energy, or thing-in-itself, or Schopenhauerian Will. In Lovecraft’s “The Music of Erich Zahn” an “impoverished student of metaphysics” becomes intrigued by strange viol music coming from above his room. After meeting the musician the student discovers that each night he plays frantic music at a window in order to keep some horridness at bay, some “impenetrable darkness with chaos and pandemonium”. The aesthetic defenses provided by the well trained brain can bear the hex of matter for so long, the specter of unalterability within it which too many minds obliterate, collapsing everything before the thought of thought as thinkable or at least noetically mutable on our own terms. Transcendental paranoia is the concurrent nightmare and promise of Paul Humphrey's work, of being literally out of our minds. It is the gothic counterpart of thinking non-conceptually but also of thinking never belonging to any instance of purportedly solid being. As Bataille stated, “At the boundary of that which escapes cohesion, he who reflects within cohesion realizes there is no longer any room for him” Thought is immaterial only to the degree that it is inhuman, it is a power that tries, always with failure, to ascertain its own genesis. Philosophy, if it can truly return to the great outdoors, if it can leave behind the dead loop of the human skull, must recognize not only the non-priority of human thought, but that thought never belongs to the brain that thinks it, thought comes from somewhere else. To return to the train image from the beginning “a locomotive rolling on the surface of the earth is the image of continuous metamorphosis” this is the problem of thought, and of thinking thought, of being no longer able to isolate thought, with only a thought-formed structure. [1] One of the central tenets of Francois Laruelle's non-philosophy is that philosophy has traditionally operated on material already presupposed as thinkable instead of trying to think the real in itself. Philosophy, according to Laruelle, remains fixated on transcendental synthesis which shatters immanence into an empirical datum and an a prori factum which are then fused by a third thing such as the ego. For a critical account of Laruelle's non-philosophy see Ray Brassier's Nihil Unbound. (shrink)

COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS ANIMAIS OBJETIVO O estudante explicará a conduta sexual de fêmeas e machos de diferentes espécies domésticas para detectar a fase de receptividade sexual, com a finalidade de programar de maneira adequada a monta ou a inseminação artificial. A observação da conduta sexual dos animais é indispensável para o sucesso da estação reprodutiva em uma determinada propriedade. Logo, o estudante obterá o alicerce necessário sobre os pontos teóricos e práticos a serem observados para a seleção dos animais aptos (...) para a reprodução, além dos meios de identificação comportamental dos animais no que se refere a atividade cíclica das fêmeas. • _____INTRODUÇÃO O comportamento sexual característico de fêmeas e machos devem-se, por um lado, ao ambiente endócrino do organismo e, por outro, a uma influência da aprendizagem obtida ao longo da vida. Este comportamento é indispensável para alcançar a cópula em um momento apropriado, a fim de alcançar uma fertilização que culmina com a gestação. Conhecer as características do comportamento reprodutivo das diferentes espécies domésticas é de grande utilidade para poder determinar o momento ideal de serviço nas fêmeas, bem como para avaliar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos; também serve para detectar algumas alterações que modificam o comportamento sexual normal. No caso das fêmeas, o comportamento sexual distintivo está limitado ao estágio do ciclo estral conhecido como estro, enquanto nos machos, a atividade reprodutiva pode acontecer a qualquer momento. Nas fêmeas e nos machos das espécies sazonais, o comportamento sexual é suprimido ou diminuído, respectivamente, durante as épocas de anestro. Existem espécies em que certas mudanças observáveis no comportamento ou na genitália são suficientes para identificar as fêmeas no cio. Outras espécies, entretanto, requerem necessariamente a presença do macho para poder expressar seu comportamento estral e somente quando ele estiver presente será possível estabelecer o momento em que a fêmea está em estro. Em determinadas propriedades, o macho reprodutor somente é utilizado para cobrir as fêmeas em cio; o trabalho de detecção das fêmeas que pode ser desgastante para o reprodutor é realizado por um outro macho conhecido como rufião. Esse animal não cobre as fêmeas, apenas é utilizado para a observação de fêmeas aptas à monta. É comum que, quando se fala em comportamento sexual, seja dada mais importância à fêmea do que ao macho, pois seu comportamento é aquele que se limita a períodos curtos, além de ser aquele que permitirá a cópula; mas os machos também têm uma participação muito ativa, pois além de atrair e detectar as fêmeas no cio, devem ser capazes de realizar a cópula com sucesso. Através da conduta sexual dos machos é observada sua eficiência reprodutiva, isto é, se ele possui a capacidade de detecção e cobrição padrão esperada de um reprodutor. Se as observações forem negativas, o ideal é a realização de um exame andrológico. • _____ETAPAS DO COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL O comportamento sexual feminino possui três finalidades: atrair o macho (atração) por meio de sinais e da busca ativa do mesmo, estimular o macho para realizar a cópula (proceptividade), ao qual alcançam exibindo-se ante o mesmo, e facilitar a cópula (receptividade) ao permanecer imóvel, realizando a lordose (figura 1) e o movimento lateral da cauda. Figura 1: reflexo de lordose na vaca e na gata, ambas em cio. Os machos também apresentam três estágios comportamentais; na primeira, procuram ativamente as fêmeas, realizam atividades de cortejo, se aproximam da fêmea e se estimulam sexualmente (fase pré-copulatória) (figura 2). Assim que detectam uma fêmea no cio, realizam a monta, que inclui movimentos pélvicos, penetração e ejaculação (fase copulatória). No final, eles exibem um estágio de descanso e desinteresse pela fêmea no cio, conhecido como estágio pós-copulador ou refratário. Figura 2: comportamento sexual de um macho caprino ante uma fêmea. A etapa pré-copulatória consiste na aproximação do macho, no ato de fugar que é o de cheirar a vulva da fêmea. Quando a fêmea urina o macho cheira e produz o reflexo de flehmen. Por último o macho escoiceia a fêmea para depois realizar a monta na etapa copulatória. • _____ESTIMULAÇÃO SEXUAL A estimulação sexual é um componente essencial para que o comportamento sexual ocorra. Como parte desse estímulo, machos e fêmeas de algumas espécies secretam substâncias voláteis conhecidas como feromônios fora do corpo, que exercem sua ação sobre outros indivíduos da mesma espécie. Essas substâncias são detectadas pelo órgão vomeronasal (figura 3), também conhecido como órgão de Jacobson; localizado no osso vômer, entre o nariz e o céu da boca; que possui dois dutos nasopalatinos cujas aberturas estão localizadas atrás do lábio superior. A superfície desses dutos e do órgão é recoberta por um epitélio com neurônios bipolares sensoriais que captam feromônios e enviam informações, por meio de um estímulo nervoso, ao bulbo olfatório acessório e para o hipotálamo. Para facilitar a entrada de feromônios no órgão vomeronasal, os ruminantes machos e equinos, bem como algumas fêmeas, realizam o reflexo de Flehmen (figura 4), que consiste em um movimento facial em que o lábio superior é levantado para expor a abertura dos dutos nasopalatinos. Determinou-se que as fêmeas produzem feromônios que são secretados na urina, bem como no muco cervical e vaginal, a fim de atrair o macho e promover sua atividade sexual; estimulação conhecida como efeito feminino indireto. Esses feromônios também podem estimular outras fêmeas; na verdade, foi visto que as fêmeas que estão juntas sincronizam a apresentação de seu estro e podem até iniciar a estação reprodutiva juntas. Este fenômeno é conhecido como efeito feminino-feminino ou efeito feminino direto. Figura 3: olfateio da genitália pelo macho. Aqui o macho é atraído pelo feromônio que a fêmea produz e exala pela vagina. Figura 4: movimento do lábio superior típico do reflexo de Flehmen. Os machos sexualmente ativos, por sua vez, também emitem feromônios, que podem ser detectados na urina, na secreção de algumas glândulas sebáceas, nas glândulas ante-orbitais de carneiros e, no caso de porcos, na saliva (figura 5). Essas emissões são dependentes de andrógenos, logo os machos castrados não conseguem produzi-las. Esses feromônios, sinergicamente com as vocalizações e o comportamento do macho, exercem um efeito bioestimulante eficiente conhecido como efeito macho, que é uma alternativa ecológica e econômica para a manipulação do ciclo estral de fêmeas domésticas. O efeito macho tem sido usado com sucesso para esse fim em ovinos, caprinos, suínos e, em menor medida, em bovinos. Figura 5: salivação em reprodutores suínos, com o qual estimulam as fêmeas. Com o efeito macho, é possível causar um aumento na frequência de secreção dos pulsos de LH, o que acelera o início da atividade reprodutiva nas fêmeas durante os períodos pré-púbere, estacional ou pós-parto; também prolonga a estação reprodutiva em fêmeas sazonais. Há não mais de uma década, considerava-se que esse efeito só funcionava em tempos de transição para a estação reprodutiva ou para o anestro; agora sabemos que os machos podem estimular as fêmeas mesmo durante anestro profundo, que ocorre desde que sejam estimulados e exibam comportamento sexual suficiente para interagir com as fêmeas. É importante notar que quando as fêmeas iniciam sua atividade reprodutiva, o efeito macho também pode ser usado para sincronizar a apresentação do cio e da ovulação. O efeito macho é mais eficiente quando é um estímulo novo, pois a introdução de um macho desconhecido, ou com o qual as fêmeas não tiveram contato anterior, é suficiente para causar ciclidade independentemente de estarem em coexistência com outro macho; este detalhe é importante visto que se considerava anteriormente que as fêmeas tiveram que permanecer completamente isoladas de todos os machos por, pelo menos, duas semanas. Foi constatado, inclusive, que toda vez que as fêmeas são expostas a um novo macho, ocorre um aumento na frequência dos pulsos de LH, com a consequente ovulação, ainda que a exposição ao macho não seja permanente ou constante. Foi sugerido que a presença intermitente de machos, algumas horas a cada 12 horas, é suficiente para estimular as fêmeas. Em ovelhas, foi descrito que a ovulação ocorre entre 50 e 56 h após o primeiro contato com o macho, variando de 30 a 72 h, tempo que pode dobrar quando se trata de animais pré-púberes. • _____DEFINIÇÃO DE ESTRO A palavra estro vem do grego oistros, que significa exaltação ou desejo desenfreado e se refere ao comportamento errático e nervoso que as vacas adotam quando são picadas pela mutuca ou mosca do estábulo (família Oestridae). O estro é uma fase reprodutiva que faz parte do ciclo estral das fêmeas de todos os mamíferos domésticos. É a fase mais fácil de reconhecer dentro deste ciclo, porque mudanças características são observadas no comportamento, nos ovários e nos órgãos genitais internos e externos. • _____CARACTERÍSTICAS DO ESTRO O estro é considerado a partir das características comportamentais das fêmeas, é a única fase do ciclo estral em que a fêmea mostra interesse pelo macho, aceitando o acasalamento e a cópula; por isso é definido como o período de receptividade sexual. O sinônimo utilizado com mais frequência é o cio. Se o foco de estudo dessa fase são as alterações que ocorrem no útero, o estro caracteriza a fase proliferativa, já que os estrogênios estão elevados, o que promove a proliferação tanto do endométrio quanto das glândulas endometriais. Nos genitais também ocorrem modificações que visam atrair o macho e favorecer a cópula, entre outras estão a hiperemia e o edema vulvar, além da secreção de muco cervical e vaginal (figura 6). Do ponto de vista dos processos ovarianos, o estro é uma fase que se classifica dentro da fase folicular do ciclo estral, ou seja, quando ocorre o desenvolvimento folicular. Os eventos endócrinos correspondentes podem ser consultados no trabalho sobre a endocrinologia reprodutiva . É necessário ressaltar que na maioria das espécies domésticas o comportamento estral ocorre quando as concentrações de estradiol são elevadas. A exceção pode ser observada na cadela, cujos níveis máximos de estradiol ocorrem durante o proestro, de forma que, quando o estro começa, as concentrações desse hormônio começam a diminuir. Esse declínio continua durante o estro, culminando quando as concentrações de estradiol caem para menos de 15 pg/ml. Isso acontece porque nessa espécie o pico de LH ocorre durante a transição do proestro para o estro, de modo que as concentrações de progesterona chegam a cerca de 1 ng/ml quando o comportamento estral começa e continuam a aumentar durante o estro. Figura 6: muco cristalino e fluido, característico de vacas em estro. • _____FATORES QUE PODEM AFETAR A MANIFESTAÇÃO DO ESTRO É importante lembrar que existem diferenças no grau e na forma em que ocorrem a manifestação e a duração do estro nas espécies animais, além da existência de variações individuais. Ainda temos parâmetros médios que podem ser usados para descrever este período em diferentes espécies. Em bovinos, por exemplo, pode-se fazer uma distinção entre bovinos especializados na produção de carne e bovinos leiteiros, onde a intensidade com que o estro se manifesta é menor no primeiro grupo, principalmente quando se trata de bovinos zebuínos. Em estudos genéticos realizados com bovinos, por outro lado, tem-se considerado que a intensidade da expressão da conduta sexual é uma característica hereditária (h2 = 0,21). Além disso, existe uma grande diversidade de fatores ambientais e sociais que podem modificar a apresentação dos ciclos estrais e a manifestação do comportamento estral. Fotoperíodo O principal regulador da estacionalidade reprodutiva é o fotoperíodo. A influência da mudança das horas do dia na atividade reprodutiva e, portanto, na apresentação do estro é amplamente determinada pela localização geográfica, e é maior à medida que a distância do equador aumenta. O fotoperíodo afeta principalmente as espécies que apresentam estro apenas em uma época do ano, conhecidas como poliéstricas sazonais. Nessas espécies, o fotoperíodo também pode modificar o tempo de início da puberdade. Nutrição Uma deficiência nutricional pode encurtar a estação de acasalamento e até mesmo suspendê-la se a desnutrição for severa. Em bovinos de corte, o reinício da atividade reprodutiva pós-parto ou puberdade também pode ser retardado quando a ingestão nutricional é inadequada. Aspectos sociais A superlotação pode atrasar o início da puberdade em animais jovens ou causar a ausência de ciclos estrais em adultos. Os efeitos fêmea e macho como estimulantes da ciclicidade também devem ser levados em consideração. Hierarquia Observado em cães cujas matilhas têm uma classificação hierárquica bem estabe-lecida, na qual os machos subordinados não têm permissão para acasalar com as fêmeas dominantes. Este comportamento é observado até mesmo em cães domésticos nos quais uma cadela dominante não permite ser montada facilmente, mesmo apresentando estro. Da mesma forma, em bovinos zebuínos, as vacas dominantes não aceitam que outras fêmeas as montem o que pode dificultar a detecção de estro a campo. Tipo de alojamento Quanto mais intensa a acomodação, menor a manifestação do comportamento sexual, pois há menos espaço para os animais interagirem entre si. É menos frequente observar as manifestações de estro se o local onde os animais estão alojados for muito grande e eles tiverem que caminhar grandes extensões para encontrar um animal com o qual possam se relacionar. Problemas nos membros Existem anomalias, principalmente nos membros posteriores, que impedem a fêmea de ter comportamento homossexual ou de aceitar a monta, pois causa dor tanto ao montar quanto ao ser montada. •_DURAÇÃO DO ESTRO E A RELAÇÃO COM O MOMENTO DA OVULAÇÃO Foi estabelecido que o pico de LH pode ser um bom preditor do tempo de ovulação, pois há uma alta correlação entre o tempo decorrido do pico de LH e a ovulação. Na Tabela 1 pode-se ver os períodos de duração do estro e o tempo em que o pico de LH e a ovulação ocorrem nas diferentes espécies domésticas. Tabela 1: momento de ovulação em diferentes espécies domésticas e a relação com o pico de LH. Espécie Duração do estro Ovulação Pico de LH até a ovulação (horas) Bovina 18 h (8 a 18 h) 10 h (4 a 16 h) de finalizado o estro 28 (24 a 32) Ovina 24 a 36 h 18 a 24 h após iniciado o estro 24 a 26 Caprina 36 h (24 a 48 h) 30 a 35 h após o início do estro 28 Suína 48 a 72 h 24 a 48 h após o início do estro 40 Equina 7 d (2 a 12 d) 1 a 2 d antes de finalizar o estro -- Canina 9 d (3 a 20 d) 2 a 3 d do início do estro (pode variar) 48 a 60 Felina 7 d (3 a 16 d) Induzida pela cópula 26 a 28 h depois 24 Onde d = dias; h = horas. Vale ressaltar que em equinos o aumento nas concentrações de LH ocorre gradati-vamente; um pico pré-ovulatório agudo não é visto como no resto da espécie, uma vez que o nível máximo desse hormônio é atingido um a dois dias após a ovulação. No entanto, deve-se entender que, no momento da ovulação, as concentrações de LH são altas o suficiente para desencadear a ovulação, como em qualquer outra espécie. A gata também apresenta uma particularidade no que diz respeito à ovulação, já que é um evento induzido pela cópula que estimula a liberação de LH, duas a quatro horas depois. No entanto, foi relatado que, às vezes, o pico de LH de uma única cópula pode ser insuficiente para induzir um nível adequado de LH, causando ovulação apenas em aproximadamente 50% das fêmeas. Por outro lado, verificou-se que entre 30 e 40% das fêmeas podem ovular espontaneamente. Além dos felinos, outras espécies com ovulação induzida são os leporídeos (por exemplo, o coelho e a lebre), os camelídeos (por exemplo a lhama, a alpaca, a vicunha e a camelo fêmea) e os mustelídeos (por exemplo, o visom, o furão e o arminho). • _____MECANISMOS PARA ATRAIR O MACHO Os mecanismos femininos de atração do macho podem ser divididos em dois tipos, de um lado, alterações na genitália externa, que por sua vez são consequência de processos endócrinos e modificações na genitália interna. Por outro lado, mudanças de comportamento, que por sua vez se dividem em dois tipos: cortejo e acasalamento. Mudanças nas genitais É importante observar que nas fêmeas todas as adaptações genitais são mediadas por altas concentrações de estrogênios, entretanto, é interessante notar que os efeitos podem variar de uma espécie para outra. Um padrão típico é o útero ficar túrgido, uma vez que os estrogênios promovem a contração muscular, aumento do suprimento sanguíneo e proliferação das glândulas endometriais; em éguas, ao contrário, os estrogênios fazem com que o útero fique edemaciado e sem tonalidade, enquanto o colo do útero parece relaxado, observações que devem ser consideradas ao realizar a palpação retal e a ultrassonografia. A imagem ultrassonográfica do útero da égua tem a aparência de uma “roda de vagão” (figura 7). Em carnívoros, o útero também apresenta edema durante o estro. Figura 7: imagem de ultrassom de um corte transversal do útero de uma égua em estro; observa-se edema grau 3, que provoca a típica imagem de “roda de carroça”. Fonte: HV-UFRPE. Outro efeito promovido pelos estrogênios é a produção de um muco cervical cristalino com certa viscosidade, que, mesmo quando ocorre em todos os animais, é mais abundante e característico nas vacas e, posteriormente, nas porcas (figura 6). O muco tem por finalidade favorecer a passagem dos espermatozoides para o útero, bem como reter aqueles que não são viáveis para que sejam fagocitados ou eliminados junto com as secreções vaginais. A secreção da cérvix é composta por glicoproteínas; dois tipos principais são reconhecidos: a sialomucina, que faz parte de um muco viscoso produzido nas áreas basais das criptas cervicais, e a sulfomucina, que é um muco altamente viscoso, um produto das células apicais. No caso da cadela, uma secreção com sangue pode ocorrer através da vulva (figura 8), isso se deve a uma diapedese causada por alta permeabilidade vascular em resposta aos estrogênios. A maioria das fêmeas apresentam esse corrimento durante o proestro e cerca de 70% continuarão com ele durante o estro. Uma proporção muito pequena de cadelas pode até continuar a ter secreção serossanguínea durante o início do diestro. Deve-se considerar que, quando a ausência de sangramento é relatada em cadelas, na verdade, pode ser devido à falta de observação, uma vez que pode ser escasso, ou passar despercebido se a mesma lamber com frequência, se a cor do pelo for escura ou possuir pelos muito longos, ou se for em grandes áreas onde a secreção é difícil de observar. Figura 8: aparência vulvar em cadelas. Esquerda: edema e hiperemia. À direita: secreção vulvar com sangue. O grau de hiperemia e edema vulvar varia nas diferentes espécies, sendo muito evidente nas porcas (figura 9). Em contraste, as gatas não têm receptores de estradiol nos lábios vulvares, razão pela qual não manifestam edema vulvar ou hiperemia. O inchaço acentuado e o alargamento da vulva na cadela são característicos da fase de proestro, devido às peculiaridades hormonais do seu ciclo. Na tabela 2 são mostradas as alterações mais comuns que ocorrem na genitália das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Figura 9: aparência vulvar em porcas. Esquerda: vulva normal. À direita: hiperemia e edema típicos da fase de estro. Tabela 2: Mudanças características na genitália interna e externa, que ocorrem durante o estro em diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Genitais externos Genitais internos Bovina Secreção abundante de muco cristalino. Pouco edema vulvar aparente e hiperemia. Turgor uterino Ovina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Caprina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Suína Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Hiperemia e edema vulvar muito aparente. Turgor uterino Equina Edema vulvar; as dobras dos lábios são frouxas. Vulva hiperêmica e com muco. Útero flácido e edematoso. Colo do útero macio e relaxado Canina Pode haver secreção com sangue. Edema vulvar muito aparente, lábios mais macios e alongados. Útero edematoso Felina Não há sinais evidentes. Turgor uterino Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Mudanças comportamentais Foi demonstrado que o comportamento sexual nas fêmeas é determinado pela secreção de estrogênios, principalmente 17β-estradiol, que percorre a corrente sanguínea como um sinal humoral e atinge o sistema nervoso central ao nível do hipotálamo, que possui um grupo de células entre o quiasma óptico e a região pré-óptica anterior, denominado centro sexual. Esses neurônios são responsáveis por transformar o estímulo humoral em um estímulo nervoso, que por sua vez induz o comportamento sexual. Em espécies como ovinos, e em menor grau os bovinos, observou-se que para a manifestação do comportamento estral ocorrer, o cérebro requer uma exposição prévia à progesterona que o sensibiliza para a ação dos estrogênios, que se dá pelas concentrações do ciclo anterior. Por isso, constatou-se que a primeira ovulação da estação reprodutiva ou puberdade (no caso dos bovinos a primeira ovulação pós-parto) ocorre sem manifestação de estro. É até a segunda ovulação que o comportamento normal do estro será observado. Esta condição é conhecida como ovulação silenciosa ou estro silencioso, e é indetectável para o trabalhador, o produtor e o veterinário, e que possui como principal causa os distúrbios nutricionais. Devido nas fêmeas o comportamento sexual se limitar a um curto período de horas ou dias, enquanto nos machos há poucas variações em seu comportamento sexual, aparentemente é ela quem inicia o comportamento de cortejo. Aparentemente, isso se deve ao fato de que, nos machos, o padrão de secreção de testosterona é constante e mostra apenas leves diminuições fora da estação reprodutiva em espécies sazonais. Nos machos, a testosterona é transformada no cérebro em estradiol para produzir o comportamento reprodutivo. Durante a fase de estro ocorrem manifestações comportamentais comuns a todas as espécies, como as seguintes:  Aumento geral da atividade física, isso se reflete no aumento da locomoção e que é direcionado à busca do macho;  Inquietação e movimento ao menor estímulo;  Ingestão diminuída;  Diminuição da produção de leite;  Aumento gradual da temperatura corporal;  Micção frequente na presença do macho: isso é importante, pois os feromônios responsáveis pela atração do macho estão presentes na urina;  Vocalizações frequentes, típicas de cada espécie;  Atração do macho. Na tabela 3 são apresentadas as características comportamentais mais comuns das fêmeas das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Tabela 3: Comportamentos característicos durante o estro em diferentes espécies Espécie Conduta Bovina Monta entre fêmeas (conduta homossexual). Batidas antes da monta (figura 10). Aumento nas vocalizações. Ovina Movimentação da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Caprina Movimento característico da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Suína Grunhido característico (grunhido de estro). Falsas lutas. Pode haver pequena conduta homossexual. Orelhas eretas e projetadas para trás. Equina Diminuição da agressividade com o macho. Sem conduta homossexual. Mostra a área genital ante o macho e everte o clitóris. Espelhamento: contrações rítmicas dos lábios vulvares. Canina Reflexos contráteis na vulva e levantamento da cauda, inclinando-se para o lado, na presença do macho. Lambidas frequentes da região vulvar. Felina Inquietação. Chafurdamento. Miados característicos. Esfrega-se contra os objetos. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. O comportamento homossexual em fêmeas foi extensivamente estudado em bovinos (figura 10), por ser um dos sinais mais evidentes e importantes da manifestação do estro; ocorre em cerca de 70% dos animais e sua expressão é altamente influenciada pela hierarquia social do rebanho. Deve-se levar em consideração que os animais que estão em estro precisam interagir uns com os outros para expressar esse comportamento, sendo observada maior atividade quando há cerca de 20 fêmeas em estro. Sabe-se também que o tipo de instalações é imprescindível para a manifestação do comportamento homossexual, visto que os animais encontrados nos piquetes montam mais do que os alojados em instalações intensivas, isto fica ainda mais evidente quando o piso destas últimas é escorregadio. As montas entre fêmeas são observadas com maior frequência à noite, ocorrendo cerca de 70% das montas entre as sete da noite e as sete da manhã, o que se explica pelo fato de que durante estas horas os animais não são submetidos a nenhum manejo rotineiro, como ordenha, alimentação ou limpeza das instalações, além disso, acredita-se que os animais preferem montar nos períodos mais frios do dia, principal-mente em criações tropicais. Em bovinos de corte, sugere-se que tanto a fêmea que monta quanto a que é montada estejam em cio; ao contrário do gado leiteiro, em que se considera que o animal que monta está perto do cio, enquanto o que é montado está em cio. Figura 10: comportamento sexual em bovinos. À esquerda: batendo. À direita: comportamento homossexual. No caso de cadelas, deve-se levar em consideração que o comportamento homossexual está associado à hierarquia e dominância, mas não à manifestação do comportamento estral. Além disso, algumas fêmeas muito dominantes não permanecem imóveis na frente do macho, nem permitem que ele a monte, mesmo quando estão em estro. Na égua, uma característica do cio é o espelhamento, que consiste na abertura e fechamento dos lábios vulvares de forma rítmica, geralmente acompanhada pela eversão do clitóris (figura 11). Este último sempre ocorre durante a micção, mas neste caso a fêmea o faz na presença do macho, mesmo quando ela não está urinando. Uma vez que a fêmea no cio está na frente de um macho, ela exibe um comportamento receptivo; a atitude da fêmea é passiva e se caracteriza em todas as espécies pela imobilidade diante da monta do macho, considerada o sinal definitivo do estro. Em geral, a fêmea também adota uma postura diferenciada conhecida como lordose, pois arqueia as costas para baixo, ao mesmo tempo em que levanta a cauda e inclina-a, levantando também os lábios vulvares para promover a cópula. A descrição acima é muito típica dos ruminantes, da cadela e da gata. Na égua, ao contrário, a posição anterior à cópula implica em curvar a coluna para cima (cifose) e baixar a garupa ou inclinar a pelve. • ____COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS MACHOS O comportamento sexual do macho é muito importante, pois estima-se que o macho dominante pode ser responsável por até 80% dos nascimentos em um rebanho. Um fator a ser considerado é a libido, definida como a “disposição e entusiasmo” de um macho para tentar montar e servir a uma fêmea. No caso dos bovinos, estima-se que cerca de 21% dos machos em que a libido é avaliada não conseguem reproduzir. Isso se torna ainda mais crítico quando se leva em consideração que a libido baixa é hereditária e reproduzível, além de estar associada à puberdade tardia nas filhas. Figura 11: sinais feitos por éguas no cio. À esquerda: espelhamento. À direita: eversão do clitóris. Nos machos, as montas sem penetração e ejaculação durante a fase de cortejo (conhecidas como montas falsas) são muito importantes para estimular o desejo sexual e aumentar a quantidade e a qualidade do sêmen que mais tarde será ejaculado durante a cópula (figura 12). No caso dos touros, sabe-se que o macho monta na fêmea em média seis vezes antes de realizar a primeira cópula, embora o número de montas falsas seja reduzido nas ejaculações subsequentes. Figura 12: comportamento de um cachaço diante de uma fêmea no cio. À esquerda: olfateio dos flancos e salivação do macho. À direita: ereção e retirada do pênis. Na tabela 4 são listados os comportamentos típicos de machos de espécies de mamíferos domésticos durante o cortejo, detecção de fêmeas no cio e cópula. Tabela 4: Comportamentos característicos durante o cortejo e cópula em machos das diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Conduta pré-cópula Conduta copulatória Bovina Reflexo de Flehmen; cheira e lambe a vulva; inquietude; esfrega o pescoço ou o focinho na fêmea; tentativa de montas. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 3 segundos pós-penetração. Ovina Reflexo de Flehmen; empurram e monta a fêmea; vocalizações; tentativa de montas; inquietude; mantém-se com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea (figura 13). Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Caprina Cheira a urina da fêmea e realiza o reflexo de Flehmen; urina a barba e o peito; apalpa o chão em volta da fêmea; vocalizações; língua dentro e fora da boca; cheira e bate na área genital; se sustenta com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Suína Cheira a região genital e dos flancos (figura 12); tentativas de montas; contato naso-nasal ou naso-genital; vocalizações; range os dentes e move as mandíbulas lateralmente; salivação e micção frequente; morde suavemente as orelhas e a cabeça da fêmea. Ereção depois da monta; contrações testiculares muito aparentes durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 5 a 20 minutos pós-penetração. Equina Vocalizações; reflexo de Flehmen; morde o pescoço da fêmea. Sinalização; movimento lateral da cauda durante a ejaculação; movimentos de fricção; ejaculação média: 20 a 60 segundos pós-penetração. Canina Tentativas de montas; reprodução. O macho se vira e fica abotoado durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 10 a 30 minutos, mas pode chegas até 50 pós-penetração. Felina Morde o pescoço da fêmea. A fêmea realiza o “ronco pós-coito” quando o macho desmonta. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Depois de haver realizado com sucesso um serviço (um acasalamento acompanhado de ejaculação dentro do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea), os machos apresentam a fase pós-copulatória, também conhecida como período refratário, em que mostram desinteresse pela fêmea com quem acabam de realizar serviço. Esta fase tem duração variável entre os indivíduos, mas foi visto que eles podem retomar a atividade pré-copulatória e copulatória mais rapidamente se forem apresentados a uma fêmea diferente, fenômeno conhecido como “efeito Coolidge”. Os machos geralmente são capazes de realizar mais de uma cópula por dia antes de atingir a saciedade sexual. O número de cópulas varia entre espécies e indivíduos, portanto, suínos e equinos realizam em média três montas, enquanto pequenos ruminantes realizam 10 e bovinos até 20. Uma vez saciado, o macho pode parar de montar por um ou mais dias, mesmo que haja estímulo suficiente para induzir o comportamento sexual. Figura 13: monta em ovinos. É mostrado como o macho apoia os membros anteriores na garupa da fêmea. Nessa imagem o macho detectou o cio, por isso está usando um avental para impedir a penetração. • ____DETECÇÃO DE ESTROS (CIOS) A detecção adequada do estro é imprescindível para um bom manejo reprodutivo e produtivo dos animais do rebanho, pois é essencial determinar o momento ideal da monta ou inseminação artificial, que consequentemente atinge bons índices de fertilidade. A falha na detecção do estro (considerada uma das principais causas de perdas econômicas na pecuária), ocorre em função da baixa eficiência, bem como da precisão, dos métodos utilizados. A tabela 5 resume as consequências da falha na detecção do estro em vacas. Tabela 5: Consequências de falhas na eficiência e precisão dos testes utilizados para o diagnóstico de cio em bovinos Falha Eficiência (vacas não detectadas) Precisão (vacas mal detectadas) Aumenta-se Número de fêmeas vazias; Número de dias abertos; Intervalo entre partos. Números de serviços por concepção; Número de doses de sêmen. Diminui-se Número de crias por ano; Produção cárnea ou láctea. Fertilidade por serviço. Fonte: anotações de aulas na UFPB. Para implementar um programa de detecção de estro, é necessário ter alguns requisitos essenciais, como:  A identificação dos animais que deve ser realizada de forma clara de modo que o observador possa distingui-los claramente.  Os registros reprodutivos que permitem estimar a fase do ciclo estral em que os animais se encontram e ajudam a discernir os animais que sabemos que estão perto do cio daqueles que foram inseminados recentemente ou estão prenhes.  Um pessoal qualificado deve observar animais no cio; esse trabalho não pode ser confiado a qualquer pessoa; deve ser realizado por quem conheça bem os sinais de estro da espécie e que saiba considerá-los em conjunto; deve reconhecer, assim mesmo, a evidência da manifestação de comportamento sexual quando o animal estiver fora de seu campo visual. Outro ponto importante nos programas de detecção de estro é a escolha do método para o seu diagnóstico, que deve estar de acordo com aspectos como as características comportamentais da espécie, disponibilidade e facilidade de uso, custos, entre outros. Alguns dos métodos existentes para detecção de cio são descritos abaixo. Detecção visual Este tipo de detecção é baseado na observação a curtas e longas distâncias pela equipe da unidade de produção, em busca de mudanças genitais e comportamentais nas fêmeas; é amplamente utilizado no caso dos bovinos. Foi estudado que a eficiência na detecção visual do estro aumenta em paralelo com o número de observações realizadas por dia. Ou seja, se a observação for realizada apenas durante as atividades rotineiras da exploração, a eficiência será de 50%; quando se realizam duas observações com 12 h de intervalo, a eficiência aumenta para 70%; quando três observações são feitas por dia em intervalos de 8 h, a eficiência chega a 90% e quando a detecção visual é feita constantemente, a eficiência na detecção do estro chega a ficar entre 95 e 100%. No caso dos bovinos, a detecção visual se baseia, entre outros aspectos, na observação do comportamento homossexual, no aparecimento de muco cristalino pela vulva, bem como nas marcas de monta (culote e garupa sujos, direção dos pelos no sacro ao contrário); inquietação, busca pelo macho, inapetência e segregação. Deve-se levar em consideração que nem todas as espécies animais são passíveis de serem detectadas por esse método, pois há espécies em que não há alterações evidentes na genitália e seu comportamento não denota nenhum sinal característico e forte de estar em estro, como é o caso de ovinos, caprinos e equinos; no qual é necessário submetê-los à presença de um macho para poder saber adequadamente o seu estado reprodutivo. Teste de monta Este teste é utilizado especificamente em porcas e consiste em observar a reação à pressão que uma pessoa exerce sobre a garupa e a coluna do animal, considerando que as fêmeas que estão em estro permanecem estáticas, enquanto as que não se movem (figura 14). A eficiência desse teste pode variar consideravelmente, estando a fêmea submetida ou não a algum estímulo do macho. Isso significa que quando o teste é realizado apenas pelo experimentador sem nenhum contato com o macho, a eficiência fica em torno de 48%, ao passo que, se o realizarmos para que a fêmea possa cheirar e ouvir o macho, a eficiência pode chegar a 90%. Se a porca também vê e toca o macho, a porcentagem de eficiência pode ser aumentada em mais 3 a 7%, respectivamente; enquanto é 100% eficiente quando se aloja e interage com o macho. Figura 14: imobilidade durante a prova de monta em porcas. É importante considerar que embora o teste de monta seja usado principalmente em porcas, as fêmeas no cio de quase todas as espécies apresentam uma reação de imobilização quando a garupa é pressionada; elas também movem a cauda para o lado e podem levantar a vulva. Machos auxiliares e rufiões O macho é o mais eficiente em distinguir as fêmeas de sua espécie no cio, pois é capaz de detectar coisas imperceptíveis aos humanos. A utilização de machos auxiliares e/ou rufiões baseia-se na apresentação de um macho às fêmeas e na observação da resposta de todo o grupo. As fêmeas que permitem ser montadas pelo macho e permanecem imóveis são consideradas no cio. A “guarda” ou “auxílio” pode ser realizada duas vezes ao dia, com intervalos de 12 horas entre eles. Para se utilizar o método é fundamental que haja machos inteiros com boa libido, porém, bons reprodutores não devem ser usados para esse fim, pois podem se machucar por uma fêmea que não esteja no momento ideal ou podem ficar exaustos e recusam-se a montar quando seu uso como reprodutores for necessário. Nos equinos essa técnica diagnóstica é a mais utilizada e é conhecida como “provocação”, já que o macho auxiliar é denominado como provocador e deve ser feito diariamente ou em dias alternados durante o período de cio previsto; nesta espécie, as fêmeas podem ser muito agressivas, por isso é comum o uso de uma barreira protetora entre o macho e a fêmea (figura 15). Quando os machos auxiliares são usados, é interessante evitar que ocorra a cópula fértil com as fêmeas, então várias estratégias foram desenvolvidas, principalmente cirúrgicas, para que os machos utilizados possam ser:  Vestidos com um avental (figura 16);  Vasectomizados;  Epididectomizados;  Pênis desviado;  Com fixação peniana em forma de “S”;  Com obliteração do orifício prepucial;  Castrados e com tratamento androgênico. Os rufiões não são considerados machos auxiliares e sim como machos com capacidade de detectar uma fêmea apta para reprodução, porém sem a capacidade de fecundá-la. São utilizados na detecção de estros para monta natural ou inseminação artificial, já que sua presença estimula o cio e a ovulação na fêmea. Já que o animal não possui a capacidade de fecundar a fêmea, a obtenção de rufiões dá-se através de técnicas cirúrgicas como as citadas supra. Figura 15: provocação em equinos (método para instigar e/ou detectar a égua em cio). Figura 16: macho ovino vestido com avental para identificar a ovelha em cio. Fêmeas Em muitas unidades de produção, o uso de fêmeas (com certas características específicas) é preferível ao uso de machos para detecção de cio, pois seu manejo é mais simples e seguro, sua manutenção é menor e não há risco de ocorrência da penetração que pode ser uma fonte de transmissão de doenças. Por exemplo, fêmeas androgenizadas podem ser usadas, tanto tratadas exogenamente, quanto aquelas com pseudo-hermafroditismo ou freemartinismo. Palpação retal É um método muito útil no caso de bovinos e equinos, pois o estado reprodutivo em que o animal se encontra pode ser determinado de acordo com as estruturas ovarianas presentes, a tonicidade do tecido uterino e o tipo de corrimento vaginal que pode ser observado. Nessa técnica, a precisão e a eficiência dependem da experiência da sonda, bem como da correta subdivisão dos animais que são passados a ela para revisão. Ultrassonografia Com o uso do ultrassom em tempo real e sob o mesmo princípio da palpação retal, pode-se determinar o momento do ciclo estral; sua confiabilidade é maior quando comparada à palpação, pois os resultados são menos subjetivos. Medição de mudanças fisiológicas Toda fêmea em cio apresenta ligeiras mudanças fisiológicas nos seguintes aspec-tos:  Sua temperatura aumenta;  A frequência cardíaca aumenta;  A produção leiteira diminui. Essas mudanças, quando medidas repetidamente, são úteis para determinar o momento do estro. Quando as concentrações de progesterona no sangue estão abaixo de 1 ng/ml, indica que a fase lútea daquele animal terminou e que, portanto, está perto de apresentar estro ou que acabou de estar. No caso das cadelas, a dosagem da progesterona tem sido muito valiosa para determinar o momento do início do estro, mas sua interpretação é exatamente o inverso do resto das espécies, quando atinge o nível de 1 ng/ml, sabemos que está prestes a iniciar a receptividade sexual. A citologia vaginal esfoliativa realizada, sobretudo, nas cadelas e tem como princípio determinar o tipo de células presentes no esfregaço vaginal, de acordo com sua morfologia e número. Sua base é que as camadas celulares da mucosa vaginal se multiplicam à medida que o nível de estrogênio aumenta, fazendo com que as células da superfície, que estão em direção ao lúmen, morram e adquiram a aparência folheada ou floculada. Durante a fase estral, entre 80 e 100% das células observadas são superficiais e cornificadas ou escamosas. A confiabilidade do método é muito alta, mas são necessárias amostras seriadas, pois o padrão celular é cíclico e nem sempre uma amostra isolada indica com precisão o estágio do ciclo reprodutivo. Uma ferramenta útil em equinos é observar a tonicidade e coloração do colo do útero e vagina através de um vaginoscópio. As alterações observadas são consequência dos estrogênios e a aparência nos animais em estro é de uma estrutura com secreções, hiperêmicas e edematosas. Também é eficaz para uso em cabras. O aumento da atividade física pode ser medido com um pedômetro, que é um detector eletrônico que é colocado nas patas e mede a atividade motora das fêmeas; transmite um sinal para um computador que registra e representa graficamente os dados. Lembre-se de que os animais no cio apresentam maior mobilidade. Em geral, considera-se que uma fêmea no cio anda pelo menos duas vezes mais que as que não estão. A viscosidade do muco cervical pode ser medida com o estrón, que é um dispositivo usado em bovinos e cuja base é medir a resistência elétrica no fluido vaginal ou impedância, que é diminuída durante o proestro e o estro. Para aumentar a eficiência desta ferramenta é necessário realizar medições repetidas e manter registros individuais. Junto com os métodos descritos aqui, ajudas foram desenvolvidas para tornar a detecção do estro mais eficiente, entre as quais estão: Detectores de monta Esses dispositivos são muito diversificados, a maioria deles são colocados na linha média da garupa da fêmea, logo na frente da inserção da cauda, mas também podem ser colocados no peito ou abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho. Sua função é deixar uma marca distinguível ou registrar uma monta no animal que está no cio. Entre eles estão os seguintes. A pintura com giz de cera na altura da garupa, é comum usá-la para que quando uma vaca for montada por outra, a marca fique borrada ou desbotada, indicando que a fêmea está no cio (figura 17). O arnês de marcador que é colocado abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho (“Bola de queixo” figura 18) ou no peito, para que ao montar uma fêmea receptiva, pinte sua garupa deixando uma marca facilmente identificável. As manchas de tinta chamadas de patches “kamar” (figura 19), que são colocadas na garupa da fêmea e quando ela é montada por outro animal, o peso faz com que ela quebre o recipiente e libere uma tinta que podemos facilmente observar. O relógio de cio é um dispositivo eletrônico que se conecta à garupa da fêmea e registra o momento em que é montada (figura 20), quando pressionado pelo peso mantido por alguns segundos, emitindo um sinal que é recebido por um computador. Tem sido indicado que a precisão na detecção do estro com este método é muito alta, podendo chegar a 96%. Figura 17: vacas com pintura de giz de cera na linha dorsal, utilizada para diagnóstico do cio. À esquerda vaca não montada. À direita vaca que já foi montada, a qual a marca de giz aparece desbotada. Figura 18: uso do arnês marcador para diagnóstico de cio. À esquerda macho com marcador na barbela. À direita marca no dorso da fêmea realizada pela monta de um macho e que indica que o animal marcado está em cio. Figura 19: pastas de “kamar” para a identificação de fêmeas em cio. Figura 20: relógio de cio, dispositivo eletrônico para a detecção de montas À esquerda foto do dispositivo. À direita, vacas com o dispositivo na garupa. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS AURICH, Christine. Reproductive cycles of horses. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 220-228, 2011. AISEN, Eduardo G. Reprodução ovina e caprina. MedVet, 2008. BARTLEWSKI, Pawel M.; BABY, Tanya E.; GIFFIN, Jennifer L. Reproductive cycles in sheep. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 259-268, 2011. BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Reproducción animal aplicada. México: Manual Moderno, 1982. CHRISTIANSEN, I. J. Reprodução no cão e no gato. São Paulo: Manole, 1988. CONCANNON, Patrick W. Reproductive cycles of the domestic bitch. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 200-210, 2011. COLAZO, Marcos Germán; MAPLETOFT, Reuben. Fisiología del ciclo estral bovino. Ciencia Veterinaria, v. 16, n. 2, p. 31-46, 2017. CUPPS, Perry T. (Ed.). Reproduction in domestic animals. Elsevier, 1991. Fisiologia Clínica do Ciclo Estral de Vacas Leiteiras: Desenvolvimento Folicular, Corpo Lúteo e Etapas do Estro. Fisiologia do Ciclo Estral dos Animais Domésticos. Fisiologia do Estro e do Serviço na Reprodução Bovina. Relação e Efeitos Bioquímico-nutricionais Sobre os Cios ou Estros Silenciosos em Vacas. DERIVAUX, Jules; BARNABÉ, Renato Campanarut. Reprodução dos animais domésticos. Acribia, 1980. DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Editora Guanabara Koogan, 1996. DYCE, Keith M. Tratado de anatomia veterinária. Elsevier Brasil, 2004. FATET, Alice; PELLICER-RUBIO, Maria-Teresa; LEBOEUF, Bernard. Reproductive cycle of goats. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 211-219, 2011. FERREIRA, A. de M. Reprodução da fêmea bovina: fisiologia aplicada e problemas mais comuns (causas e tratamentos). Juiz de Fora: Minas Gerais–Brasil, p. 422, 2010. FORDE, N. et al. Oestrous cycles in Bos taurus cattle. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 163-169, 2011. HAFEZ, Elsayed Saad Eldin; HAFEZ, Bahaa. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. HIDALGO, Galina et al. Reproducción de animales domésticos. México: Limusa, 2008. HOPPER, Richard M. (Ed.). Bovine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2014. MCKINNON, Angus O. et al. (Ed.). Equine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. MEIDAN, R. et al. Intraovarian regulation of luteolysis. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 217-228, 1999. NETT, T. M. et al. Pituitary receptors for GnRH and estradiol, and pituitary content of gonadotropins in beef cows. I. Changes during the estrous cycle. Domestic Animal Endocrinology, v. 4, n. 2, p. 123-132, 1987. NISWENDER, Gordon D. et al. Mechanisms controlling the function and life span of the corpus luteum. Physiological reviews, v. 80, n. 1, p. 1-29, 2000. NORMAN, Anthony W.; LITWACK, Gerald. Hormones. Academic Press, 1997. PATTERSON, David J. et al. Control of estrus and ovulation in beef heifers. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, v. 29, n. 3, p. 591-617, 2013. PLANT, Tony M.; ZELEZNIK, Anthony J. (Ed.). Knobil and Neill's physiology of reproduction. New York: Academic Press, 2014. RANGEL, L. Ciclo estral. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. REKAWIECKI, R. et al. Regulation of progesterone synthesis and action in bovine corpus luteum. J Physiol Pharmacol, v. 59, n. suppl 9, p. 75-89, 2008. REYNOLDS, L. P.; REDMER, D. A. Growth and development of the corpus luteum. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 181-191, 1999. RIPPE, Christian A. El ciclo estral. In: Dairy Cattle Reproduction Conference. 2009. p. 111-116. SANGHA, G. K.; SHARMA, R. K.; GURAYA, S. S. Biology of corpus luteum in small ruminants. Small Ruminant Research, v. 43, n. 1, p. 53-64, 2002. SARTORI, R.; BARROS, C. M. Reproductive cycles in Bos indicus cattle. Animal Reproduction Science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 244-250, 2011. SENGER, Phillip L. et al. Pathways to pregnancy and parturition. Current Conceptions, Inc., 1615 NE Eastgate Blvd., 1997. SMITH, Matthew J.; JENNES, Lothar. Neural signals that regulate GnRH neurones directly during the oestrous cycle. Reproduction (Cambridge, England), v. 122, n. 1, p. 1-10, 2001. SOEDE, N. M.; LANGENDIJK, P.; KEMP, B. Reproductive cycles in pigs. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 251-258, 2011. WEBB, R. et al. Mechanisms regulating follicular development and selection of the dominant follicle. REPRODUCTION-CAMBRIDGE-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 71-90, 2003. WHITTEMORE, Colin et al. The science and practice of pig production. Blackwell Science Ltd, 1998. FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO 1. O comportamento sexual dos animais é uma particularidade de cada espécie na iniciação da perpetuação da vida e que deve-se a quais fatores e por quê? 2. O que é anestro? É possível revertê-lo? 3. Defina e explique os estágios comportamentais de machos e fêmeas antes, durante e depois da cópula. 4. Defina e diferencia efeito fêmea e efeito macho. 5. Define e explique a estimulação sexual dos animais e como podemos induzi-la? 6. Defina e caracterize o estro das espécies zootécnicas. 7. Quais são os fatores que retardam ou adiantam a manifestação do cio e por quê? 8. Qual a relação direta ou indireta da duração do estro com o momento da ovulação? 9. Quais os mecanismos de atração dos machos? 10. Que mudanças ocorrem nas partes reprodutivas das fêmeas para a atração do macho? 11. Cite o comportamento característico das fêmeas durante o estro que visam a atração do macho para a cópula. 12. Disserte sobre a importância do macho e sobre seu comportamento sexual para o manejo reprodutivo. 13. Qual a importância e quais os meios de detecção do estro nas fêmeas. Como hipótese, você como criador utilizaria qual método de identificação e por quê? 14. Explique as principais diferenças entre machos reprodutores e machos rufiões. Como obter um rufião? (shrink)

Determinism and unpredictability are compatible since deterministic flows can produce, if sensitive to initial conditions, unpredictable behaviors. Within this perspective, the notion of scenario to chaos transition offers a new form of predictability for the behavior of sensitive to initial condition systems under the variation of a control parameter. In this paper I first shed light on the genesis of this notion, based on a dynamical systems approach and on considerations of structural stability. I then suggest a link to (...) the figure of epigenetic landscape, partially inspired by a dynamical systems perspective, and offering a theoretical framework to apprehend developmental noise. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited them to bring them up to date (2017). All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, (...) it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. -/- It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. Section one starts with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. -/- Since philosophical problems are the result of our innate psychology, or as Wittgenstein put it, due to the lack of perspicuity of language, they run throughout human discourse, so there is endless need for philosophical analysis, not only in the ‘human sciences’ of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, literature, religion, etc., but in the ‘hard sciences’ of physics, mathematics, and biology. It is universal to mix the language game questions with the real scientific ones as to what the empirical facts are. Scientism is ever present and the master has laid it before us long ago, i.e., Wittgenstein (hereafter W) beginning with the Blue and Brown Books in the early 1930’s. -/- "Philosophers constantly see the method of science before their eyes and are irresistibly tempted to ask and answer questions in the way science does. This tendency is the real source of metaphysics and leads the philosopher into complete darkness." (BBB p18) -/- The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell On Earth. As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see. We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model. -/- The astute may wonder why we cannot see System 1 at work, but it is clearly counterproductive for an animal to be thinking about or second guessing every action, and in any case there is no time for the slow, massively integrated System 2 to be involved in the constant stream of split second ‘decisions’ we must make. As W noted, our ‘thoughts’ (T1 or the ‘thoughts’ of System 1) must lead directly to actions. -/- It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. -/- Thus all the articles, like all behavior, are intimately connected if one knows how to look at them. As I note, The Phenomenological Illusion (oblivion to our automated System 1) is universal and extends not merely throughout philosophy but throughout life. I am sure that Chomsky, Obama, Zuckerberg and the Pope would be incredulous if told that they suffer from the same problem as Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger, (or that that they differ only in degree from drug and sex addicts in being motivated by stimulation of their frontal cortices by the delivery of dopamine via the ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens) but it’s clearly true. While the phenomenologists only wasted a lot of people’s time, they are wasting the earth and their descendant’s future. Section one continues with other views of behavior which my reviews attempt to correct and put in context with minimal theory. -/- The next section describes the digital delusions which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System one, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Even for chemistry or physics the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. -/- Another hi-tech delusion is that the we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2. The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences. The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. -/- The last section describes The One Big Happy Family Delusion , i.e., that we are selected for cooperation with everyone and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia. Again the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we sell our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts greatly exacerbating the problems. -/- I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our evolved psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa, to ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), but now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior, this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2019). All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it (...) is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. -/- The first group of articles attempt to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of theoretical delusions. In the next three groups, I comment on three of the principal delusions preventing a sustainable world— technology, religion and politics (cooperative groups). People believe that society can be saved by them, so I provide some suggestions in the rest of the book as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. -/- It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. No neurophysiology, no metaphysics, no postmodernism, no theology. -/- It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. -/- The next section describes the digital delusions, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System one, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Even for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. -/- The last section describes The One Big Happy Family Delusion, i.e., that we are selected for cooperation with everyone, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces these delusions. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. The only major change in this edition is the addition in the last article of a short discussion of China, a threat to peace and freedom as great as overpopulation and climate change and one to which even most professional scholars and politicians are oblivious so I regarded it as sufficiently important to warrant a new edition. -/- I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. Even Sapolsky’s otherwise excellent “Behave”(2017) embraces leftist politics and group selection and gives space to a discussion of whether humans are innately violent. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection, natural selection). -/- The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose, or at least became popular with leftists—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. The idea of human rights is an evil fantasy created by leftists to draw attention away from the merciless destruction of the earth by unrestrained 3rd world motherhood. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive, and their descendants. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. In a horrifically overcrowded world with vanishing resources, there cannot be human rights without destroying the earth and our descendant’s futures. It could not be more obvious, but it is rarely mentioned in a clear and direct way, and one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. -/- The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century, and now all of it, due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of its topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of its food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests (which I suggest may be regarded as an unrecognized -- but the commonest and most serious-- psychological problem -- Inclusive Fitness Disorder). This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. -/- Those wishing to read my other writings may see Talking Monkeys 2nd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle 2nd ed (2019), Suicide by Democracy 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Stucture of Human Behavior (2019) and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) . (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2017). The copyright page has the date of the edition and new editions will be noted there as I edit old articles or add new ones. All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and (...) manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. The first group of articles attempts to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of the theoretical delusions that are universal. In the next group, I show how these insights apply by reviewing some books in philosophy and psychology. Next I review books on science and religion and finally provide reviews and articles showing how understanding of both science and philosophy gives insight into the tragic delusions destroying the world. People believe that society can be saved by science, religion and politics, so I provide some suggestions as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two ii systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. Since philosophical problems are the result of our innate psychology, or as Wittgenstein put it, due to the lack of perspicuity of language, they run throughout human discourse and behavior, so there is endless need for philosophical analysis, not only in the ‘human sciences’ of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, literature, religion, etc., but in the ‘hard sciences’ of physics, mathematics, and biology. It is universal to mix the language game questions with the real scientific ones as to what the empirical facts are. Scientism is ever present and the master has laid it before us long ago, i.e., Wittgenstein (hereafter W) beginning with the Blue and Brown Books in the early 1930’s. "Philosophers constantly see the method of science before their eyes and are irresistibly tempted to ask and answer questions in the way science does. This tendency is the real source of metaphysics and leads the philosopher into complete darkness." (BBB p18) The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell on Earth. As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see. We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model. The astute may wonder why we cannot see System 1 at work, but it is clearly counterproductive for an animal to be thinking about or second guessing every action, and in any case, there is no time for the slow, massively integrated System 2 to be involved in the constant stream of split second ‘decisions’ we must make. As W noted, our ‘thoughts’ (T1 or the ‘thoughts’ of System 1) must lead directly to actions. iii It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. Thus, all the articles, like all behavior, are intimately connected if one knows how to look at them. As I note, The Phenomenological Illusion (oblivion to our automated System 1) is universal and extends not merely throughout philosophy but throughout life. I am sure that Chomsky, Obama, Zuckerberg and the Pope would be incredulous if told that they suffer from the same problem as Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger, (or that that they differ only in degree from drug and sex addicts in being motivated by stimulation of their frontal cortices by the delivery of dopamine (and over 100 other chemicals) via the ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens), but it’s clearly true. While the phenomenologists only wasted a lot of people’s time, they are wasting the earth and their descendant’s futures. Many of the articles describe the ‘digital delusions’, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System 1, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Also for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. Other digital delusions are that we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2. The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences. The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Hi-tech enthusiasts hugely underestimate the problems iv resulting from unrestrained motherhood, and of course it is neither profitable nor politically correct (and now with third world supremacism dominant, not even possible) to be honest about it. The last section describes various versions of the ‘altruism delusion’ that we are selected for cooperation, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection). Many accept the delusion that we are selected for cooperation with people generally (group selection or altruism) and not just our immediate relatives (kin selection or inclusive fitness), so I spend some time in the essays of the last section demolishing this fantasy. One thing rarely mentioned by the group selectionists is the fact that, even were ‘group selection’ possible, selfishness is at least as likely (probably far more likely in most contexts) to be group selected for as altruism. Just try to find examples of true altruism in nature –the fact that we can’t (which we know is not possible if we understand evolution) tells us that its apparent presence in humans is an artefact of modern life concealing the facts, and that it can no more be selected for than the tendency to suicide (which in fact it is). One does not really need science or mathematics to grasp this – it is crushingly obvious that an v organism cannot be selected for behavior that decreases the frequency of its own genes in the next generation. One might also benefit from considering a phenomenon never (in my experience) mentioned by group selectionists -- cancer. No group has as much in common as the (originally) genetically identical cells in our own bodies-a 100 trillion cell clone-- but we are all born with thousands and perhaps millions of cells that have already taken the first step on the path to cancer and generate millions to billions of cancer cells in our life. If we did not die of other things first, we (and perhaps all multicellular organisms) would all die of cancer. Only a massive and hugely complex mechanism built into our genome that represses or derepresses trillions of genes in trillions of cells, and kills and creates billions of cells a second, keeps the majority of us alive long enough to reproduce. One might take this to imply that a just, democratic and enduring society for any kind of entity on any planet in any universe is only a dream, and that no being or power could make it otherwise. It is not only ‘the laws’ of physics that are universal and inescapable, or perhaps we should say that inclusive fitness is a law of physics. The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. There cannot be human rights without human wrongs. It cannot be more obvious, but one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century and now all of it due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of it’s topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of it’s food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a vi nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests. This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. The popular notions supported by the Democratic Party and Third World Supremacists are that Democracy, Diversity, Equality and Social Justice will produce a Utopia in America and the world, but it is clear as crystal that they unavoidably foster selfishness and divisiveness and are producing collapse. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- My writings are available as paperbacks and Kindles on Amazon. -/- Talking Monkeys: Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) ASIN B071HVC7YP. -/- The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle--Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 (2017) ASIN B071P1RP1B. -/- Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) 2nd printing with corrections (Feb 2018) ASIN B0711R5LGX -/- Suicide by Democracy: an Obituary for America and the World (2018) ASIN B07CQVWV9C -/- . (shrink)

It seems that we can be directly accountable for our reasons-responsive attitudes—e.g., our beliefs, desires, and intentions. Yet, we rarely, if ever, have volitional control over such attitudes, volitional control being the sort of control that we exert over our intentional actions. This presents a trilemma: (Horn 1) deny that we can be directly accountable for our reasons-responsive attitudes, (Horn 2) deny that φ’s being under our control is necessary for our being directly accountable for φ-ing, or (Horn 3) deny (...) that the relevant sort of control is volitional control. This paper argues that we should take Horn 3. (shrink)

A dynamical system is called chaotic if small changes to its initial conditions can create large changes in its behavior. By analogy, we call a dynamical system structurally chaotic if small changes to the equations describing the evolution of the system produce large changes in its behavior. Although there are many definitions of “chaos,” there are few mathematically precise candidate definitions of “structural chaos.” I propose a definition, and I explain two new theorems that show that a set (...) of models is structurally chaotic if it contains a chaotic function. I conclude by discussing the relationship between structural chaos and structural stability. (shrink)

Can we conceive of disorder in a positive sense? We organize our desks, we discipline our children, we govern our polities--all with the aim of reducing disorder, of temporarily reversing the entropy that inevitably asserts itself in our lives. Going all the way back to Hesiod, we see chaos as a cosmogonic state of utter confusion inevitably reigned in by laws of regularity, in a transition from fearful unpredictability to calm stability. In contrast to a similar early Chinese notion (...) of chaotic disorder (luan), early Daoists posit a type of chaos that is to be cultivated rather than feared. This chaos is a primal disorder, akin to Hesiod's, but rather than threatening disruption, it is replete with creative potential and through spontaneous action yields orderly processes that proceed from the concretion of things to their dissolution and back, in a complex web of relations. This processional activity, although taken in one sense as cosmogonic, in a more important sense is immanent at every moment of activity. This article identifies terms of chaos, such as dun dun 沌 沌, hundun 渾 沌, and xingming 涬 溟 in Laozi and Zhuangzi and examines the passages in which they occur. Analyzing these passages brings us to a better understanding of "chaos" in a Chinese sense and to a familiarity with related terms in its semantic field, such as xuan 玄 (dark, mysterious), miao 妙 (subtle/profound), wei 微 (minute/inchoate), xiao 小 (small/minute), and pu 樸 (uncarved block). We see that the Daoist ideal is to return to a chaotic inchoateness by melding with the cosmos and there finding a repository of creative potential. This notion of chaos as the inchoate is used a springboard into understanding the origins of Daoist spontaneity. (shrink)

In this paper, I take it for granted both that there are two types of blameworthiness—accountability blameworthiness and attributability blameworthiness—and that avoidability is necessary only for the former. My task, then, is to explain why avoidability is necessary for accountability blameworthiness but not for attributability blameworthiness. I argue that what explains this is both the fact that these two types of blameworthiness make different sorts of reactive attitudes fitting and that only one of these two types of attitudes requires having (...) been able to refrain from φ-ing in order for them to be fitting. (shrink)

It has been argued that the explanation of self-control requires positing special motivational powers. Some think that we need will-power as an irreducible mental faculty; others that we need to think of the active self as a dedicated and depletable pool of psychic energy or – in today more respectable terminology – mental resources; finally, there is the idea that self-control requires postulating a deep division between reason and passion – a deliberative and an emotional motivational system. This essay argues (...) that no such special motivational powers are necessary. Yet, at the same time, self-control does powerfully illustrate the importance of a feature of the mind. What it illustrates, I argue, is the importance of the mental activity of attention in the control of all action. It is by appeal to this mental activity that we can dispense with special motivational powers. If we think of Humeanism as the view that there is fundamentally only one kind of motivational system and that all action is based in that system, then this essay contributes to a defense of Humeanism. On the other hand, the essay also shows that any model of agency in terms of only beliefs and desires, motivational and representational states, or preferences and credences is incomplete. A different conception of Humeanism as the view that every mental state is either motivational, representational, or a combination of them, is false. (shrink)

A commonly deployed signifier to render the political event of a riot intelligible, ‘chaos’ describes an affective condition of disorder and disarray. For some theorists of affect, such a condition of chaotic unpredictability suggests emancipatory potential. Recounting the 2018 May Day / May 1st protests in Paris, that both politicians and media declared to be a riot, this paper argues that to consider the riot as chaotic is to think and feel like a state. Critically interrogating the analytical purchase (...) of ‘chaos’ to describe a riotous assembly of bodies, this paper contends that ‘chaos’ is not only a theoretically impoverished concept to understand such political events, but also that sovereignty mobilizes ‘chaos’ as an affective infrastructure of governance to shore up attachment to the security state. Repudiating the sovereign logic of chaos, this paper presents a first-person encounter with a protest-declared-riot in order to explore the various affects that materialize around such events. Through ethnographic reflection, this paper outlines a series of affects that accompanied the day’s events, such as speculative optimism, fragility, suspicion, fear, boldness, and joy. In so doing, the paper develops an affective approach to theorize relations of political antagonism in the street, arguing that whereas the state weaponizes terror as a form of governance, the rioters weaponize joy as an affective means of resistance. (shrink)

Mere capacity views hold that agents who can intervene in an unfolding movement are performing an agentially controlled action, regardless of whether they do intervene. I introduce a simple argument to show that the noncausal explanation offered by mere capacity views fails to explain both control and action. In cases where bodily subsystems, rather than the agent, generate control over a movement, agents can often intervene to override non-agential control. Yet, contrary to what capacity views suggest, in these cases, this (...) capacity to intervene does not amount to agential control or action. I illustrate this with a case study of how passive breathing, a mere behavior, is misclassified by mere capacity views. I end by revisiting the central alternative to mere capacity views: causal control views. Advances in our understanding of how agents exert control over unfolding movements indicate that the nature of control is characterized by ubiquitous, small-scale causal interventions. (shrink)

Living organisms act as integrated wholes to maintain themselves. Individual actions can each be explained by characterizing the mechanisms that perform the activity. But these alone do not explain how various activities are coordinated and performed versatilely. We argue that this depends on a specific type of mechanism, a control mechanism. We develop an account of control by examining several extensively studied control mechanisms operative in the bacterium E. coli. On our analysis, what distinguishes a control mechanism from other mechanisms (...) is that it relies on measuring one or more variables, which results in setting constraints in the control mechanism that determine its action on flexible constraints in other mechanisms. In the most basic arrangement, the measurement process directly determines the action of the control mechanism, but in more complex arrangements signals mediate between measurements and effectors. This opens the possibility of multiple responses to the same measurement and responses based on multiple measurements. It also allows crosstalk, resulting in networks of control mechanisms. Such networks integrate the behaviors of the organism but also present a challenge in tailoring responses to particular measurements. We discuss how integrated activity can still result in differential, versatile, responses. (shrink)

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is a complex disorder characterised by self-starvation, an act of self-destruction. It is often described as a disorder marked by paradoxes and, despite extensive research attention, is still not well understood. Much AN research focuses upon the distorted body image that individuals with AN supposedly experience. However, based upon reports from individuals describing their own experience of AN, I argue that their bodily experience is much more complex than this focus might lead us to believe. Such research (...) often presents an overly cognitive understanding of bodily experience in AN, underplaying the affective, felt experience of individuals with AN, as well as descriptions of empowerment, strength and control reported in the early stages of AN. This paper seeks to enrich our understanding of bodily experience in AN as it progresses throughout the various stages of the disorder. I show how the classical phenomenological distinction between the body-as-subject and the body-as-object, as well as Leder’s conception of the visceral body, can inform our understanding of bodily experience in AN. I suggest that the project of self-starvation is an attempt to overcome the noisy demands of the visceral body, which are experienced as threatening the body-as-subject, through a process of objectifying the body-as-object. By cashing out AN as a project of radical bodily control that, tragically, comes to control the individual, we can capture important aspects of the bodily experience of AN and the temporal progression of the disorder. -/- . (shrink)

Invention of artificial general intelligence is predicted to cause a shift in the trajectory of human civilization. In order to reap the benefits and avoid pitfalls of such powerful technology it is important to be able to control it. However, possibility of controlling artificial general intelligence and its more advanced version, superintelligence, has not been formally established. In this paper, we present arguments as well as supporting evidence from multiple domains indicating that advanced AI can’t be fully controlled. Consequences (...) of uncontrollability of AI are discussed with respect to future of humanity and research on AI, and AI safety and security. This paper can serve as a comprehensive reference for the topic of uncontrollability. (shrink)

Philosophical discussion on control has largely centred around control over our actions and beliefs. Yet this overlooks the question of whether we also have control over the reasons for which we act and believe. To date, the overriding assumption appears to be that we do not, and with seemingly good reason. We cannot choose to act for a reason and acting-for-a-reason is not itself something we do. While some have challenged this in the case of reasons for action, these claims (...) seem especially untenable regarding believing for a reason. And extending the scope of control in this way also faces the threat of regress. In the face of this orthodoxy, the present paper argues that we do in fact have control over both believing and acting for a particular reason. It also starts to develop an account of the way in which this would be possible. Given the broad importance of understanding control and agency, this paper bears on a number of topics in epistemology, the philosophy of mind, and ethics. (shrink)

This paper discusses the idea that the concept of privacy should be understood in terms of control. Three different attempts to spell out this idea will be critically discussed. The conclusion will be that the Source Control View on privacy is the most promising version of the idea that privacy is to be understood in terms of control.

The paper is a commentary on the target article by Christine A. Skarda & Walter J. Freeman, “How brains make chaos in order to make sense of the world”, in the same issue of the journal, pp.161–195. -/- I confine my comments largely to some philosophical claims that Skarda & Freeman make and to the relationship of their model to connectionism. Some of the comments hinge on what symbols are and how they might sit in neural systems.

Agent-centered constraints on harming hold that some harmful upshots of our conduct cannot be justified by its generating equal or somewhat greater benefits. In this paper I argue that all plausible theories of agent-centered constraints on harming are undermined by the likelihood that our actions will have butterfly effects, or cause cascades of changes that make the world dramatically different than it would have been. Theories that impose constraints against only intended harming or proximally caused harm have unacceptable implications for (...) choices between more and less harmful ways of securing greater goods. This leaves as plausible only theories that impose constraints against causing some unintended distal harms. But, I argue, given the distal harms our actions are likely to cause through their butterfly effects, these theories entail that any way of sustaining our lives is overwhelmingly likely to involve unjustified killing, and that we are therefore morally required either to allow ourselves to waste away or kill ourselves. (shrink)

The last decade has witnessed the mass distribution and adoption of smart home systems and devices powered by artificial intelligence systems ranging from household appliances like fridges and toasters to more background systems such as air and water quality controllers. The pervasiveness of these sociotechnical systems makes analyzing their ethical implications necessary during the design phases of these devices to ensure not only sociotechnical resilience, but to design them for human values in mind and thus preserve meaningful human control over (...) them. This paper engages in a conceptual investigations of how meaningful human control over smart home devices can be attained through design. The value sensitive design (VSD) approach is proposed as a way of attaining this level of control. In the proposed framework, values are identified and defined, stakeholder groups are investigated and brought into the design process and the technical constraints of the technologies in question are considered. The paper concludes with some initial examples that illustrate a more adoptable way forward for both ethicists and engineers of smart home devices. (shrink)

We sometimes fail unwittingly to do things that we ought to do. And we are, from time to time, culpable for these unwitting omissions. We provide an outline of a theory of responsibility for unwitting omissions. We emphasize two distinctive ideas: (i) many unwitting omissions can be understood as failures of appropriate vigilance, and; (ii) the sort of self-control implicated in these failures of appropriate vigilance is valuable. We argue that the norms that govern vigilance and the value of self-control (...) explain culpability for unwitting omissions. (shrink)

The Shape of Agency offers interlinked explanations of the basic building blocks of agency, as well as its exemplary instances. The first part offers accounts of a collection of related phenomena that have long troubled philosophers of action: control over behaviour, non-deviant causation, and intentional action. These accounts build on earlier work in the causalist tradition, and undermine the claims made by many that causalism cannot offer a satisfying account of non-deviant causation, and therefore fails as an account of intentional (...) action. The second part turns to modes of agentive excellence—ways that agents display quality of form—providing a novel account of skill, including an account of the ways that agents display more or less skill. Shepherd discusses the role of knowledge in skill, and concludes that while knowledge is often important, it is inessential. This leads to a discussion of the way that knowledge of action and knowledge of how to act informs action execution. Knowledgeable action includes a unique epistemic underpinning: in knowledgeable action, the agent has authoritative knowledge of what she is doing and how she is doing it when and because she is poised to control her action by way of practical reasoning. (shrink)

The purpose of this paper is to analyze what neo-Kantian Heinrich Rickert designates by the term ‘chaos’. I argue that using this term Rickert means infinite manifolds of human life experiences, that philosophers have to convert into ‘cosmos’ of theories by using concept formation. Rickert thinks that cognition orders chaos. I show that Rickert’s version of ‘chaos’ is different from the ones that were expressed by I. Kant, J. G. Herder, F. W. von Schelling, F. von Schlegel, (...) and F. Nietzsche. I also argue that ideas of I. Kant influenced the formation of Rickert’s ideas on chaos. (shrink)

Since the 1980s chaos has been the subject of great interest both in scientific research and in public consciousness. Chaos as played roles in books and movies such as Jurassic Park and Bellwether and has been the subject of numerous popularizations. But what is chaos—better characterized as chaotic dynamics—really? How much of an impact does it have on everyday life? This book explores these questions and more, introducing you to the basics of chaos as mathematicians and (...) scientists study it and apply it. There are a lot of buzzwords surrounding chaotic dynamics such as “butterfly effect” and “strange attractors,” and much discussion about whether chaos has shattered scientific dreams of a predictable world. This book will help you understand these buzzwords and their excitement, what limitations there are for predictability, and the wisdom scientists have learned from studying chaos. You will come away with a deeper appreciation of the intricacy and surprising order of our world. (shrink)

Recent work in cognitive modelling has found that most of the data that has been cited as evidence for the dual-process theory (DPT) of reasoning is best explained by non-linear, “monotonic” one-process models (Stephens et al., 2018, 2019). In this paper, I consider an important caveat of this research: it uses models that are committed to unrealistic assumptions about how effectively task conditions can isolate Type-1 and Type-2 reasoning. To avoid this caveat, I develop a coordinated theoretical, experimental, and modelling (...) strategy to better test DPT. First, I propose that Type-1 and Type-2 reasoning are defined as reasoning that precedes and follows metacognitive control, respectively. Second, I argue that reasoning that precedes and follows metacognitive control can be effectively isolated using debiasing paradigms that manipulate metacognitive heuristics (e.g., processing fluency) to prevent or trigger metacognitive control, respectively. Third, I argue that monotonic modelling can allow us to decisively test DPT only when we use them to analyse data from this particular kind of debiasing paradigm. (shrink)

This chapter focuses on the experimental practices and reasoning strategies employed in nineteenth century investigations on the causal origin of the phenomenon of Brownian movement. It argues that there was an extensive and sophisticated experimental work done on the phenomenon throughout the nineteenth century. Investigators followed as rigorously as possible the methodological standards of their time to make causal claims and advance causal explanations of Brownian movement. Two major methodological strategies were employed. The first was the experimental strategy of varying (...) the circumstances. Suspected causal factors were varied and the resulting effect on Brownian movement was studied. The main goal of this strategy was the identification of difference-making factors, i.e., factors having a causal influence on the phenomenon. The second was the so-called method of hypothesis. Rather than relying exclusively on the ability of experiments to identify difference-making factors, its proponents tried to show how the independently developed tenets of the new kinetic-molecular conception of matter provided a plausible causal explanation of Brownian movement. Each one of these methodological strategies had its distinctive practices and notions of control. None of these strategies could, on its own, establish molecular motion as the cause of Brownian movement. It was only the fruitful combination of the two strategies and of their accompanying practices and notions of control that led, at the end of the nineteenth century, to the recognition of molecular motion as the most probable cause of Brownian movement. (shrink)

Die meisten Ethik- und Philosophie-Lehrpläne sehen vor, dass Schüler/innen die Grundlagen der Moralphilosophie kennen und verstehen. Im vorliegenden Beitrag nennen und erläutern wir einige Probleme, die der Erreichung dieses Ziels entgegenstehen. Eines dieser Probleme – die Vermischung unterschiedlicher Fragen – illustrieren wir an einer konkreten Lehreinheit. Anschließend skizzieren wir schädliche Folgen dieses Problems und deuten mögliche Wege zu seiner Beseitigung an.

The extensive involvement of nonconscious processes in human behaviour has led some to suggest that consciousness is much less important for the control of action than we might think. In this article I push against this trend, developing an understanding of conscious control that is sensitive to our best models of overt action control. Further, I assess the cogency of various zombie challenges—challenges that seek to demote the importance of conscious control for human agency. I argue that though nonconscious contributions (...) to action control are evidently robust, these challenges are overblown. (shrink)

What is self-control and how does the concept of self-control relate to the notion of will-power? A widespread philosophical opinion has been that the notion of will-power does not add anything beyond what can be said using other motivational notions, such as strength of desire and intention. One exception is Richard Holton who, inspired by recent research in social psychology, has argued that will-power is a separate faculty needed for persisting in one's resolutions, what he calls 'strength of will'. However, (...) he distinguishes strength of will from self-control. In this paper I argue that will-power is essential also to a certain form of self-control. I support this claim by arguments showing that the traditional philosophical accounts of self-control run into difficulties because they pay insufficient attention to will-power as an independent source of motivation. (shrink)

Self-control is integral to successful human agency. Without it we cannot extend our agency across time and secure central social, moral, and personal goods. But self-control is not a unitary capacity. In the first part of this paper we provide a taxonomy of self-control and trace its connections to agency and the self. In part two, we turn our attention to the external conditions that support successful agency and the exercise of self-control. We argue that what we call moral security (...) is a critical foundation for agency. Parts three and four explore what happens to agency when moral security is lacking, as in the case of those subject to racism, and those living in poverty. The disadvantages suffered by those who are poor, in a racial minority or other oppressed group, or suffering mental illness or addiction, are often attributed to a lack of individual self-control or personal responsibility. In particular, members of these groups are often seen as irresponsibly focused on short-term pleasures over long-term good, a view underwritten by particular psychological theories of self-control. We explore how narratives about racism and poverty undermine moral security, and limit and distort the possibility of synchronic and diachronic self-control. Where moral security is undermined, the connection between self-control and diachronic goods often fails to obtain and agency contracts accordingly. We close with some preliminary reflections on the implications for responsibility. (shrink)

Judgments of blame for others are typically sensitive to what an agent knows and desires. However, when people act negligently, they do not know what they are doing and do not desire the outcomes of their negligence. How, then, do people attribute blame for negligent wrongdoing? We propose that people attribute blame for negligent wrongdoing based on perceived mental control, or the degree to which an agent guides their thoughts and attention over time. To acquire information about others’ mental control, (...) people self-project their own perceived mental control to anchor third-personal judgments about mental control and concomitant responsibility for negligent wrongdoing. In four experiments (N = 841), we tested whether perceptions of mental control drive third-personal judgments of blame for negligent wrongdoing. Study 1 showed that the ease with which people can counterfactually imagine an individual being non-negligent mediated the relationship between judgments of control and blame. Studies 2a and 2b indicated that perceived mental control has a strong effect on judgments of blame for negligent wrongdoing and that first-personal judgments of mental control are moderately correlated with third-personal judgments of blame for negligent wrongdoing. Finally, we used an autobiographical memory manipulation in Study 3 to make personal episodes of forgetfulness salient. Participants for whom past personal episodes of forgetfulness were made salient judged negligent wrongdoers less harshly compared to a control group for whom past episodes of negligence were not salient. Collectively, these findings suggest that first-personal judgments of mental control drive third-personal judgments of blame for negligent wrongdoing and indicate a novel role for counterfactual thinking in the attribution of responsibility. (shrink)

Tom Dougherty argues that culpably deceiving another person into sex is seriously wrong no matter what the content about which she is deceived. We argue that his explanation of why deception invalidates consent has extremely implausible implications. Though we reject Dougherty’s explanation, we defend his verdict about deception and consent to sex. We argue that he goes awry by conflating the disclosure requirement for consent and the understanding requirement. When these are distinguished, we can identify how deceptive disclosure invalidates consent. (...) This alternative explanation also allows for a response to Neil Manson’s recent criticisms of Dougherty’s argument. (shrink)

It is usual to identify initial conditions of classical dynamical systems with mathematical real numbers. However, almost all real numbers contain an infinite amount of information. I argue that a finite volume of space can’t contain more than a finite amount of information, hence that the mathematical real numbers are not physically relevant. Moreover, a better terminology for the so-called real numbers is “random numbers”, as their series of bits are truly random. I propose an alternative classical mechanics, which is (...) empirically equivalent to classical mechanics, but uses only finite-information numbers. This alternative classical mechanics is non-deterministic, despite the use of deterministic equations, in a way similar to quantum theory. Interestingly, both alternative classical mechanics and quantum theories can be supplemented by additional variables in such a way that the supplemented theory is deterministic. Most physicists straightforwardly supplement classical theory with real numbers to which they attribute physical existence, while most physicists reject Bohmian mechanics as supplemented quantum theory, arguing that Bohmian positions have no physical reality. (shrink)

Creativity is one of the key features that help distinguish humans and other species. Even within human society, creativity is also a crucial factor contributing to the competitive advantage of an individual or an organization. As creativity is an outcome of an individual’s mental process, information inputs are required for making creativity. The question is: Which kind of information input is better for creativity: structured or unstructured information?

We advance an account that grounds cognition, specifically decision-making, in an activity all organisms as autonomous systems must perform to keep themselves viable—controlling their production mechanisms. Production mechanisms, as we characterize them, perform activities such as procuring resources from their environment, putting these resources to use to construct and repair the organism's body and moving through the environment. Given the variable nature of the environment and the continual degradation of the organism, these production mechanisms must be regulated by control (...) mechanisms that select when a production is required and how it should be carried out. To operate on production mechanisms, control mechanisms need to procure information through measurement processes and evaluate possible actions. They are making decisions. In all organisms, these decisions are made by multiple different control mechanisms that are organized not hierarchically but heterarchically. In many cases, they employ internal models of features of the environment with which the organism must deal. Cognition, in the form of decision-making, is thus fundamental to living systems which must control their production mechanisms. (shrink)

The recent literature on causality has seen the introduction of several distinctions within causality, which are thought to be important for understanding the widespread scientific practice of focusing causal explanations on a subset of the factors that are causally relevant for a phenomenon. Concepts used to draw such distinctions include, among others, stability, specificity, proportionality, or actual-difference making. In this contribution, I propose a new distinction that picks out an explanatorily salient class of causes in biological systems. Some select causes (...) in complex biological systems, I argue, have the property of enabling coherent causal control of these systems. Examples of such control variables include hormones and other signaling molecules, e.g., TOR (target of rapamycin), morphogens or the products of homeotic selector genes in embryonic pattern formation. I propose an analysis of this notion based on concepts borrowed from causal graph theory. (shrink)

Plausibly, agents act freely iff their actions are responses to reasons. But what sort of relationship between reason and action is required for the action to count as a response? The overwhelmingly dominant answer to this question is modalist. It holds that responses are actions that share a modally robust or secure relationship with the relevant reasons. This thesis offers a new alternative answer. It argues that responses are actions that can be explained by reasons in the right way. This (...) explanationist answer comes apart from the modalist answer. For it holds that actions are responses to reasons if they are explained by those reasons even if they don’t share a modally robust relationship. Explanationism thus offers a novel way of vindicating the intuition that alternative possibilities don’t matter to responding to reasons and (consequently) free agency. The key dialectical position the thesis develops is that both modalism and explanationism constitute attempts to capture he core type of relationship encoded by the notion of a response. Responses to reasons, at core, involve a non-accidental relationship between reason and action. We can either understand non-accidentality as a modal phenomenon – as a modally robust tracking between two facts. Or we can understand non-accidentality as an explanatory phenomenon – as a special explanatory relationship between two facts. According to my rival explanationist proposal, two facts share a non-accidental relationship iff we can give a unified explanation of why both obtain. Unified explanations are explanations of why [p&q] that cannot be decomposed into two (or more) separate independent explanations of p and of q. Consequently, according to explanationism about responding to reasons, actions are responses to reasons iff those reasons offer a rational explanation of the action that cannot be decomposed into separate independent components. (shrink)

Wer humanitäre Kriege moralisch beurteilen will, muss sich in einem chaotischen Meer der Möglichkeiten auskennen; er muss (z.B. in der Rückschau) wissen, was geschehen wäre, hätten sich die Akteure anders entschieden. Solche Fragen betreffen keine Fakten, sondern Kontrafakten; mit kühlem Realitätssinn alleine ist diesen Fragen nicht beizukommen. Im Herzstück dieses Aufsatzes steht eine erkenntnistheoretische Analyse kontrafaktischer Sätze (VI-XIII). Wenn ich recht liege, müssen wir uns bei der Beurteilung solcher Sätze nicht nur an die harten Fakten halten; zusätzlich brauchen wir weichere (...) Beurteilungskriterien wie Einfühlungsvermögen, narrative Intelligenz, Phantasie – und Werthaltungen. Dass eine bestimmte Form von Pazifismus im Lichte dieser erkenntnistheoretischen These an Plausibilität gewinnt, versuche ich in den Schlussabschnitten anhand des Kosovo-Kriegs plausibel zu machen. Der Aufsatz beginnt mit ausserrationalen Betrachtungen zugunsten des Pazifismus und versucht insgesamt, allerlei angeblich vernünftigen Gegenargumenten den Wind aus den Segeln zu nehmen. (shrink)

It is usual to identify initial conditions of classical dynamical systems with mathematical real numbers. However, almost all real numbers contain an infinite amount of information. I argue that a finite volume of space can’t contain more than a finite amount of information, hence that the mathematical real numbers are not physically relevant. Moreover, a better terminology for the so-called real numbers is “random numbers”, as their series of bits are truly random. I propose an alternative classical mechanics, which is (...) empirically equivalent to classical mechanics, but uses only finite-information numbers. This alternative classical mechanics is non-deterministic, despite the use of deterministic equations, in a way similar to quantum theory. Interestingly, both alternative classical mechanics and quantum theories can be supplemented by additional variables in such a way that the supplemented theory is deterministic. Most physicists straightforwardly supplement classical theory with real numbers to which they attribute physical existence, while most physicists reject Bohmian mechanics as supplemented quantum theory, arguing that Bohmian positions have no physical reality. (shrink)

With the appearance of Mircea Eliade's The Sacred and the Profane came the inauguration of theologians and philosophers questioning the preeminence of scholarly attention given to time to the virtual exclusion of space.