Apology is arguably the central act of the reparative work required after wrongdoing. The analysis by Claudia Card of complicity in collectively perpetrated evils moves one to ask whether apology ought to be requested of persons culpably complicit in institutional evils. To better appreciate the benefits of and barriers to apologies offered by culpably complicit wrongdoers, this article examines doctors’ complicity in a practice that meets Card's definition of an evil, namely, the non-medically necessary, nonconsensual “normalizing” interventions performed on babies (...) born with intersex anatomies. It argues that in this instance the complicity of doctors is culpable on Card's terms, and that their culpable complicity grounds rightful demands for them to apologize. (shrink)

This is an abstract of a discussion of Martha Minow's article "Equalities" in APA Symposium Eastern Division 1991 .

In this essay, we suggest practical ways to shift the framing of crisis standards of care toward disability justice. We elaborate on the vision statement provided in the 2010 Institute of Medicine (National Academy of Medicine) “Summary of Guidance for Establishing Crisis Standards of Care for Use in Disaster Situations,” which emphasizes fairness; equitable processes; community and provider engagement, education, and communication; and the rule of law. We argue that interpreting these elements through disability justice entails a commitment to both (...) distributive and recognitive justice. The disability rights movement's demand “Nothing about us, without us” requires substantive inclusion of disabled people in decision‐making related to their interests, including in crisis planning before, during, and after a pandemic like Covid‐19. (shrink)

The contrast between Kant’s moral philosophy and Feder’s is not less crucial than the controversy caused by the Göttingen review of the first Critique. One of main targets of Kant’s moral philosophy was Feder’s view, which can be regarded as Kant's main competitor in the contemporary debate. I thus argue that the background provided by the conflict with Feder shows significant distinctive traits of Kant's view, with regard to three fundamental issues. First, I examine how the project (...) of a pure moral philosophy opposes Feder’s empirical investigation into the will, which is in fact one of the targets of Kant's criticism against universal practical philosophy. Second, a central element of Kant’s anti-eudaemonism, the contrast between happiness and self-contentment, is a rejection of the strongly moralized view of happiness that underlies Feder’s eudaemonism. Finally, I examine Tittel's objection that Kant had provided "only a new formula" of morality and Kant's response, which display a fundamental contrast between Kant’s understanding of the aims of moral theory with Feder’s common-sense conception. (shrink)

Social media has become a phenomenon that is changing all spheres of life tremendously. It is affecting the peaceful coexistence of people in the society both positively and negatively. Almost every government throughout the world is reacting in one way or the other to this influence, especially the perceived adverse influence of social media on the peaceful coexistence of people in the society. This paper aims at exploring the interplay between the Federal Government of Nigeria and social media in relation (...) to the peaceful coexistence of people in the country. Public Sphere Theory is used as the theoretical framework. The paper is a follow-up to a study on how Baptist pastors in the Ibadan metropolis are using social media in conflict resolution and promotion of peaceful coexistence among members of their church. It further reviews some existing literatures on the subject matter where the history of social media in Nigeria and some specific effects of social media in relation to peaceful coexistence in Nigeria are explored before exploring the interplay. Some recommendations are given to the Federal Government of Nigeria at the end of the paper. The paper concludes by warning the Federal Government of Nigerian and other governments throughout the world in regulating the use of social media so that the original purpose of the regulation will not be defeated. (shrink)

There exists a standard view of Kant’s position on global order and this view informs much of current Kantian political theory. This standard view is that Kant advocates a voluntary league of states and rejects the ideal of a federative state of states as dangerous, unrealistic, and conceptually incoherent. This standard interpretation is usually thought to fall victim to three equally standard objections. In this essay, I argue that the standard interpretation is mistaken and that the three standard objections miss (...) their target. Kant does advocate the establishment of a non-coercive league of states, at least in his mature political writings (such as Perpetual Peace and the Metaphysics of Morals), but he does so for different reasons than is usually thought and without rejecting the ideal that a world federation of states eventually be realized. I end by indicating how Kant’s revised view can be made productive for present-day philosophical purposes. (shrink)

Introduction: There is a general agreement among previous studies that gender, merit and catchment area criteria allows for access to university education, but the pattern of these variables over the years has not been proven in these studies. Purpose: This study used a times series approach to evaluate the enrolment patterns in federally owned universities in South-South Zone, Nigeria, based on the gender, merit and catchment area criteria. Methodology: The descriptive survey design was adopted for this study. A purposive sampling (...) technique was adopted to choose three universities based on the generation of their establishment. The evaluation covered from 2010 to 2019 using stationary time-bound data collected from the academic planning units of the institutions through a checklist. Future enrolment forecasts were made to 2031 using the moving average forecasting technique. Results: A gender-based difference in enrolment, in favour of males was recorded between 2010 and 2019; there were notable fluctuations in the enrolment pattern based on the merit criterion from 2010 to 2019; the enrolment pattern in terms of the catchment area criterion was consistent from 2010 – 2019. In terms of the projection, it was predicted that enrolment at the aggregate level would rise continuously across federal universities, but not at the institutional level. more women than men are expected to be enrolled in academic programmes at federal institutions, while at the institutional level, gender-based enrolment can fluctuate. Recommendations/Classroom Implications: Based on these findings, implications are discussed for future enrolment decisions at both the institutional and national levels. (shrink)

Kant claims that the transcendental self can be represented as a “feeling of existence” (Gefühl eines Daseins). Some interpreters take this claim to be inconsistent with Kant’s larger theory of self-consciousness. I consider the extent to which two eighteenth-century philosophy texts that Kant knew well - Tetens’ Philosophische Versuche über die menschliche Natur und ihre Entwickelung and Feder’s Logik und Metaphysik - can contribute to our understanding of Gefühl eines Daseins. I point to some continuities between Kant’s characterization of (...) “Gefühl” in Gefühl eines Daseins, and Tetens’ and Feder’s conceptualizations of Selbstgefühl. I show that Gefühl eines Daseins is prima facie consistent with Feder’s clear “I” (or Selbstgefühl) and Tetens’ clear Selbstgefühl; and both Gefühl eines Daseins and clear Selbstgefühl relate to higher cognition. Finally, I discuss whether the notion of Selbstgefühl is compatible with key aspects of Kant’s conceptualization of the self - the transcendental-empirical distinction, and the atemporality of the self. (shrink)

Review of two recent works on J.G.H. Feder: -/- Johann Georg Heinrich Feder. Ausgewählte Schriften. Hrgb. Von Hans-Peter Nowitzki, Udo Roth, Gideon Stiening. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2018. Werkprofile Band 9. -/- and -/- Johann Georg Heinrich Feder (1740-1821): Empirismus und Popularphilosophie Zwischen Wolff und Kant. Hrgb. Von Hans-Peter Nowitzki, Udo Roth, Gideon Stiening. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2018. Werkprofile Band 10.

The 2004-5 essay competition set by the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis asks, “Why are some countries rich and some countries poor?” It has information which strangely does not feature the name Amartya Sen. But I have conceived of a defence against the charge that this is bad practice, which resembles appealing to the descriptivist theory of names.

This study assessed tertiary students’ awareness of the emergence of the online food delivery (OFD) services could be attributed to the changing nature of urban consumers. These consumers use food delivery services for a variety of reasons but, unsurprisingly, the most common reason seems to be the need for quick and convenient meals during or after a busy day. The study used the cross-sectional survey conducted in Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria, using random sampling technique. A total of 245 (...) undergraduate students at the university were assessed with a structured online questionnaire. The data collected data was analyzed using Microsoft excel and GraphPad. Results showed that a majority of the students use online food services for their food service needs, hence the study concluded that the majority of the students at the University are aware of online food service. It was recommended that the quality of service of the online food service system needs improvement by enhancing the efficiency of service as well as accessibility, which will enable more students to opt for the food service and delivery system. (shrink)

Recent interpretations of Kant’s international political philosophy have argued that the formation of a coercive world-state (Völkerstaat) is morally required. While these interpretations highlight the importance of a strong world government, they ignore Kant’s alternative to a Völkerstaat, a world-federation (Völkerbund). For both theoretical and practical reasons, the Völkerbund plays a crucial role in cosmopolitan right, and Kant can only justifiably reject the formation of the Völkerstaat because of the structure of the Völkerbund. This article explains the constitution and functions (...) of the Völkerbund, and thereby shows why Kant was not ultimately committed to supporting a coercive world-state. (shrink)

The study investigated assessment of sex and age impersonation as academic dishonest behaviour among post graduate students’ of Federal Universities of South-South, Nigeria. The study which is a survey research, involved a multi-stage stratified random sampling technique of 440 males and 490 females from 3 universities and 3 faculties of the same universities in South-South, Nigeria. Sample was selected through stratified random sampling approach. The study adopted frequencies, percentages, factor analysis and multiple classification analysis statistical tools. A questionnaire developed and (...) validated by the researcher titled: “Academic Dishonest Behaviour Questionnaire’’ (ADBQ) with Cronbach coefficient alpha reliability of 0.83 was used for data collection. Two research questions and one hypothesis were formulated for the study. The findings indicated that the students used for this study were involved in Sex and Age impersonation aspect of academic dishonest behaviours. Female students were seen to be more involved than male in impersonation, Students ages 25-29years are more culpable in impersonation as academic dishonest behaviour. It is therefore recommended among others that there should be synergy among stakeholders in the educational process to fight this art of impersonation. (shrink)

In its January 20th, 2010 decision in Citizens United vs. Federal Election Commission, the United States Supreme Court ruled that certain restrictions on independent expenditures by corporations for political advocacy violate the First Amendment of the Constitution, which provides that “Congress shall make no law […] abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.” Justice Kennedy, writing for the 5-4 majority, (...) held that “[b]y suppressing the speech of manifold corporations, both for-profit and non-profit, the Government prevents their voices and view-points from reaching the public and advising voters on which person or entities are hostile to their interests” (Citizens United vs. Federal Election Commission 558 U.S. 38-9 (2010); emphasis added). Much of the language of the opinion, and some of its reasoning, as this passage illustrates, presupposes that corporations are agents capable of speech, and that it is (at least in part) in the light of this that limitations on political advocacy by corporations are prohibited by the Constitution. -/- While there are other strands in the argument, they are interwoven with the conception of the corporation as agent and speaker, with its voice and its viewpoints. The dissenters on the court objected on precisely this point (among others). Justice Stevens wrote sarcastically in his dissent, joined by Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor, that “[u]nder the majority’s view, I suppose it may be a First Amendment problem that corporations are not permitted to vote, given that voting is, among other things, a form of speech” (558 U.S. 33 (2010)). Justice Sotomayor suggested in oral argument that the Court’s century-old practice of treating corporations as persons rests on a conceptual mistake. -/- My concern in this essay is not with the question whether the restrictions violate the Constitution. There are many issues that bear on this which will be outside the scope of my discussion. My concern is with the proper conceptual framework for understanding the agency of corporations and corporate speech, and the role that conceptions of these play in the background of the majority’s reasoning. The issue is legal, but it also has philosophical, conceptual and semantic aspects. It will be the latter aspects, and their potential to shed light on legal reasoning, that are my main focus. An adequate framework requires saying what properly speaking the corporation is, how agency is expressed through the corporation, whose agency it is, centrally whether the corporation is an agent or person in its own right, and in what sense it can be said to be capable of speech. I draw on recent work in collective action theory, particularly with respect to the semantics of collective action sentences (Ludwig 2007) and the analysis of the proxy agency in collective action (Ludwig 2014), to show (i) that corporations are neither genuine agents nor (therefore) capable of engaging in genuine speech, (ii) that consequently the First Amendment does not apply to corporations per se, and (iii) that a better understanding of the mechanisms of corporate agency casts doubt on more indirect arguments for extending the First Amendment to “corporate speech” as well. (shrink)

The article analyses the impact of the sanctions of civilized countries on the Russian economy. Particular attention is paid to sectoral sanctions on the markets of oil and oil products, in the banking and financial sectors, as well as on the market of transport services. The authors analysed the prospects for expanding sanctions on the oil market for Russia in the context of setting a maximum price for the export of Russian oil by the main buyers. Conclusions are drawn not (...) only about the impact of sanctions on Russian oil production, but also about a possible decrease in prices for oil and other energy resources in the region. The authors positively assessed the US and EU anti-Russian sanctions in the financial sector. The impact of sanctions on the Russian banking system, insurance, and stock markets was studied. Particular attention was paid to the impact of disconnecting the banking system of the Russian Federation from the international payment system SWIFT. The authors also focused on the gradual division of the Russian economy under the influence of sanctions and trends in the energy market into the energy sector and the rest. It was found that the most affected by the sanctions were air transportation, mechanical engineering, and ferrous metallurgy sectors. Conclusions are drawn about the need to continue sanctions pressure on the Russian economy. High energy prices during the 200 days of the war with Ukraine allowed the Russian Federation to subsidize economic sectors that suffered from the war at the expense of the energy sector. A market reduction of the oil prices or their correction with the help of the sanctions policy should cause significant and irreversible damage to the Russian economy. (shrink)

The article provides a critical assessment of The Central Bank of the Russian Federation policy in response to the sanctions of the US, the EU, the UK, Switzerland, Japan, South Korea and a number of other countries. The effect of sanctions on the Russian economy and its financial market is viewed through the prism of credit, interest rate, and currency risk, and the risk of a decline in business activity. Special attention is paid to the inflationary component and inflationary expectations (...) of the Russian Federation, as well as to the forecasts for a decline in business activity in Russia. A critical assessment is given to the actions of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and the economic bloc of the government of the Russian Federation as a whole in response to the sanctions of the civilized world, which disable the normal existence of the economy and the main purpose of which is not to destroy the economy of the Russian Federation but to ensure the end of hostilities on the European continent. The results of our study will be useful to everyone who studies the problems of the effect of economic sanctions on the resource-based economy and the processes of stimulating political decisions by economic methods. (shrink)

This paper explores how current United States policies for funding nonreproductive cloning are justified and argues against that justification. I show that a common conceptual framework underlies the national prohibition on the use of public funds for cloning research, which I call the simple argument. This argument rests on two premises: that research harming human embryos is unethical and that embryos produced via fertilization are identical to those produced via cloning. In response to the simple argument, I challenge the latter (...) premise. I demonstrate there are important ontological differences between human embryos (produced via fertilization) and clone embryos (produced via cloning). After considering the implications my argument has for the morality of publicly funding cloning for potential therapeutic purposes and potential responses to my position, I conclude that such funding is not only ethically permissible, but also humane national policy. (shrink)

Currently, the widely used notion of activity is increasingly present in computer science. However, because this notion is used in specific contexts, it becomes vague. Here, the notion of activity is scrutinized in various contexts and, accordingly, put in perspective. It is discussed through four scientific disciplines: computer science, biology, economics, and epistemology. The definition of activity usually used in simulation is extended to new qualitative and quantitative definitions. In computer science, biology and economics disciplines, the new simulation activity definition (...) is first applied critically. Then, activity is discussed generally. In epistemology, activity is discussed, in a prospective way, as a possible framework in models of human beliefs and knowledge. (shrink)

This paper is an attempt to highlight significant developments in the history of philosophy in schools in Australia. We commence by looking at the early years when Laurance Splitter visited the Institute for the Advancement for Philosophy for Children (IAPC). Then we offer an account of the events that led to the formation of what is now the Federation of Australasian Philosophy in Schools Associations (FAPSA), the development and production of a diverse range of curriculum and supporting materials for philosophy (...) in schools, the making of the Australasian journal, and more recent events. Our purpose is to create further interest in exploring this complex and rich history. This will achieve a better understanding of the possible future directions for classroom practice and research. (shrink)

While feminist critiques of AI are increasingly common in the scholarly literature, they are by no means new. Alison Adam’s Artificial Knowing (1998) brought a feminist social and epistemological stance to the analysis of AI, critiquing the symbolic AI systems of her day and proposing constructive alternatives. In this paper, we seek to revisit and renew Adam’s arguments and methodology, exploring their resonances with current feminist concerns and their relevance to contemporary machine learning. Like Adam, we ask how new AI (...) methods could be adapted for feminist purposes and what role new technologies might play in addressing concerns raised by feminist epistemologists and theorists about algorithmic systems. In particular, we highlight distributed and federated learning as providing partial solutions to the power-oriented concerns that have stymied efforts to make machine learning systems more representative and pluralist. (shrink)

This paper is a historical, legal and philosophical analysis of the concept of human dignity in German and Kenyan constitutional law. We base our analysis on decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, in particular its take on life imprisonment and its 2006 decision concerning the shooting of hijacked airplanes, and on a close reading of the Constitution of Kenya. We also present a dialogue between us in which we offer some critical remarks on the concept of human dignity (...) in the two constitutions, each one of us from his own philosophical perspective. (shrink)

The article is devoted to one of the crucial aspects of sustainable development, with the example of analyzing the possibilities for the development of environmental education in the Russian Federation. The article analyzes the possibilities of the current Russian Federal State Educational Standard for general and higher education in implementing the ideas of education in the interests of sustainable development. The methodological principles and philosophical foundations of environmental education are considered to designate the worldview guideline of ecological thinking. The tasks (...) of the state educational policy of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental education and the implementation of the concept of sustainable development are considered. The article describes the representation of the concept of sustainable development in the state policy of the Russian Federation, in the field of environmental education in the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for various subject areas and training courses related to the topic of environmental development in school and university education. The strategic goal of environmental education in Russia is the formation and development of an environmental outlook among students of all ages, which is based on scientific knowledge, environmental culture, and ethics. The continuity, basic principles, and trends of the implementation of environmental education in the Russian Federation are shown. (shrink)

Th is work is a companion piece to "The American Worker," Karl Kautsky's reply to Werner Sombart’s Why Is There No Socialism in the United States? (1906), first published in English in the November 2003 edition of the journal Historial Materialism. In August 1909 Kautsky wrote an article on Samuel Gompers, the president of the American Federation of Labor, on the occasion of the latter's first European tour. Th e article was not only a criticism of Gompers’s anti-socialist "pure-and-simple" unionism (...) but also part of an ongoing battle between the revolutionary wing of German Social Democracy and the German trade-union officials. In this critical English edition we provide the historical background to the document as well as an overview of the issues raised by Gompers' visit to Germany, such as the bureaucratisation and increasing conservatism of the union leadership in both Germany and the United States, the role of the General Commission of Free Trade Unions in the abandonment of Marxism by the German Social-Democratic Party and the socialists’ attitude toward institutions promoting class collaboration like the National Civic Federation. (shrink)

The policy makers or lawyers may face the need of legal research for reasons. The congressmen may plan to make new laws to address the challenges of their constituent or to the interest of nation. The lawyers may need to serve their clients who like to know the legal issues involved, the strategies to deal with their loss and recovery, and prospect for winning the case if the dispute has gotten worse. The lawyers may practice in a solo business or (...) might work as an associate lawyer in the law firms. A senior lawyer or partner in some cases may like to exploit the junior work force about the problems or grievances from the potential clients. Since he needs to focus their attention on other matters, such as the business expansion of his law firm or more lucrative cases in need of career hands, he may tap the junior lawyer for the legal research, who could assist with the basis of his final legal opinion. The memorandum, opinion letter and brief would be such forms of professional communication for the lawyers and legal researchers. The congressman also can be supplemented with the aid of staffs in terms of his legal expertise and grasp of the issues standing for carrying their responsibility more effectively. For the lawyers and legal researchers, the structure of state and federal legal system is the kind of important variants to orient their work direction and basic frame for the most efficient and adequate scope of search and analysis. The paradigm change also is revolutionary to impact the general base of people. Decades ago, the research or researcher only related with the class of professionals, such as professors, lawyers, career officers and cadres of enterprises. They would enjoy insulation and exploit their research work as an entrance barrier from lay people. Their large shelves at home study or in the room or corner of office thrust an impression that he or she is learned and knowledgeable. This impliedly communicates his or her prestige of social or professional success. The books and articles seem to symbolize a kind of monopoly which bears to exclude unclassified or non-professional workers. The change is remarkable that every citizen could benefit from the on-line sources of information, which, of course, is generally true of professional knowledge. Now professors fear of plagiarism that students often are the kind of suspect. The legal research would turn on the help of digitization which revolutionizes to incur a new mode of research operation. About the query, the citizens and people can readily verify its truth or falsity with one clique within the personal computer. An enormous amount of information is currently flowing on the internet and on-line sources of reference, which shapes an informative and knowledgeable society. As the medical doctors warned decades ago, the precept is any most effective, “forbear from your intelligence or knowledge work for your health.” Many of them now spend long hours a day to satisfy their curiosity and intelligent search. He or she may be well awarded an academic degree if to recognize their hard work on his PC. Nevertheless, this information age does not always bring a positive progress, which arouses the kind of issues, say, right of privacy, on-line fraud. In some cases, this transformation may lead to an inferior attitude of researcher. My today’s experience is one of exotic case. I have received an e-mail from Google CEO stating that I have been selected as one of twelve winners from the pool of Google users. The award money is enormous which stalls me for some time. The authenticity and reliability have hit my head, and I utilized a verification service website managed by the team of lawyers. It costs five dollars and remaining 24 dollars would be processed upon the progress of interaction. I am waiting for an answer from the team. Then the research nowadays is not limited to the basic context of our subsistence, but influences in any depth into the professional lives. (shrink)

The federal system for allocating donated livers in the United States is often criticized for allowing geographic disparities in access to livers. Critics argue that such disparities are unfair on the grounds that where one lives is morally arbitrary and so should not influence one's access to donated livers. They argue instead that livers should be allocated in accordance with the equal opportunity principle, according to which US residents who are equally sick should have the same opportunity to receive a (...) liver, regardless of where they live. In this paper, we examine a central premise of the argument for the equal opportunity principle, namely, that geographic location is a morally arbitrary basis for allocating livers. We raise some serious doubts regarding the truth of this premise, arguing that under certain conditions, factors closely associated with geographic location are relevant to the allocation of livers, and so that candidates' geographic location is sometimes a morally non-arbitrary basis for allocating livers. Geographic location is morally non-arbitrary, we suggest, since by taking it into account, the UNOS may better fulfill its central goals of facilitating the effective and efficient placement of organs for transplantation and increasing organ donation. (shrink)

Since the disintegration of the USSR Eurasia has gained a new geopolitical and strategic significance. Fifteen Countries emerged as a result of disintegration, among which only the Russian Federation was the successor state. The post-soviet era especially the era of the 1990s was a political and economic trauma for the Russian Federation and the post-soviet space. But Eurasianists were well aware of the American unilateralism and American ‘Grand Chessboard strategy” that was solely aimed at encircling Russian geography. With these concerns, (...) the Eurasianists advised the Russian political and military elites to initiate the Eurasian Union Project. This paper briefly sketches the Russian historical Eurasian dream, which deeply rooted in Russian imperial history, and discusses the importance of Eurasian philosophy for the political and economic stability of Russia-Eurasia. The paper also illustrates the challenges and opportunities for Eurasian integration and for the establishment of multipolar world order. Moreover, the paper also briefly outlines the geopolitical rationale behind the Eurasian project as a key objective of contemporary Russian foreign policy and geopolitics. (shrink)

As the federal government distributed remdesivir to some of the states COVID-19 hit hardest, policymakers scrambled to develop criteria to allocate the drug to their hospitals. Our state, Michigan, was among those states to receive an initial quantity of the drug from the U.S. government. The disparities in burden of disease in Michigan are striking. Detroit has a death rate more than three times the state average. Our recommendation to the state was that it should prioritize the communities that bear (...) a disproportionate burden of suffering in the allocation of the new potential treatment. This recommendation is justified not only for new drugs with uncertain effects, but also for drugs of certain benefit or vaccines. For states with significant health disparities, such as Michigan, this allocation priority may help to repair them. In fact, any other allocation strategy may make them worse. (shrink)

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL RURAL DE PERNAMBUCO DEPARTAMENTO DE ZOOTECNIA – 50 ANOS EMANUEL ISAQUE CORDEIRO DA SILVA REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: OVULAÇÃO, CONTROLE E SINCRONIZAÇÃO -/- REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: OVULAÇÃO, CONTROLE E SINCRONIZAÇÃO DO CICLO ESTRAL -/- ANIMAL REPRODUCTION: OVULATION, CONTROL AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF THE ESTRAL CYCLE -/- Autor: Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva – IFPE-BJ/CAP-UFPE/EEFCC-BJ/UFRPE 1. INTRODUÇÃO As fêmeas dos animais domésticos possuem em seus ovários, desde praticamente o nascimento, a dotação completa de gametas dos quais vão dispor para o resto de sua (...) vida. No entanto, terão que esperar até a puberdade para que se produza a evolução completa dos folículos (foliculogênese) que darão como resultado as primeiras ovulações. Este momento caracteriza-se, por um lado, pelo início gradual da secreção por parte da hipófise de quantidades importantes de hormonas gonadotropinas (hormonas folículo estimulante «FSH» e sobretudo luteinizante «LH»); por outro lado, pelo aumento da capacidade dos seus ovários para responder a estas secreções. A partir daí, o aparelho reprodutor feminino das fêmeas domésticas deve apresentar, durante todo o período de atividade sexual, alterações morfológicas, endócrinas e fisiológicas, que devem ser repetidas sequencialmente e periodicamente, consoante com a duração e a frequência do ciclo estral característico de cada espécie animal, assegurando assim a liberação de um ou mais ovócitos férteis nos ciclos estrais correspondentes. -/- 2. EVOLUÇÃO DO OVÓCITO E DOS FOLÍCULOS OVÁRICOS O ovário constitui um órgão de armazenamento de ovócitos formados durante a vida fetal ou após o nascimento, os quais permanecerão «latentes», num estado de imaturidade, paralisando a sua atividade de desenvolvimento e crescimento após o processo de mitose pelo qual as células germinativas ou ovogonias evoluem para ovócitos primários. Estes ovócitos devem ser rodeados por células foliculares para alcançar sua maturação e posterior ovulação, constituindo-se, desta maneira, os folículos. Estes últimos, que se localizam no parênquima ovárico, sofrem uma série de mudanças evolutivas que os fazem passar de folículos primordiais (constituídos por um ovócito rodeado de células planas) a folículos maduros ou de Graaf, passando pelos estágios primário, secundário e terciários. A estrutura do ovário e a terminologia correspondente, bem como a sua fisiologia, já foram tratados em trabalhos anteriores. Basicamente, o folículo maduro ou de Graaf, que ressalta já na superfície ovariana como se tratasse de uma pequena vesícula cheia de líquido, encontra-se constituído, no caso dos mamíferos, pelas tecas externa e interna, a folha basal, o ovócito e o seu núcleo ou vesícula germinativa e um acúmulo de células da granulosa chamado cumulus. O antro-folicular ou cavidade intrafolicular formada durante o estágio de folículo terciário possui no seu interior um líquido cuja composição provém do plasma sanguíneo. Por outro lado, o ovócito, que desde a constituição da reserva de folículos primordiais se encontrava em estado de ovócito primário, começa a aumentar de volume (durante a fase de evolução do folículo terciário a folículo maduro) e a cobrir-se de uma membrana celular denominada zona pelúcida. Nos momentos que precedem imediatamente à ovulação reativa-se a meiose, liberando-se o primeiro corpúsculo polar e convertendo-se o ovócito em secundário. Produzida a ovulação retoma-se de novo a meiose, que tinha permanecido em repouso, e depois de ocorrer a fecundação libera-se o segundo corpúsculo polar, passando a ser uma ovotida ou óvulo maduro. -/- 3. A OVULAÇÃO Acabado o crescimento, o folículo maduro ou de Graaf é capaz de responder à descarga pré-ovulatória de gonadotropinas (LH e em menor medida FSH) de tal forma que se produza uma reestruturação completa do mesmo e a subsequente liberação de um ovócito fértil através de um pequeno orifício (estigma) produzido no ponto de ruptura da sua parede celular e das camadas celulares mais superficiais do córtex ovárico, cuja espessura, neste momento, é muito reduzida. No momento da ovulação tanto o líquido folicular como o ovócito são projetados, entre outras causas, pela contração da musculatura lisa que rodeia os folículos para a cavidade peritoneal caindo perto das fimbrias do oviduto ou trompas de Falópio. Esta expulsão, no caso das vacas e ovelhas, ocorre sob a forma de um fluxo fluido, enquanto na coelha ocorre sob a forma de um jato súbito ou de um processo explosivo. No caso da égua, a estrutura dos seus ovários difere das outras fêmeas domésticas, no sentido em que a zona vascular se localiza superficialmente e os folículos se distribuem no interior do ovário. Ao mesmo tempo, a ovulação ocorre unicamente num determinado ponto denominado fossa de ovulação. Por tudo isso, durante a foliculogênese, os folículos vão migrando para a fossa de ovulação, chegando em algumas ocasiões a ficarem presos no interior do ovário, não conseguindo desenvolver-se nem evolucionar (folículo cístico) e que, ao apresentar uma secreção contínua de estrogênios, produz na fêmea um estado de cio permanente ou ninfomania. Nas espécies cuja ovulação é espontânea, o processo supra ocorre periódica e sequencialmente em todos os ciclos estrais com um intervalo conhecido a partir do início do estro ou, no caso da vaca, após o término deste (tabela 1). Por outro lado, nas espécies de ovulação induzida (coelha, gata e fêmeas de furão e camelo) esta ocorre pouco depois de realizado o coito. Nestas espécies, o estímulo coital, favorecido pelas espículas localizadas no pênis do macho, determina por via eferente nervosa a liberação hipotalâmica de GnRH, que em poucos minutos depois provoca a secreção adeno-hepática de LH, que por via sistêmica alcança os folículos, desencadeando os processos fisiológicos que conduzem à ovulação. Tabela 1: Parâmetros que definem o ciclo sexual e tipo de ovulação de algumas espécies domésticas (adaptado e elaborado a partir de DUKES, et. al. 1996). -/- Espécie Duração do ciclo estral Atividade sexual Tipo de ovulação E/I N° de ovócitos Duração do estro Momento da ovulação Vaca 21 dias Poliéstrica contínua E 1 18 horas 11 horas após o final do estro Ovelha 17 dias Poliéstrica estacional E 1-3 29 horas Ao final do estro Porca 21 dias Poliéstrica contínua E 11-24 45 horas 24-36 horas do começo do estro Égua 21 dias Poliéstrica estacional E 1 6 dias 24-48 horas antes do final do cio Cabra 20 dias Poliéstrica estacional E 1-3 40 horas 33 horas do começo do estro Cadela 9 dias Monoéstrica a cada 4-8 E — 7-9 dias 3-4 dias do começo do estro Gata 5 dias Poliéstrica estacional I 3-4 4 dias 27 horas postcoito Coelha 16 dias Poliéstrica I 4-12 Não definida 10 horas postcoito -/- Dado que a vida fértil dos ovócitos, uma vez produzida a ovulação, raramente ultrapassa as 10-12 horas, é importante, sobretudo quando se realiza inseminação artificial ou monta dirigida, determinar, a partir da presença dos sintomas de cio, o período de tempo durante o qual a fertilização numa exploração específica será efetuada, evitando-se assim uma redução da fecundidade. 3.1 Ovulação simples e múltipla Em algumas ocasiões, dependendo da espécie (ver tab. 1), são vários os folículos que apresentam uma evolução completa, chegando a possuir nas células da granulosa receptores de LH, com o qual realiza-se a descarga ovulante de gonadotropinas e produz-se uma ovulação múltipla ou multiovulação, sendo, neste caso, libertados vários ovócitos férteis. No esquema abaixo, observa-se os processos de recrutamento, seleção e dominação da espécie ovina, a partir dos quais um ou vários folículos em crescimento chegam a ovular, bem como a influência das gonadotropinas FSH e LH em cada uma destas fases. Independentemente da influência genética, manifestada pelas diferenças entre espécies, raças e mesmo estirpes, os processos que determinam que entre um grupo de folículos em crescimento sejam um ou vários deles que cheguem a ovular englobam-se sob os termos de recrutamento, seleção e dominação folicular (fig. 1). -/- Figura 1. Recrutamento, seleção e dominação folicular na espécie ovina e influência do FSH e LH nas fases. SILVA, 2019. O recrutamento é definido como a entrada em crescimento terminal de um grupo de folículos gonadodependentes, ou seja, que dentre os folículos em crescimento que existem no reservatório ovariano iniciarão seu crescimento terminal aqueles que possuem receptores à FSH (a partir do estágio primário já os possuem) e tenham igualmente atingido um tamanho determinado, que varia entre as diferentes espécies (2 mm Ø em ovelhas). Geralmente o número de folículos recrutados é duas ou três vezes superior ao número de folículos ovulados. O recrutamento no caso da ovelha ocorre três dias antes da ovulação sob a regressão do corpo lúteo e aumento de FSH. A seleção é caracterizada porque entre os folículos recrutados um ou vários folículos continuam a aumentar de tamanho, enquanto o resto se torna atrésico. No caso da ovelha, o tamanho do folículo no momento da seleção corresponde ao tamanho em que aparecem os receptores de LH sobre a granulosa (folículo terciário) ou quando, como se verá posteriormente, a aromatização de andrógenos em estrogênios é máxima. Por outro lado, a produção de inibina (hormônio gonodal não esteroide) é igualmente elevada. A interação destes dois fatores de retroalimentação (estrogénios e inibina) para a secreção de FSH provoca uma redução dos níveis desta hormona, facilitando a seleção: neste contexto, verificou-se que a injeção de FSH em ovinos bloqueia a seleção produzindo, com efeito, uma multiovulação. No caso da vaca, poderia existir um segundo mecanismo regulador: o folículo maior poderia secretar, em um momento da seleção, um composto de ação parácrina, diminuindo a resposta de outros folículos à ação dos níveis existentes de FSH. A dominância que produz os folículos selecionados está associada com a regressão ou atresia de outros folículos recrutados e com a inibição do recrutamento de novos folículos. Embora os níveis de FSH diminuam, os folículos dominantes persistem porque reduzem suas necessidades em FSH. Esta adaptação a meios mais pobres em FSH poderia explicar-se, entre outras causas, pela ampliação da resposta a esses níveis baixos em FSH graças à produção de IGFI (Insulin Like Growth Factor l), no caso da ovelha, pelo folículo dominante. O IGFI estimula a aromatização dos androgênios em estrogênios e, por sua vez, o estradiol estimula a produção de IGFI nas células granulosas, tornando-a ao mesmo tempo mais sensível ao IGFI. Este laço formado pelo estradiol e IGFI pode desempenhar um papel importante na produção do folículo dominante do estradiol. -/- 4. MECANISMOS NEUROENDÓCRINOS QUE CONDUZEM À OVULAÇÃO A ovulação, propriamente dita, pode ser um bom ponto de partida para explicar os mecanismos neuroendócrinos que se sucedem para alcançar, no próximo ciclo estral, uma nova ovulação. Imediatamente após a ocorrência da ovulação, forma-se um coágulo de sangue no interior do folículo em consequência da hemorragia causada pela ruptura celular (folículo hemorrágico) e que servirá de substrato para o crescimento das células granulosas. Em seguida, as células da granulosa hipertrofiam e proliferam rapidamente, acumulando lipídios e pigmentos carotenoides (luteína) que lhe conferem uma cor amarelada (corpo lúteo). Esta estrutura formada, sob a ação do LH e também da prolactina, começa a produzir progesterona, a qual além de preparar o aparelho reprodutor para uma possível gestação inibe, a nível da hipófise, a secreção cíclica de LH, impedindo assim novas ovulações. À medida que os níveis de progesterona diminuem devido à regressão do corpo lúteo sob a ação da PGF2a (prostaglandina 2a), vários folículos começam seu crescimento sob a ação dos níveis de FSH (cada vez maiores), atingindo o seu crescimento final na fase folicular. Alcançado o estado de terciário, as células da teca interna do folículo, estimuladas pela secreção tônica do LH liberada pela hipófise em pequenas ondas (sem chegar a atingir a quantidade que provoca a ovulação), sintetizam a partir do colesterol, passando por alguns passos intermediários, testosterona, que é depois aromatizada a estradiol sob a ação do FSH pelas células da granulosa (fig. 2). A prolactina, juntamente com o FSH, também influencia o crescimento e a maturação dos folículos, bem como a produção de estrogênios. À medida que avança o crescimento e maturação dos folículos, a concentração de estradiol aumenta (os folículos que em um momento da evolução se tornam atrésicos aportam também uma quantidade importante de estradiol), sendo máxima nos momentos imediatos à ovulação (fig. 3). Este aumento, sustentado na taxa circulante de estrogênios, é a responsável pelo aparecimento do cio nas fêmeas, cujo final, geralmente, exerce um efeito feedback positivo sobre o eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário induzindo o pico pré-ovulatório de LH (e também FSH), que conduz a nova ovulação. Figura 2. Processo de aromatização dos andrógenos em estrógenos. (Adaptado e elaborado a partir de ILLERA, 1994). -/- Figura 3. Crescimento prático folicular, e níveis de progesterona e 17 estradiol (a) e FSH e LH (b), durante o ciclo estral da ovelha. (Elaborado a partir de DURÁN DEL CAMPO, 1980). Nota importante: a ovulação em algumas espécies não é acompanhada do cio (ovulações silentes ou silenciosas), sobretudo nas primeiras ovulações da puberdade e após o anestro estacionário, devido a produção nula da estimulação prévia da progesterona. Embora citado anteriormente que o crescimento folicular começa no final da fase lútea no caso da vaca, a ovelha e a égua, a população de folículos ovulatórios se renova ao longo do ciclo estral, produzindo-se um crescimento e regressão dos folículos, denominado onda folicular. Nestas ondas, que também podem ocorrer durante o período pré-púbere, anestro estacionário e pós-parto, os folículos são receptores à descarga de LH, no entanto, a sua capacidade de produzir estradiol é muito limitada devido a uma deficiência de precursores em tecas ou a uma inadequação da aromatização dos androgênios em estrogênios, com o qual não se atinge a quantidade de estrogênios necessários para produzir a ativação nervosa necessária para a liberação cíclica de LH. Do ponto de vista prático, o conhecimento dos mecanismos neuroendócrinos que se sucedem durante o ciclo estral e que conduzem à ovulação, bem como a sua possível regulação mediante técnicas culturais ou tratamentos hormonais, é de vital importância quando o que se pretende é realizar um controle e sincronização tanto do cio quanto da ovulação. -/- 5. ALTERAÇÕES MORFOLÓGICAS ASSOCIADAS À OVULAÇÃO Nos momentos prévios à ovulação, o folículo ovulatório experimenta uma série de mudanças morfológicas e histológicas regulamentadas endocrinamente e cuja finalidade será a modificação da estrutura do folículo, facilitando a liberação do ovócito fértil. Logo após a descarga pré-ovulatória, ocorre um aumento do fluxo sanguíneo associado a um acúmulo de sangue que dependerá, entre outros, da prostaglandina E2 (PGF2) secretada pelas células granulosas. A teca externa é edemaciada pela difusão do plasma sanguíneo e o volume do antro folicular aumenta pela atração de água exercida pelo ácido hialurônico secretado pelas células do cumulus sob a ação do FSH/LH. Este aumento de volume é facilitado pela dissociação dos feixes de fibras de colágeno da teca externa e da túnica albugínea sob a ação de duas enzimas: a colagenase e a plasmina. A plasmina age em primeiro lugar e aparece como resultado da produção de ativadores do plasminogênio pelas células da granulosa e do cumulus; sua atividade é máxima no ápice do folículo dissociando a matriz proteica dos feixes de fibras de colágeno e ativando o precursor da colagenase. Além disso, a atividade da colagenase é máxima no momento da ruptura do folículo. A maioria das células da granulosa que estão fixadas na lâmina basal se soltam, perdem sua união em colônia e deixam de se dividir (fig. 4). As ligações que as ligavam desaparecem, mas a sua dissociação não é completa devido, provavelmente, à produção local de inibidores da colagenase. As células do cumulus sofrem as mesmas transformações, mas a sua dissociação é total porque estas secretam ácido hialurônico. No entanto, as células que asseguraram, desde o início do crescimento folicular, a ligação entre a granulosa e o ovócito permanecem durante um período mais ou menos longo, ligadas à coroa radiada. Figura 4. Estado de um folículo pouco antes da ovulação. DRIANCOURT, et al. 1991. Pouco antes da ovulação, a lâmina basal desaparece de seu lugar, ocorre uma individualização dos vasos sanguíneos e as células da teca interna penetram no folículo. No ápice do folículo, produz-se uma deficiência na irrigação sanguínea e, portanto, de oxigênio, o que faz com que as células do epitélio ovariano morram. As hidrolases, que nesse momento são liberadas, contribuem para a destruição completa dos tecidos subjacentes. Em definitivo, é o conjunto de fatos comentado supra que conduzem à ruptura do ápice do folículo e provocam um aumento da pressão hidrostática que se traduz em uma contração do folículo expulsando o ovócito e as células da coroa radiada. -/- 6. CONTROLE, SINCRONIZAÇÃO E INDUÇÃO DA OVULAÇÃO 6.1 Introdução O controle e a sincronização da ovulação se situa dentro de um contexto muito mais amplo como é o controle da reprodução, entendendo como tal o governo dos elementos manipuláveis do processo reprodutivo. No âmbito do controle da reprodução, existem muitos objetivos, entre os quais a indução da puberdade, a cobertura em época de anestro, aumento da prolificidade, entre outras. Além disso, o controle da reprodução é necessário para a utilização de determinadas técnicas, como a inseminação artificial ou a transferência de embriões. Com efeito, e consoante com o objetivo pretendido, poderão ser utilizadas diferentes técnicas e métodos, tais como os tratamentos hormonais, o efeito macho, a alimentação (Flushing) e os cruzamentos, tudo isso, por sua vez, empregado nos esquemas de seleção. Neste sentido e como passo prévio à sincronização e indução da ovulação, em muitas ocasiões se realiza também um controle e sincronização do cio. Este último, além de permitir que o criador regule o momento do estro e da cobrição, podendo em algumas espécies suprimir o anestro estacionário, permite que os animais se agrupem em lotes homogêneos e assim poder alimentá-los com as dietas adequadas segundo o estado de gestação, atender os partos e assim diminuir a mortalidade neonatal, programar os desmames e engordar os animais para, por fim, vender os animais por lotes. Na sincronização do cio o que se pretende é atuar sobre o intervalo entre a fase folicular e a fase luteica, modificando, portanto, a duração do ciclo estral (fig. 5). Figura 5. Representação dos métodos de sincronização do ciclo estral: (a) duração normal das fases luteica e folicular: (b) fase luteica cortada: (c) extensão da fase luteica. HUNTER, 1987. Para alcançar esse objetivo, os criadores podem adotar dois métodos: a) Induzindo a regressão do corpo lúteo de um grupo de animais de forma que todos eles iniciem a fase folicular e apresentem o cio num espaço de tempo bastante semelhante (injeções de prostaglandinas) (fig. 5b). b) Alargando artificialmente, através de um bloqueio hormonal, a fase luteica de tal modo que, ao cessar esse bloqueio e injetar-lhes gonadotropinas exógenas, os animais iniciem conjuntamente uma fase folicular seguida de um cio sincronizado (injeções de progesterona, implantes de progesterona ou progestágenos, esponjas vaginais impregnadas de progestágenos) (fig. 5c). 6.2 Objetivos e fundamentos Os tratamentos de controle e sincronização da ovulação têm por objetivo tentar regular, por um lado, o momento exato da ovulação, e por outro, o número de folículos que possam chegar a liberar ovócitos férteis, ao qual pode-se conseguir mediante a intervenção nos processos de recrutamento e seleção dos folículos. O primeiro objetivo permitirá que se realize a inseminação artificial no momento propício, evitando o envelhecimento dos ovócitos e que se possa calcular o momento da fertilização e a fase de desenvolvimento dos embriões (realização de transplantes). Por outro lado, o segundo objetivo ajudará a aumentar a fertilidade e a prolificidade em um rebanho e, no caso de fêmeas doadoras para a transferência de embriões, a relação: número de embriões/fêmea doadora. A indução da ovulação e/ou o aumento da taxa de ovulação pode ser conseguida aumentando os níveis de gonadotropinas no sangue antes do início da atresia folicular, ou seja, 3 a 5 dias antes da ovulação. Por outro lado, a taxa de ovulação pode também ser aumentada através da imunização contra esteroides, embora, por outro lado, permitam uma sincronização de cios. Além disso, o aumento dos níveis de gonadotropinas pode ser conseguido estimulando a sua secreção pelo próprio organismo do animal, por injeção de fatores de liberação hipotalâmicos que estimulem na hipófise a secreção de gonadotropinas, através do manejo dos reprodutores (efeito macho) e da alimentação (Flushing) ou por injeção das gonadotropinas no animal. 6.3 Imunização contra esteroides A imunização contra esteroides é uma técnica eficaz para aumentar a taxa de ovulação de animais que encontram-se em atividade sexual, ou seja, fora do anestro, uma vez que o seu mecanismo de ação baseia-se na alteração do controle endócrino da ovulação devido à ação dos anticorpos contra os esteroides ováricos, especialmente contra a androstenediona. Esta última regula a produção de uma proteína denominada «interleucina l», secretada pelos macrófagos do sistema imunitário e que inibe a diferenciação dos receptores à LH nos folículos, sem afetar a quantidade de sangue do FSH. Por isso, a teoria que tenta explicar o mecanismo de ação dos tratamentos de imunização é a seguinte: «O bloqueio dos esteroides pelos anticorpos do tratamento reduziria a produção de «interleucina l», permitindo assim que um maior número de folículos tivessem receptores à LH e pudessem ovular». Existem dois tipos de imunização: imunização ativa e imunização passiva. Na primeira, a metodologia consiste em tratar o animal com uma série de vacinas por via subcutânea ou intradérmica, pelo menos em duas ocasiões, até que a resposta imunitária atinja o nível desejado e ele próprio produza os anticorpos contra o antígeno (androstenediona) contido no conteúdo da vacina. Por outro lado, na imunização passiva o animal tratado recebe soro, por via intravenosa, de outro animal que foi imunizado (anticorpos policlonais), ou anticorpos monoclonais produzidos mediante técnicas imunológicas modernas. 6.4. Injeções de hormonas gonadotropinas As preparações hormonais de gonadotropinas injetadas num momento adequado do ciclo estral permitem, por um lado, aumentar o número de folículos em desenvolvimento (preparações ricas em atividade FSH) e, por outro lado, controlar e sincronizar o momento da ovulação (preparações ricas em atividade LH). Atualmente, os preparados hormonais à base de LH e FSH puros obtidos a partir de glândulas pituitárias em matadouros deixaram de ser utilizados, já que, além de não serem economicamente rentáveis, a sua conservação e utilização acarreta inúmeros problemas. a) A PMSG ou gonadotropina do soro de égua gestante com atividade predominante em FSH. Este hormônio, que permite aumentar o número de folículos em desenvolvimento, deve ser injetado (em doses variáveis segundo a espécie; tabela 2) no início da fase folicular, imediatamente após a regressão do corpo lúteo, quando as gonadotropinas endógenas do próprio animal estimulam o crescimento folicular. Para determinar esse exato momento, normalmente se realiza uma sincronização do cio. Tabela 2. Doses de aplicação do PMSG e do HCG (em unidades internacionais SI) para regular a quantidade e o momento da ovulação Espécie PMSG HCG Vaca 2000 - 3000 500 - 2500 Ovelha 500 - 800 250 - 500 Porca 750 - 1500 500 - 1000 Adaptado e elaborado a partir de HUNTER, 1987. b) A HCG ou gonadotropina coriónica humana com atividade predominante em LH. Pode ser obtida facilmente, já que se acumula na urina da mulher gestante, servindo sua detecção como teste para a determinação da gestação (teste da rã: origina a ejaculação na rã macho). Uma vez que com esta hormona se pretende controlar o momento da ovulação, a injeção deve ser feita por via intravenosa ou intramuscular, algumas horas antes do animal ter iniciado o estro e portanto a liberação das hormonas gonadotropinas. Pode-se conseguir mediante a injeção, com um intervalo conhecido e em doses adequadas (2), após estimulação com PMSG ou após sincronização do estro. 6.5 Limites das técnicas de controle, sincronização e indução à ovulação Os objetivos almejados durante o tratamento de sincronização e indução da ovulação, acima mencionados, não chegaram a ser alcançados em sua totalidade devido, principalmente, aos seguintes fatores: a) O hipotálamo mediante a liberação em forma de ondas ou pulsações cada um ou dois minutos de fatores liberadores (GnRH) estimula a hipófise para a secreção de hormônios gonadotropinas, o que na prática é muito difícil de se artificializar. b) Como resultado das injeções de hormonas gonadotropas produz-se um feedback dos esteroides gonodais, o qual interfere na secreção de hormonas endógenas e na precisão da resposta. c) As preparações hormonais de natureza proteica provocam a formação de anticorpos no animal, pelo qual a relação dose-resposta não é exata. d) Uma vez que os níveis de resposta tenham sido atingidos, a administração de doses excessivas de gonadotropinas produz uma redução do número de ovulações e interfere nos mecanismos ovulatórios. -/- 7. RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES A ovulação marca o culminar de uma série de alterações morfológicas, fisiológicas e endócrinas que se sucedem no aparelho reprodutor feminino e mais concretamente no ovário e nos folículos ováricos e cujo objetivo é a liberação, após a descarga ovulante de LH, de um ou mais ovócitos férteis, de acordo com as espécies. Da mesma forma, a ovulação se caracteriza pela retomada da meiose e a liberação do primeiro corpúsculo polar, bem como a iniciação da luteinização das células da granulosa e a reestruturação da parede do folículo. Isto ocorre tanto em espécies de ovulação espontânea como induzida. Todas estas alterações são condicionadas pela variação da concentração sanguínea das hormonas gonadotropinas devido ao feedback positivo ou negativo que os esteroides ováricos exercem sobre o hipotálamo em cada uma das fases do ciclo estral. Por este motivo, se num momento preciso do ciclo estral estimula-se a secreção, por parte da hipófise, de hormonas gonadotropinas mediante a injeção de fatores de liberação hipotalâmicos (GnRH) ou a aplicação de algumas técnicas de manejo (efeito macho e Flushing) ou mediante a incrementação da sua concentração no sangue através de injeções de preparações hormonais, será obtido um controle, sincronização e indução da ovulação. Os diferentes tratamentos de sincronização e indução da ovulação, embora apresentem algumas limitações, permitem regular o momento da ovulação e o número de folículos que chegarão a ovular, alcançando em alguns casos uma superovulação, objetivo pretendido na técnica de transplante de embriões. -/- 8. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- BARUSELLI, Pietro Sampaio; GIMENES, Lindsay Unno; SALES, José Nélio de Sousa. Fisiologia reprodutiva de fêmeas taurinas e zebuínas. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução Animal, v. 31, n. 2, p. 205-211, 2007. -/- BINELLI, Mario; IBIAPINA, Bruna Trentinaro; BISINOTTO, Rafael Siscôneto. Bases fisiológicas, farmacológicas e endócrinas dos tratamentos de sincronização do crescimento folicular e da ovulação. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae, v. 34, n. Supl 1, p. 1-7, 2006.p -/- BRACKETT, B. G.; JÚNIOR, G. E. A.; SEIDEL, S. M. Avances en zootecnia. Nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. 1ª ed. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1988. -/- COLE, H. H.; CUPPS, P. T. Reproduction in domestic animals. 1ª ed. Londres: Academic Press, 1977. -/- CORTEZ, A. A.; TONIOLLI, R. Aspectos fisiológicos e hormonais da foliculogênese e ovulação em suínos. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução Animal, v. 36, p. 163-173, 2012. -/- CUNNINGHAM, James. Tratado de fisiologia veterinária. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2011. -/- DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Características Gerais dos Bovinos/General Characteristics of Cattle Bovine. Disponível em: philpeople. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. -/- DERUSSI, A. A. P.; LOPES, M. D. Fisiologia da ovulação, da fertilização e do desenvolvimento embrionário inicial na cadela. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução Animal, v. 33, n. 4, p. 231-237, 2009. -/- DRIANCOURT, M. A. et al. The ovarian function. Paris: INRA, 1991. -/- DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 1996. -/- DURÁN DEL CAMPO, A. Anatomia, fisiologia de la reproduccion e inseminación artificial en ovinos. Montevideo, Editorial Hemisferio Sur, 1980. 245p. -/- HAFEZ, E. S. E.; HAFEZ, B. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. -/- HUNTER, R. H. F. Reproducción de los animales de granja. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1987. -/- ILLERA, M. Endocrinología Veterinaria y Fisiología de la Reproducción. Zaragoza: Fareso, 1994. -/- MARTIN, Ian; FERREIRA, João Carlos Pinheiro. Fisiologia da ovulação e da formação do corpo lúteo bovino. Veterinária e Zootecnia, v. 16, n. 2, p. 270-279, 2009. -/- RASWEILER IV, John J.; BADWAIK, Nilima K. Anatomy and physiology of the female reproductive tract. In: Reproductive biology of bats. Academic Press, 2000. p. 157-219. (shrink)

The Australian Federal Government has announced a two-year trial scheme to compensate living organ donors. The compensation will be the equivalent of six weeks paid leave at the rate of the national minimum wage. In this article I analyse the ethics of compensating living organ donors taking the Australian scheme as a reference point. Considering the long waiting lists for organ transplantations and the related costs on the healthcare system of treating patients waiting for an organ, the 1.3 million AUD (...) the Australian Government has committed might represent a very worthwhile investment. I argue that a scheme like the Australian one is sufficiently well designed to avoid all the ethical problems traditionally associated with attaching a monetary value to the human body or to parts of it, namely commodification, inducement, exploitation, and equality issues. Therefore, I suggest that the Australian scheme, if cost-effective, should represent a model for other countries to follow. Nonetheless, although I endorse this scheme, I will also argue that this kind of scheme raises issues of justice in regard to the distribution of organs. Thus, I propose that other policies would be needed to supplement the scheme in order to guarantee not only a higher number of organs available, but also a fair distribution. (shrink)

For Hannah Arendt, the federal system is an effective mode of organizing different sources of power while avoiding sovereign politics. This article aims to contribute two specific claims to the burgeoning scholarship on Arendt's international federalism. First, Arendt's international thoughts call for balancing two demands: the domestic need for human greatness and flourishing and the international demand for regulation and cooperation. Second, her reflections on council-based federalism offer a nuanced position that views the dual elements of equality in politics (intra-state (...) and interstate equality) as neither contradictory nor reconciliatory but rather as ideal types along a continuum. This study shows that, through the unique form of federalism emphasizing the need to balance two demands of free politics with a clear acknowledgement of its precariousness, Arendt's thinking adds much-needed sensitivity to international discourse. (shrink)

I argue that Smith proposed a new kind of imperialism, which we would describe as a species of ‘federalism,’ and that his plan influenced Bentham and Kant in their federal projects, although they seem to have been unaware of each other’s proposals. In what follows, I outline Smith’s position. I then describe Kant’s and Bentham’s debts to Smith in turn. This will also allow for greater clarity about the nature of early liberalism.

Question: Do clinicians providing abortion practicing in states that restrict abortion experience more moral distress than those practicing in states that protect abortion? -/- Findings: In this national, purposive survey study of 310 clinicians providing abortion, moral distress was elevated among all clinicians, with those practicing in restrictive states reporting higher levels of moral distress compared with those practicing in protective states. -/- Meaning: The findings suggest that structural changes addressing bans on necessary health care, such as federal protection for (...) abortion, are needed at institutional, state, and federal policy levels to address clinician moral distress. (shrink)

This article explores the law and ethics of lobbying. The legal discussion examines disclosure regulations, employment restrictions,bribery laws, and anti-fraud provisions as each applies to the lobbying context. The analysis demonstrates that given the social value placed on the First Amendment, federal law generally affords lobbyists wide latitude in determining who, what, when, where, and how to lobby.The article then turns to ethics. Lobbying involves deliberate attempts to effect changes in the law. An argument is advanced that because law implicates (...) the use of force and because law ideally reflects the values of a democratic society, seeking to slant the law to serve a client’s narrow interests cannot provide an adequate ethical end for a lobbyist. On the contrary, a lobbyist has an affirmative moral duty to seek reasonably balanced and just laws. The article examines, refines, and defends this proposition in a number of settings. (shrink)

The essay approaches the gendered relations of sexual difference and their unsuspected effectsat the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Pará, BelémCampus. Writteninthe first person, it exposes the teacher/researcher's experiences andsharedsituations,glimpsing embodied maps that shout out the violence not confronted at the level of theinstitution. In dialogue with feminist and queer theorists, I seek to expose sexist cardinalpoints and propose an alternative centered on the politicization of prostituted ­ and destitute ­bodies. The conclusion exposes the mutilating framework of (...) a standardizing map that projectslimited futures for students/teachers/technicians who experience reduced diversity. However,it is also an invitation to reimagine ­ through a process of rebellion ­ another collectivecartography, a cartography of. (shrink)

I frame my argument by way of Hayek's tendency to treat Hume and Smith as central articulations of the rule of law. The rest of the paper explores their defense of clientelism. First, I introduce Hume’s ideas on the utility of patronage in his essay, “Of the Independency of Parliament.” I argue that in Hume clientelism just is a feature of parliamentary business. It seems ineliminable. I then contextualize Hume’s account by comparing it to Montesquieu’s account of this system of (...) patronage in Book XIX, chapter 27 of The Spirit of the Laws. Montesquieu primarily treats it as a species of bad corruption. However, he also sees some benefits to it. I then turn to Smith and I show that he echoes Hume’s analysis of corruption in an easily ignored passage in Wealth of Nations. I then show that for Smith one argument in favor of a kind of federal parliamentary union between Great Brittain and her American colonies lies in its ability to facilitate and make more efficient the system of patronage by the Crown. While Smith’s account of these matters is quite Humean, one can discern in Smith a distinct cost-benefit argument for the acceptance of the necessity of a system of patronage in the service of the peaceful expansion and entrenchment of the rule of law in his proposal for parliamentary union. (shrink)

Deference in politics is often necessary. To answer questions like, “Should the government increase the federal minimum wage?” and “Should the state introduce a vaccine mandate?”, we need to know relevant scientific and economic facts, make complex value judgments, and answer questions about incentives and implementation. Lay citizens typically lack the time, resources, and competence to answer these questions on their own. Hence, they must defer to others. But to whom should they defer? A common answer is that they should—or (...) are at least permitted to—defer to co-partisans. This view initially seems attractive on both normative and empirical grounds. Against this, I argue that deference to co-partisans has overlooked moral and epistemic problems. In light of them, I propose several new ways to revise our expectations of citizens in a democracy both individually and institutionally. (shrink)

The distinction between clinical research and clinical practice directs how we partition medicine and biomedical science. Reasons for a sharp distinction date historically to the work of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, especially to its analysis of the “boundaries” between research and practice in the Belmont Report (1978). Belmont presents a segregation model of the research-practice distinction, according to which research and practice form conceptually exclusive sets of activities and interventions. This (...) model is still the standard in federal regulations today. However, the Commission’s deliberations and conclusions about the boundaries are more complicated, nuanced, and instructive than has generally been appreciated. The National Commission did not conclude that practice needs no oversight comparable to the regulation of research. It debated the matter and inclined to the view that the oversight of practice needed to be upgraded, though the Commission stopped short of proposing new regulations for its oversight, largely for prudential political reasons. (shrink)

The European Medical Information Framework project, funded through the IMI programme, has designed and implemented a federated platform to connect health data from a variety of sources across Europe, to facilitate large scale clinical and life sciences research. It enables approved users to analyse securely multiple, diverse, data via a single portal, thereby mediating research opportunities across a large quantity of research data. EMIF developed a code of practice to ensure the privacy protection of data subjects, protect the interests of (...) data sharing parties, comply with legislation and various organisational policies on data protection, uphold best practices in the protection of personal privacy and information governance, and eventually promote these best practices more widely. EMIF convened an Ethics Advisory Board, to provide feedback on its approach, platform, and the EcoP. The most important challenges the ECoP team faced were: how to define, control and monitor the purposes for which federated health data are used; the kinds of organisation that should be permitted to conduct permitted research; and how to monitor this. This manuscript explores those issues, offering the combined insights of the EAB and EMIF core ECoP team. For some issues, a consensus on how to approach them is proposed. For other issues, a singular approach may be premature but the challenges are summarised to help the community to debate the topic further. Arguably, the issues and their analyses have application beyond EMIF, to many research infrastructures connected to health data sources. (shrink)

Natural resource management agencies in the United States have a legal responsibility to represent Indigenous Peoples and federally recognized Tribes in environmental stewardship. This comment article is a call to action that argues for genuine representation of Tribes and other Indigenous Peoples through adherence to existing, formal consultation policies and coproduction of knowledge. Agencies must recognize and respect the differences between public involvement and government-to-government consultation with federally-recognized Tribes. Sovereign tribal nations are not the public and have a unique relationship (...) with federal agencies based in the federal trust responsibility. Coproduction of knowledge is an emerging enterprise that has potential for meaningfully engaging and genuinely and equitably representing Indigenous Peoples and Tribes and should be codeveloped and implemented as policy. Agencies should build capacity to properly represent tribal nations in decisions. Agency employees and Indigenous Peoples must spend more time together to increase cultural awareness and build meaningful relationships to facilitate genuine consultation and coproduction of knowledge. (shrink)

At the beginning of the Russian Federation’s attack on Ukraine in February 2022, the European Union put up massive resistance, but due to its sudden overload, it was unable to deal with the situation adequately. It was in a state of paralysis for some time. Therefore, five explanatory models for the Russian actions are presented: an offensive, a defensive, a situational, a socio-cultural, and an ideological-historical one. It is then shown that the German term Gewalt, which combines the English terms (...) violence, power, and force ontologically, is best suited to summarize and describe all these models. It is also shown that Gewalt is a neutral, fundamental human concept that can be described as one of the basic driving forces of man. By piercing society, Gewalt constitutes an impulse, a motivation that stimulates and fuels the individual and society in toto. This leads to what we call Progressus, which depends on four variables – group desire, potential means of violence and force, group aims and objectives, as well as group comparison and evaluation. Progressus is inherent in all persons and in all societies. It can be analyzed and managed in a variety of different ways. Combined with the foundation of Gewalt, seen as neutral agent in varying levels of intensity, Progressus forms a matrix for efficient analysis to describe positive and frictional interaction, establishes social relations from friendship up to war; and this between individuals, groups and/or states. How this is possibly implemented in practice is described at the end using an example from the previously presented explanatory models. (shrink)

'ā no bhadrāḥ kratavo yantu viśvato ' Let good thoughts come from all around; inspired by this timeless epic of Rigveda. India has presented an excellent model of Multiculturalism to the world. The multiculturalist model of the West, as established by contemporary thinkers like Wilkymalika, is based on the separate political existence of different cultural classes. been made for thousands of years. India has maintained Multiculturalism not only at the socio-cultural level but also at the political level. Through federal structure, (...) universal suffrage, constitutionally guaranteed civil rights, with other constitutional institutions and provisions, multiculturalism is being addressed at the political level for a population of 13 million people .Thus in India , multiculturalism is not only is not only a political tool for diversity but also a socio-political concept. Therefore, Indian multiculturalism presents a comprehensive, effective, and more sustainable model which have to be discussed. (shrink)

The republican tradition has long been ambivalent about markets and commercial society more generally: from the contrasting positions of Rousseau and Smith in the eighteenth century to recent neorepublican debates about capitalism, republicans have staked out diverse positions on fundamental issues of political economy. Rather than offering a systematic historical survey of these discussions, this chapter will instead focus on the leading neo-republican theory—that of Philip Pettit—and consider its implications for market society. As I will argue, Pettit’s theory is even (...) friendlier to markets than most have believed: far from condemning commercial society, his theory recognizes that competitive markets and their institutional preconditions are an alternative means to limit arbitrary power across the domestic, economic, and even political spheres. While most republican theorists have focused on political means to limit such power—including both constitutional means (e.g., separation of powers, judicial review, the rule of law, federalism) and participatory ones (democratic elections and oversight)—I will examine here an economic model of republicanism that can complement, substitute for, and at times displace the standard political model. Whether we look at spousal markets, labor markets, or residential markets within federal systems, state policies that heighten competition among their participants and resource exit from abusive relationships within them can advance freedom as non-domination as effectively or even more effectively than social-democratic approaches that have recently gained enthusiasts among republicans. These conclusions suggest that democracy, be it social or political, is just one means among others for restraining arbitrary power and is consequently less central to (certain versions of) republicanism than we may have expected. So long as they counteract domination, economic inroads into notionally democratic territory are no more worrisome than constitutional ones. (shrink)

This essay considers the dependency of trans youth by bridging transgender studies with feminist care ethics to emphasize a trans wisdom about solidarity through dependency. The first major section of the essay argues for reworking Sara Ruddick's philosophy of mothering in the context of trans and gender‐creative youth. This requires, first, stressing a more robust interaction among her divisions of preservative love, nurturance for growth, and training for acceptability, and second, creating a more nuanced account of “nature” in relation to (...) nurturance for growth to avoid casting transition as contrary to a trans youth's healthy development. In the second major section of the essay, I depart from Ruddick's framework to emphasize the difference of care for trans youth by trans and/or queer communities and through mutual caregiving, stressing a trans wisdom about dependency and solidarity found in the work of Sylvia Rivera and Marsha P. Johnson. Turning to Eva Feder Kittay's links between dependency work and equality, I argue that Rivera and Johnson's work contains a distinct knowledge derived from practice necessitating the connection between solidarity and dependency in particular communities. I then call for more work on trans care ethics, trans ethics, and trans wisdom more broadly. (shrink)