P. Kyle Stanford defends the problem of unconceived alternatives, which maintains that scientists are unlikely to conceive of all the scientifically plausible alternatives to the theories they accept. Stanford’s argument has been criticized on the grounds that the failure of individual scientists to conceive of relevant alternatives does not entail the failure of science as a corporate body to do so. I consider two replies to this criticism and find both lacking. In the process, I argue that Stanford does not (...) provide evidence that there are likely scientifically plausible unconceived alternatives to scientific theories accepted now and in the future. (shrink)

This thesis is a critical and comparative study of four commentators on the later Wittgenstein’s rule following considerations. As such its primary aim is exegetical, and ultimately the thesis seeks to arrive at an enriched understanding of Wittgenstein’s work through the distillation of the four commentators into what, it is hoped, can be said to approach a definitive interpretation, freed of their individual frailties. -/- The thesis commences by explicating the position of Kripke’s Wittgenstein. He draws our attention to the (...) ‘sceptical problem’ of how we are to resolve the apparently paradoxical situation that whilst we seem to use language meaningfully, there is no fact about us that constitutes our meaning one thing as opposed to something else, and consequently the possibility of our actually meaning anything seems to evaporate. Kripke interprets Wittgenstein as accepting the validity of the sceptical problem, but seeking to establish that the force of the problem is radically diminished because the justification which it has shown to be unobtainable is actually unnecessary for rule following to take place. -/- McDowell tries to show that Kripke is mistaken when he views Wittgenstein as endorsing scepticism in this way, because he sees Kripke as failing to appreciate a section of Philosophical Investigations which suggests that one ought to reject the sceptical paradox by correcting the misunderstanding which gives rise to it. McDowell reads Wittgenstein’s claim as being that we mistakenly think we are caught in a dilemma which requires us either to endorse the sceptical paradox or to subscribe to a mythological picture of rule following; whereas, so the thought goes, we must reject the entire dilemma. -/- Although McDowell’s criticism of Kripke is essentially correct, he is motivated to that criticism by an incorrect reading of Wittgenstein. Central to this misinterpretation is his failure to note Wittgenstein’s belief that universal scepticism is nonsensical. Winch does much to flesh out the nature of Wittgenstein’s claim here, although he makes the mistake of attributing to Kripke that position which the latter finds in Philosophical Investigations. Despite inheriting this error from Winch, Diamond nonetheless improves on his attempt to characterize the shortcomings of Kripke’s reading as an interpretation of Wittgenstein, enabling the thesis to reach a conclusion about Wittgenstein’s understanding of rule following. (shrink)

I am concerned with epistemic closure—the phenomenon in which some knowledge requires other knowledge. In particular, I defend a version of the closure principle in terms of analyticity; if an agent S knows that p is true, then S knows that all analytic parts of p are true as well. After targeting the relevant notion of analyticity, I argue that this principle accommodates intuitive cases and possesses the theoretical resources to avoid the preface paradox. I close by arguing that contextualists (...) who maintain that knowledge attributions are closed within—but not between—linguistic contexts are tacitly committed to this principle’s truth. (shrink)

Monism is the claim that only one object exists. While few contemporary philosophers endorse monism, it has an illustrious history – stretching back to Bradley, Spinoza and Parmenides. In this paper, I show that plausible assumptions about the higher-order logic of property identity entail that monism is true. Given the higher-order framework I operate in, this argument generalizes: it is also possible to establish that there is a single property, proposition, relation, etc. I then show why this form of monism (...) is inconsistent; because all propositions are identical, p is identical to ~p – and so they have the same truth-value. At least one of the assumptions that generate higher-order monism must be rejected. (shrink)

The received view of Kripke's Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language is that it fails as an interpretation because, inter alia, it ignores or overlooks what Wittgenstein has to say in the second paragraph of Philosophical Investigations 201. In this paper, I demonstrate that the paragraph in question is in fact fully accommodated within Kripke's reading, and cannot therefore be reasonably utilised to object to it. -/- In part one I characterise the objection; in part two I explain why it (...) fails; in part three I suggest why commentators might have been motivated to offer it; and in part four I claim that two commentators who have offered it also imply otherwise. (shrink)

This study assessed external debts and the financing of education in Nigeria using time series data obtained from World Bank, and CBN Statistical Bulletin covering a period of 31 years from 1988 -2018. The model of the study was derived, while the data collected were analysed using the Ordinary Least Squares. Diagnostic tests such as Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) unit root test, Johansen co-integration, Vector Error Correction (VEC) techniques of estimation, and Granger Causality tests were all performed. Findings revealed a (...) significant long-run relationship between external debts and the financing of education; external debts have a significant effect (F=39.07055, p<.05) on the financing of education in Nigeria; external debt stock and external debt service payment have no significant effect on the financing of education; real GDP and Exchange rate have a significant effect on the financing of education in Nigeria respectively. Based on these findings, it was concluded that external debt is a big hindrance to the financing of education and consequently, the economic growth of Nigeria. It was recommended amongst others that the government should use borrowed funds from external sources for productive capital projects or development initiatives such as investment in education and the eradication of illiteracy. (shrink)

This study used a structural equation modelling approach to assess the association between employee work- life policies, psychological empowerment, and academic staff job commitment in universities in Cross River State, Nigeria. Three null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study following a descriptive survey research design. Multistage sampling procedure was adopted in the selection of 315 academic staff from two universities in the study area. “Work-Life Policies, Psychological Empowerment and Job Commitment Questionnaire (WPPEJCQ)” was used as the instrument for data (...) collection. The construct validity of the instrument was ascertained through an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The Kaiser-Meyer-Ohlin of .894 and the Bartlett coefficient of 7795.820 were obtained. Several fit indices of Confirmatory Factor Analysis were used to accept the model such as RMSEA=.031, TLI=.969, CFI=.971 and many others. The null hypotheses were all tested using Path analysis. Findings revealed, among others, that there is a significant effect of work-life policies on the affective (β=.774,t=21.636,p<.05), continuance (β=.450,t=8.932,p<.05), and normative (β=490,t=9.967,p<.05) dimensions of academic staff commitment; furthermore, psychological empowerment has a significant effect on the affective (β=.795,t=23.199,p<.05), continuance (β=.501,t=10.261,p<.05) and normative (β = .520, t = 10.795, p< .05) dimensions of staff commitment; and there is a significant composite effect of work-life policies and psychological empowerment on the affective, continuance, and normative commitment levels of academic staff in universities. Based on these findings, conclusions and recommendations were made. (shrink)

Background: The time before surgery is a traumatic period for patients. Despite this fact, no research has been conducted on nurses’ preoperative patient education in Ethiopia. This study aimed to assess preoperative patient education practices and associated factors among nurses working in East Amhara comprehensive specialized hospitals, Ethiopia, 2022. Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted with 416 nurses. Pretested, structured questionnaires were used to collect the data. Bivariable analysis was performed for each independent variable with a P-value < 0.25 (...) on the data imported to multivariate logistic regression analysis. AOR with a 95% CI and a P-value < 0.05 at a 5% level of significance were considered. Results: Only 38.5% of nurses were found to have good practices for preoperative patient education, with a response rate of 98%. Nurses with 6 years of work experience (AOR = 3.15, 95% CI: 1.692– 5.874), adequate time (AOR = 2.33, 95% CI: 1.119– 4.889), training (AOR = 4.27, 95% CI: 1.548– 11.796), age 25– 29 (AOR = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.070– 0.331), age 30– 34 (AOR = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.137– 0.479), and knowledge (AOR = 3.73, 95% CI: 2.222– 6.273) were significantly associated. Conclusion: Preoperative patient education practices among nurses were poor. Work experience, knowledge, training, and adequate time were found to be significant. Organize preoperative patient education programs for nurses that share experiences and provide ongoing training. (shrink)

This study assessed the mode of test administration, birth variables, and students’ academic performance in Mathematics in Obubra Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. The study was guided by three null hypotheses following a quasi- experimental research design. Simple random and purposive sampling techniques were employed in selecting a sample of 250 respondents from a population of 5,792 students. Birth Order Checklist (BOC) and Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) were used for data collection. The experimental group was assigned to (...) take a Computer-Based Test (CBT) while the control group took a Paper-Pencil Test (PPT) in mathematics. The null hypotheses were tested at .05 alpha level using two-way analysis of variance. Major findings revealed that, the interactive effects of gender and mode of test administration on the academic performance of students is non- significant [F(1,249)=0.028, p>.05, partial η2=.000]; the interactive effects of gender and birth order on the academic performance of students was not statistically significant [F(3,249)=0.782, p>.05, partial η2=.010]; the interactive effect of gender and birth order on the academic performance of students in mathematics is statistically significant [F(3,249)=2.854, p<.05, partial η2 =.034]. Based on these findings conclusions and recommendations were made for improved academic performance and school system effectiveness. (shrink)

El libro constituye una compilación de trabajos escritos todos en la primera mitad de la década de los 90. Se refieren a importantes acontecimientos y debates de aquel momento que ponían en evidencia la turbulencia y el dinamismo de aquellos años que imponían al pensamiento progresista insoslayables retos. Sobre algunos de esos retos trata el libro, compuesto por siete ensayos, escritos con distintas finalidades y en una secuencia cronológica que no coincide con el orden en que se presentan. Son trabajos (...) que, a pesar de mantener una unidad temática, expresada en el título genérico de la obra, poseen entre sí cierta independencia, permitiendo la lectura aislada de cualesquiera de ellos en función de los intereses del lector. Los títulos de los ensayos incluidos son expresión clara de los contenidos que abordan: "Valores universales y problemas globales", "Tolerancia y valores", "A propósito de un anunciado conflicto entre civilizaciones", "América Latina en la encrucijada entre los valores universales y propios", "Hacia una refundamentación valorativa del paradigma emancipador latinoamericano", "El marxismo en los umbrales del siglo XXI", "Valores y juventud en la Cuba de los años noventa". (shrink)

ABSTRACT The individual-community relationship has always been one of the most fundamental topics of social sciences. In sociology, this is known as the micro-macro relationship while in economics it refers to the processes, through which, individual actions lead to macroeconomic phenomena. Based on philosophical discourse and systems theory, many sociologists even use the term "emergence" in their understanding of micro-macro relationship, which refers to collective phenomena that are created by the cooperation of individuals, but cannot be reduced to individual actions. (...) "Emergence" theories attempt to explain the nature of society as a complex system by examining how individuals and their relationships lead to the creation of integrated and macro-social phenomena such as markets, educational systems, cultural beliefs, and shared social practices. As a prelude to activity, every researcher has to answer the question from the methodological point of view, how is it possible to study the behavior of social groups and how can we gain knowledge about the laws related to social groups? Anyone who deals with humanities and social sciences or any reality and phenomenon that affects human beings, inevitably deals with the reality that is emerging. In fact, emergence occurs when one level of reality emerges radically from another level. Examples of emergent levels of reality include how the mind emerges from the body; or the way society emerges from human beings. Therefore, when there is an emerging factor, different scientific disciplines should be used, because it is inevitable to talk about social affairs, psychology and neurobiology, as well as physical and even chemical. -/- INTRODUCTION Since its beginning in the 19th century, sociology has faced the fundamental question of what a social phenomena stands for? At a glance, sociologists deal with the study of social groups, collective behavior, institutions, social structures, social networks, and social dynamics, and ultimately all such phenomena are composed of individuals. Therefore, social phenomena seem to have no independent ontological status, and in this case, sociology is ultimately about reducible individuals. Different approaches about the micro-macro relationship, using the concept of "emergence", argue that although collective phenomena are created by individuals, they cannot be reduced to individual action. The term "emergence" is used to distinguish "emergent results" from " Procedural results". Results are called Procedural that can only be calculated by adding or subtracting the causes that act together. On the contrary, they are emergent outcomes that are qualitatively novel compared to the causes from which they originate. An example of such emergent results is mental characteristics that emerge from neural processes, but are not considered among the characteristics of neural processes of components - which are their origin. Philosophical debates about emergentism and reductionism focus on the mind-brain relationship, but as many philosophers have noted, they can be generalized to apply to any hierarchical set of features. The cognitive revolution reactivated a 19th century controversy between theorists of Identity and dualism. The theorists of Identity believe in reductionist materialism and elimination of metaphysics, according to which the mind is nothing more than the biological, while the dualists believe that the mind and the brain are distinct from each other. Emergence has been considered as a third way between the theories of Identity and dualism. -/- METHODOLOGY Interdisciplinarity Is fundamentally indicated by the dominance of open systems as well as social and emerging systems at different levels. Therefore, as long as we are facing a new emergentism, there will necessarily be different fields and an interdisciplinary method. The commonality of social sciences and cognitive sciences on the issue of emergence provides the possibility of interaction and exchange of concepts between these two for deeper research. Therefore, in this research, apart from the concepts of Subvenience and downward causation, we have used multiple realization and wildly disjunctive, which are used to explain the emerging concept in cognitive sciences, including neurobiology, psychology, and philosophy. For analytical and interdisciplinary approaches, after examining the concepts of subvenience, and wildly disjunctive, Individualistic and collectivist emergentism have been reviewed. And then their adequacy is criticized and evaluated in meeting strong emergence conditions. -/- FINDINGS Philosophers of the mind have been able to define the conditions of irreducibility and downward causation, which are essential for strong emergence, by using the principle of subvenience with the help of multiple realization and wildly disjunctive principles. Therefore, by definition, emergentist individualism suffers from the problem of how to explain downward causality and irreducibility, and emergentist collectivism faces the challenge of reification. The analysis of the challenges facing the two methodological approaches of individualism and collectivism leads us to three unresolved issues about the emerging phenomenon, which are realism, downward causality, and mechanism. Despite the differences in the stances of these two approaches regarding the aforementioned triple problems, individualists and collectivists both agree that some social characteristics are reducible; and some others are irreducible due to their complexity, the determination of which, depends on the case study of the mechanism of emergence of each social characteristic. -/- CONCLUSION An emergence that is consistent with reductionism is called a weak emergence. And strong emergence includes the principle of irreducibility and downward causality. According to strong emergence, the characteristics of social phenomena have downward causal power, which cannot be reduced to the causal forces. The principle of subvenience, together with multiple realization and wildly disjunctive, can provide the conditions of irreducibility and downward causality, which are essential conditions of strong emergence. Based on the philosophical analysis of two methodological approaches, individualist and collectivist, it can be concluded that emergentist individualism suffers from the problem of how to explain downward causality and irreducibility, and reification collectivism faces the challenge of reification. The analysis of the problems faced by these two approaches leads us to three unresolved issues, which are realism, downward causality, and mechanism. individualist emergentists acknowledge the existence of emergent social characteristics, but despite this, they believe that these characteristics are not real but merely analytical constructs that require explanation based on individuals and their mutual actions. But collectivists argue that emergentism yields a categorical ontology and supports social realism. They accept the dependence of social characteristics on individuals, but claim that social entities and structures are ontologically independent. Individualists and collectivists both agree that some social characteristics are reducible; and others are irreducible due to their complexity; and the only way to recognize this is to engage in empirical studies of the mechanisms and temporal processes of "emergence" that create social characteristics. -/- NOVELTY The newness of this compact article is as follows: a) Presenting an interdisciplinary approach using the analysis of philosophy of cognitive sciences, including the philosophy of mind, neurobiology and psychology to formulate the issue of social emergence; b) Criticizing individualist and collectivist methodological approaches to the issue of social emergence and explaining the sufficiency and shortcomings of both in providing weak and strong emerging conditions; c) Explaining and categorizing the challenges facing methodological approaches in explaining the phenomenon of social emergence, in three categories: realism, downward causality, and mechanism. BIBLIOGRAPHY Beckermann, A., Flohr, H., & Kim, J. (eds.) (1992). Emergence or reduction? Essays on the prospects of nonreductive physicalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Bhaskar, R. (1979). The possibility of Naturalism. New York: Routledge. Bhaskar, R., Danermark, B. & Price, L. (2018). Interdisciplinarity and wellbeing: A critical realist general theory of interdisciplinarity. London and New York: Routledge. Blau, P.M. (1981). Introduction: diverse views of social structure and their common denominator. In Blau, P.M. & Merton, R.K. (eds.), Continuity in Structural Inquiry (pp. 1–23). Beverly Hills: Sage. Blau, P.M. (1987). Microprocess and macrostructure. In K.S. Cook (ed.), Social Exchange Theory (pp. 83–100). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Brooks, R.A., & Maes, P. (eds). (1994). Artificial life IV; proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Clark, A. (1997). Being there: Putting brain, body, and world together again. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Coleman, J. S. (1987). Microfoundations and macrosocial behavior. In: J. C. Alexander, B. Giesen, R. Munch, & Neil J. Smelser (Eds.). The Micro-Macro Link (pp. 153–73). Berkeley: University of California. Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Elster, J. (1985). Making sense of Marx. New York: Cambridge University Press. Fodor, J.A. (1974). Special sciences (Or: The disunity of science as a working hypothesis). Synthese, 28(2), 97–115. Fodor, J.A. (1989). Making mind matter more. Philosophical Topics, 17, 59-79. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hempel, C.G. (1965). Aspects of scientific explanation and other essays in the philosophy of science. New York: The Free Press. Horgan, T. (1993). From supervenience to superdupervenience: meeting the demands of a material world. Mind, 102, 555-586. Humphreys, P. (1997). How properties emerge”. Philosophy of Science, 64, 1-17. Kim, J. (1999). Making sense of emergence. Philosophical Studies, 95, 3–36. Kincaid, H. (1997). Individualism and the unity of science. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Lewis, D.K. (1986). The plurality of worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nigel, G., & Conte, R. (eds.) (1995). Artificial societies; The computer simulation of social life. London: UCL Press. O’Connor, T. (1994). Emergent properties. American Philosophical Quarterly, 31, 91-104. Popper, K.R. (1968). Conjectures and refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. New York: Harper & Row. Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in sociology: contemporary philosophy of mind and some implications for sociological theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 551-585. Sawyer, R. K. (2004). The mechanisms of emergence. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 34, 260–282. Sawyer, R. K. (2005). Social emergence: societies as complex systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sawyer, R.K. (2003). Nonreductive individualism: Part 2, Social causation. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 33, 203–224. Winch, P. (1993). The idea of a social science and its relation to philosophy‭ (SAMT, Trans.). Tehran, Iran: SAMT. (shrink)

1. Introduction: a look back at the reasons vs. causes debate. 2. The interventionist account of causation. 3. Four objections to interventionism. 4. The counterfactual analysis of event causation. 5. The role of free agency. 6. Causality in the human sciences. -- The reasons vs. causes debate reached its peak about 40 years ago. Hempel and Dray had debated the nature of historical explanation and the broader issue of whether explanations that cite an agent’s reasons are causal or not. Melden, (...) Peters, Winch, Kenny and Anscombe had contributed their anticausal conceptions. The neo-Wittgensteinians seemed to be winning the day when in 1963 Donald Davidson published his seminal paper “Actions, Reasons, and Causes”. Davidson’s paper devastated the Wittgensteinian camp. It contained, among other things, a powerful attack on the logical connection argument. Davidson argued that the existence of a logical or conceptual connection between descriptions can never eliminate a causal relation, which holds between events simpliciter, not between events under certain descriptions. Davidson maintained that in a way, reasons can be causes. When somebody acts for a certain reason, his intentional attitudes, or rather changes in his attitudes, cause his bodily movements. Davidson also argued that rationalization is a species of causal explanation. For the definition of action, he argued that intentional actions are bodily movements caused in the right way by beliefs and desires that rationalize them. Davidson’s paper paved the way for causal theories of action, which superseded neo-Wittgensteinian analyses in the following decades. The causal theory was rapidly adopted by Alvin Goldman, David Armstrong, Paul Churchland, Myles Brand and many others, entering the mainstream and dominating the philosophy of action to this very day. In 1971 Georg Henrik von Wright published his book "Explanation and Understanding". The second chapter did not deal with agency, but with causation. It developed a new account of causation, the interventionist or experimentalist account. Focusing on causation, von Wright remedied a major shortcoming of the reasons vs. causes debate. The concept of causality, and the nature of the causal relation, received little attention in this debate, a fact that holds true for both camps. Mostly it was simply taken for granted that, as Hempel had declared, “causal explanation is a special type of deductive-nomological explanation”. One camp then aligned intentional explanations with D-N explanations, while the other camp insisted on their disparity. So strictly speaking, the label “reasons/causes debate” was a misnomer. The controversy dealt primarily with the question as to whether intentional explanations can take the form of D-N explanations, while the notion of causation, and the metaphysics of the causal relation, were left obscured. With von Wright’s new approach, the situation changed. Von Wright was primarily concerned with causation, but his approach contained an implicit attack on the causal theory of action as well. His core idea was that the notion of causality is intimately linked with, or even derived from, the notion of intentionally making something happen. Other philosophers, even Hume, had considered such a connection before, but often just to reject this view, regarding it as a kind of myth belonging to the infancy of the human mind. Von Wright took the idea seriously. He submitted the analysis that p is the cause of q if and only if by doing p we could bring about q. The causal theory of action was also concerned with the relation between causation and agency, to which its name bears witness. The causal theory of action holds that actions are bodily movements with a certain causal history. This is why von Wright’s account constituted a momentous challenge to the causal theory: it reversed the direction of conceptual dependency between both notions. Davidson and his followers tried to define what an intentional action is by using the notion of causation. The causal condition which the causal theory sets is part of the definition of “doing something intentionally”. Von Wright claimed that the conceptual dependency is the other way round. He used the notions of doing, and bringing about, to explain what causal relations are. So, instead of a causal theory of action, he advocated an agency theory of causation, as it may be dubbed. It is remarkable how seldom this clash of opinions about conceptual primacy is reflected in the literature. There are few exceptions: Fred Stoutland noticed the conflict, and he published a number of papers in which he compared Davidson’s and von Wright’s views. Von Wright’s book "Explanation and Understanding" was widely read and discussed in the seventies, especially in Europe. But it strikes me that especially in North America, where the causal theory of action became the orthodoxy of the day, von Wright’s challenge went largely unnoticed. Even Davidson did not seem to take it seriously. He nowhere takes notice of the interventionist theory of causation, while he does discuss von Wright’s earlier book "Norm and Action". As is well-known, Davidson favoured an alternative account of causation, based on “the principle of the nomological character of causality”, as he somewhat clumsily called it, or, later and less clumsily, “the cause-law thesis”. Davidson’s firm adherence to a nomological theory of causality may explain why he did not take much interest in alternative accounts. [...] -/- . 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HORMÔNIOS E SISTEMA ENDÓCRINO NA REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL -/- OBJETIVO -/- As glândulas secretoras do corpo são estudadas pelo ramo da endocrinologia. O estudante de Veterinária e/ou Zootecnia que se preze, deverá entender os processos fisio-lógicos que interagem entre si para a estimulação das glândulas para a secreção de vários hormônios. -/- Os hormônios, dentro do animal, possuem inúmeras funções; sejam exercendo o papel sobre a nutrição, sobre a produção de leite e sobre a reprodução, os hormônios desempenham um primordial papel (...) quanto ao funcionamento do animal. -/- Nesse capítulo, o estudante identificará os hormônios relevantes para o controle reprodutivo, suas características e o uso clínico dos mesmos. -/- -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- A endocrinologia é a ciência que se encarrega do estudo do sistema endócrino: um sistema de comunicação entre as células de um organismo; esse trabalho de comunicação é compartilhado com o sistema nervoso já que ambos sistemas possuem características distintas que lhes permite complementar-se para alcançar uma adequada coordenação das funções. Em algumas ocasiões o sistema nervoso e o sistema endócrino interagem direta-mente na transmissão de uma mensagem, pelo qual se conhece como sistema neuroendó-crino. -/- -/- OS HORMÔNIOS -/- A endocrinologia é a ciência que se encarrega do estudo dos hormônios e seus e-feitos. De maneira tradicional os hormônios são considerados como “substâncias secreta-das em direção a circulação pelas glândulas especializadas, e que exercem uma função sobre um órgão branco”. Essa definição, no entanto, é limitada e imprecisa. É necessário ser mais pontual, já que os hormônios não são produzidos em qualquer célula da glândula, senão nas células específicas. Por exemplo, o hormônio luteinizante (LH) é produzido pelos gonadotropos da adenohipófise e não por qualquer outro tipo de célula hipofisária. Da mesma maneira, falar de um “órgão branco” não é exato, já que os hormônios atuam somente nas células que tenham receptores específicos para esse hormônio, e não outras células do mesmo órgão; logo, falar de uma “célula branca” é mais apropriado que falar de um “órgão branco”. As células brancas do LH no testículo são as células de Leydig e as células brancas do hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH) no mesmo órgão são as células de Sertoli. -/- Mediante o supracitado, uma definição mais apropriada de hormônio é a seguinte: “Os hormônios são reguladores biológicos, produzidos e secretados em quantidades pe-quenas pelas células vivas, que depois de viajar pelo meio extracelular atuam sobre as cé-lulas brancas, onde exercem uma ação específica”. -/- É importante levar em conta que os hormônios somente regulam (estimulam ou inibem) funções que já existem na célula branca. Ademais, os hormônios são extraordina-riamente potentes, pelo qual se requerem quantidades muito pequenas para induzir uma resposta na célula. As concentrações circulantes da maioria dos hormônios estão na ordem de nanogramas (10-9 g) ou pictogramas (10-12 g) por mililitro. -/- Etimologicamente o termo “endócrino” significa “secretar em direção adentro”, já que os hormônios são secretados em direção ao interior do organismo (o sangue ou o espaço intracelular), em diferença das secreções exócrinas (em direção ao exterior), que são secretadas em direção a luz de um órgão, como o intestino no caso das enzimas pan-creáticas. -/- Algumas substâncias, sem deixar de ser hormônios, recebem uma classificação adicional em relação ao seu local de ação, ao tipo de células que lhes produzem, ou a al-guma outra característica. Agora, serão descritas algumas dessas características (figura 1). -/- -/- Parahormônio ou hormônio local -/- A maioria dos hormônios são transportados pela circulação desde seu local de se-creção até a célula branca. No entanto, alguns hormônios exercem seu efeito em células adjacentes aquelas que foram produzidos, ao qual não é necessário seu transporte através da circulação geral. Esse tipo de substâncias são chamadas de parahormônios ou hormô-nios locais, e sua liberação é denominada como secreção parácrina. Um exemplo é a pros-taglandina F2 alfa (PGF₂α), que é produzida no epitélio uterino (endométrio) e provoca as contrações nas células musculares do mesmo órgão (miométrio). Deve-se tomar em conta que a mesma substância poderia se comportar em outros casos como um hormônio clássico, atuando em um órgão distinto ao local de sua produção; é o caso da mesma PGF₂α de origem endometrial quando atua sobre as células do corpo lúteo do ovário, pro-vocando sua regressão. A classificação de uma substância como hormônio ou parahormô-nio não depende de sua estrutura química, senão da relação espacial existente entre a célu-la que o produz e a célula branca. -/- -/- Neurohormônio -/- A maioria dos hormônios são produzidos pelas células de origem epitelial, porém, muitos deles são produtos pelos neurônios, logo denominados como neurohormônios. To-dos os neurônios segregam alguma substância, porém tratam-se dos neurohormônios quando o neurônio que os produz despeja-os diretamente em direção a circulação geral, através da qual chegam aos órgãos para exercer seu efeito, sejam na indução, inibição ou estimulação do mesmo. -/- Esse processo é diferente dos neurotransmissores, os quais também são secretados por um neurônio, mas exercem seu efeito em uma célula adjacente com o qual o neurônio estabelece uma sinapse (neuroma com neurônio, neurônio com célula muscular, neurônio com célula glandular). A classificação de uma substância como hormônio ou como neuro-hormônio não depende de sua estrutura química, senão do tipo de célula que o produz. Uma mesma substância é um hormônio quando ele é produzido por uma célula epitelial e um neurohormônio se é produzido por um neurônio. A ocitocina, por exemplo, é secre-tada na neurohipófise por neurônios hipotalâmicos, nesse caso se trata de um neurohor-mônio, mas também é secretada por células do corpo lúteo dos ruminantes, e se trata nesse caso, de um hormônio. A distinção entre um neurohormônio e um hormônio é um neuro-transmissor, da mesma forma, não depende de sua estrutura química, e sim do local onde é secretado. Por exemplo, a dopamina atua como neurotransmissor quando se libera em sinapse da substância negra do mesencéfalo z mas atua como neurohormônio quando é liberada por neurônios hipotalâmicos em direção a circulação do eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário. -/- -/- Pré-hormônio -/- Em alguns casos, os hormônios são secretados em forma inativa (pré-hormônio), que requer uma transformação posterior para converter-se na forma ativa de hormônio. O angiotensinógeno circulante somente cobrará atividade biológica ao se transformar em angiotensina por ação da enzima renina. Algumas substâncias podem atuar como hormô-nios m alguns casos e como pré-hormônios em outros. A testosterona, por exemplo, atua como hormônio nas células musculares, aos quais possui um efeito anabólico direto. O certo é que para a testosterona induzir a masculinização dos órgãos genitais externos em um efeito macho é necessário que seja transformada previamente em 5α-di-hidrotes-tosterona pela enzima 5α-redutase presente nas células de tecido branco, por onde, nesse caso a testosterona é um pré-hormônio de di-hidrotestosterona. -/- -/- Feromônio -/- Os hormônios são mensagens químicas que comunicam a células distintas dentro do mesmo organismo, embora existam casos aos que requerem uma comunicação quími-ca entre organismos diferentes, em geral da mesma espécie. As substâncias empregadas para esse fim denominam-se feromônios. Essas substâncias devem possuir a capacidade de dispersão sobre o ambiente, pelo que nos organismos terrestres geralmente trata-se de substâncias voláteis, enquanto que os feromônios de organismos aquáticos geralmente são substâncias hidrossolúveis. Embora muitos feromônios possuam uma função sexual ou reprodutiva como é o caso de muitas espécies como a canina em que a fêmea em cio dispersa grandes quantidades de feromônios que são captados de longe pelos machos, todavia esse não é sempre o caso, e eles podem ser utilizados para outros tipos de comunicação, como é o caso dos feromônios utilizados pelas formigas para sinalização da rota em direção a fonte de alimentação. E como as abelhas no sentido de orientação da fonte de pólen até a colmeia. Muitos desses feromônios podem ser artificializados, isto é, elaborados pelo homem em laboratório para o estudo ou manipulação de algum animal. -/- -/- O SISTEMA ENDÓCRINO COMO UM SISTEMA DE COMUNICAÇÃO -/- O sistema endócrino é um sistema de comunicação que tem como objetivo coor-denar as funções das células de diferentes órgãos para mantença da homeostase do orga-nismo e promover seu desenvolvimento, crescimento e reprodução. Também ajuda os or-ganismos a adaptarem-se as mudanças de ambiente e ao habitat. O sistema endócrino representa um sistema de comunicação do tipo sem fio, diferentemente do sistema nervo-so que é um sistema de comunicação com fio. -/- Em todo o sistema de comunicação existe uma série de elementos que são necessá-rios para a realização da comunicação de forma efetiva. Esses elementos incluem o emis-sor, a mensagem, o sinal, o meio de transporte do sinal, o receptor, o efetor, a resposta e o feedback ou retroalimentação (figura 1). Todos os elementos são igualmente importan-tes e uma deficiência em qualquer deles pode interromper ou alterar a comunicação. -/- -/- Figura 1: componentes do sistema endócrino de comunicação. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Emissor ou transmissor -/- É o elemento responsável pela transmissão de uma mensagem; poderíamos com-pará-lo com a redação de notícias de um canal de televisão. Antes de decidir quais serão as notícias que serão transmitidas esse dia, em que ordem se apresentarão e que ênfase lhes darão, as pessoas da redação analisa rodas as informações disponíveis: provenientes de seus repórteres, de agências de notícias internacionais, publicada em jornais do dia, a existente na internet ou disponíveis através de redes sociais; isso significa que as mensa-gens transmitidas pelo emissor não são aleatórias, e sim respondem a uma análise respon-sável das necessidades de informação. -/- No sistema endócrino o emissor é a célula que produz e secreta um hormônio. Co-mo todo emissor responsável, a mesma célula analisa toda a informação relevante dispo-nível, tal como a concentração de diversos metabólitos no sangue, a concentração de ou-tros hormônios, e as mensagens que recebem por via nervosa, antes de decidir se secretará seu hormônio, em que quantidade o fará e com que frequência. Por essa razão, ao estudar o sistema endócrino não somente devemos conhecer a célula transmissora, e sim qual é a informação que a célula pode receber, e como a analisa e a prioriza para construir sua mensagem. -/- -/- Mensagem -/- É a informação transmitida pelo emissor. No caso de um sistema de notícias tele-visivas a mensagem é a notícia, por exemplo “Vaca dá a luz trigêmeos, um caso raro no Brasil”. No sistema endócrino a mensagem que se transmite é uma instrução para que em outra célula se realize determinadas ações. Por exemplo, os neurônios produtores de GnRH no hipotálamo de uma coelha, ao analisar as concentrações de estradiol circulantes e a informação nervosa procedente de neurônios sensoriais nós órgãos genitais da fêmea, podem “saber” que nos ovários existam folículos lisos para ovularem e que a coelha está copulando, pelo qual decidem transmitir a mensagem “Solicita-se os gonadotropos da adenohipófise a liberação de LH em quantidade suficiente para provocar a ovulação”. -/- -/- Sinal -/- É a forma a qual se codifica a mensagem para permitir sua difusão. No caso de um jornal, a mensagem (por exemplo a notícia da vaca que deu a luz trigêmeos) se codifi-ca em forma de ondas de rádio de uma determinada frequência, amplitude e intensidade; no caso do sistema endócrino a mensagem (a necessidade de realizar uma função celular) é codificada em forma de hormônio secretado em determinada quantidade, frequência e amplitude. Para o exemplo descrito supra, a mensagem se codifica na forma de uma grande elevação nas concentrações de GnRH no sangue do sistema porta hipotálamo-hipofisário. -/- É necessário tomar em conta que o emissor codifica a mensagem de forma tal que quando o receptor decifre o sinal obtenha a informação originalmente contida na mensa-gem. No entanto, o sinal pode ser interpretado de diferentes formas por receptores distintos, o que pode provocar respostas contrárias as esperadas. A notícia transmitida por um jornal de rádio, por exemplo, poderia estar codificada em forma de ondas de rádio que, casualmente, para o sistema eletrônico de um avião signifiquem “baixe a altitude e acelere”, razão pela qual é proibido utilizar aparelhos eletrônicos durante a decolagem e aterrissagem desses aparelhos. -/- Do mesmo modo, a mensagem codificada na forma de secreção de estradiol por parte dos ovários pode ser interpretado pelo sistema nervoso de uma ovelha como uma ordem para apresentar conduta de estro, pelas células do folículo ovariano como uma instrução para sofrer mitose e secretar o líquido folicular, pelos gonadotropos como uma ordem para a secreção de um pico pré-ovulatório de LH, e pelas células do endométrio como uma instrução para sintetizar receptores para a ocitocina. Dessa forma, o mesmo sinal (secreção de estradiol) pode conter diferentes mensagens para diferentes células do organismo. -/- Em alguns casos, pode-se apresentar uma resposta patológica devido as diversas formas de interpretação de uma mensagem, por exemplo, a repetição da secreção de adrenalina em um indivíduo estressado pode resultar no desenvolvimento de um proble-ma de hipertensão arterial. Por isso é necessário conhecer a maneira em que cada célula endócrina codifica suas mensagens, assim como a forma em que esses sinais podem ser interpretados em diferentes órgãos e tecidos, em diferentes momentos da vida do animal, em animais com diferentes antecedentes de espécies diferentes. -/- -/- Meio de transporte do sinal -/- O sinal tem que viajar ou difundir-se desde o emissor até o receptor, e em seu ca-minho pode ser modificado de diversas formas. Os sinais de rádio, por exemplo, viajam através da atmosfera e durante esse trajeto podem ser bloqueados por uma barreira física (como ocorre com as ondas de rádio AM em um túnel), ampliadas por uma estação repeti-dora, alteradas por um campo eletromagnético (uma aspiradora funcionando ao lado da sala de transmissão), entre outros. Da mesma forma, os sinais endócrinos que geralmente viajam no sangue, podem ser modificados ao longo do seu caminho. -/- A PGF₂α é inativada ao passar pelo pulmão, o angiotensinógeno é ativado pela re-nina na circulação, e a testosterona pode ser transformada em di-hidrotestosterona nas células da pele e na próstata, ou em estrógenos nos adipócitos e nos neurônios. Por tudo isso, o sinal que finalmente chega ao receptor pode ser diferente do transmitido pelo emissor. -/- Portanto, ao estudar qualquer sistema hormonal devemos conhecer as possíveis modificações que o hormônio pode sofrer desde o momento em que é secretado até que se uma ao seu receptor na célula branca. -/- -/- Receptor -/- É o elemento que recebe o sinal e interpreta a mensagem contida nele. No caso de um jornal de TV, o receptor é o canal correspondente (por exemplo o canal 2) em um aparelho de televisão. É importante ressaltar que um aparelho de TV possui muitos canais distintos, mas somente receberá mensagens se estiver ligado e sintonizado no canal que está transmitindo a mensagem de interesse. Ou seja, o receptor tem que estar ativo. -/- No caso das mensagens endócrinas os receptores são moléculas específicas nas células brancas. Essas moléculas são proteínas membranais ou citoplasmáticas (segundo o tipo de hormônio), que possui uma alta afinidade por seu hormônio, o que lhes permite registrar a mensagem apenas das baixíssimas concentrações em que os hormônios circu-lam. Os receptores possuem uma alta especificidade, o que significa que somente se unem a seu próprio hormônio, e não a outras substâncias. Em algumas ocasiões um receptor pode receber diversos hormônios do mesmo tipo; por exemplo o receptor de andrógenos pode unir testosterona, androstenediona, di-hidrotestosterona e diversos andrógenos sin-téticos. Apesar disso, cada um desses hormônios pode possuir uma afinidade diferente pelo receptor, pelo qual alguns serão mais potentes que outros para estimulação. -/- Em geral existe um número limitado de moléculas receptoras em cada célula, logo diz-se que os receptores são “saturáveis”, o qual significa que uma vez que todos sejam ocupados a célula não pode receber mais moléculas desse hormônio. Por essa razão a magnitude da resposta de um determinado hormônio vai aumentando conforme se aumen-tam suas concentrações, porém ao saturar-se os receptores alcançam um ponto em que a resposta já não aumenta embora sigam incrementando as concentrações hormonais já que os receptores não permanecem livres para unirem-se ao excesso de moléculas do hormô-nio. -/- As células, em contrapartida, podem regular tanto o número de receptores presen-tes como a afinidade destes por seu hormônio; isso significa que a magnitude da resposta antes um determinado sinal endócrino pode ser distinta em diferentes momentos da vida de um animal; depende do estado dos receptores presentes nos tecidos, pelo qual é impor-tante conhecer quais são os fatores que podem aumentar ou reduzir o número de recepto-res em uma célula, assim como aqueles que podem aumentar ou diminuir a afinidade des-ses receptores por seus hormônios. -/- -/- Efetor -/- É o elemento encarregado de responder a uma mensagem realizando uma ação, e é um elemento diferente do receptor. Vale ressaltar que no caso de uma transmissão de televisão o receptor é o aparelho sintonizado no canal de interesse, porém o efetor é o te-lespectador que está exposto as notícias. Esse telespectador sofrerá mudanças que podem resultar em uma ação. A mudança pode ser evidente (e auxiliar as vítimas de um desastre), ou simplesmente uma mudança potencial (ao se inteirar de uma notícia não se pode produ-zir nenhuma mudança aparente até que alguém lhe pergunte: já se interessou?, E nesse caso a resposta será: “sim” em lugar do “não”). Deve-se tomar em conta que o efetor pode estar ausente embora o receptor esteja presente (um televisor ligado em uma sala vazia). O efetor também pode estar inativado (o telespectador encontra-se dormindo); quando assim ocorre não irá produzir uma resposta embora o receptor esteja presente. -/- No sistema endócrino o efetor é, em geral, um sistema celular encarregado de rea-lizar uma determinada função. Na maioria dos casos trata-se de sistemas enzimáticos cuja função é estimulada pela união do hormônio ao seu receptor. Alguns hormônios, por exemplo, atuam através do sistema AMP cíclico (AMPc) logo, a união do hormônio ao seu receptor resulta na ativação de uma proteína chamada Proteína Gs, que ativa a enzima Adenil-ciclase (ou adenilato ciclase), a qual transforma ATP em AMPc. A presença de AMPc resulta na ativação de uma enzima cinese de proteínas que fosforiza outras enzi-mas, o que pode ativá-las ou inativá-las; nesses casos, é gerada uma cascata de eventos que resulta em uma mudança na atividade celular; por exemplo, a cadeia de eventos que produz-se em resposta ao AMPc quando a célula de Leydig do testículo é estimulada pela união do LH a seu receptor resulta na produção de testosterona, enquanto que a estimula-ção de um adipócito provocada pela união da adrenalina a seu receptor, que também atua através do sistema AMPc, resulta em uma série de eventos que provocam, finalmente, a liberação de ácidos graxos livres em direção a circulação. -/- Nos exemplos supra, o AMPc é considerado um mensageiro intracelular, já que o receptor capta o sinal (hormônio) no exterior da célula, o que resulta na produção de um novo sinal (mudança nas concentrações de AMPc) no interior da célula. Embora o sistema AMPc seja utilizado por muitos hormônios, não é um sistema universal; existem outros sistemas mensageiros intracelulares que também são utilizados para responder os hormô-nios que não entram nas células, por exemplo o sistema cálcio-calmodulina, ou os siste-mas baseados em receptores com atividade de cineses de tirosina. Nos casos que os hor-mônios possa atravessar livremente a membrana celular, como acontece com os hormôni-os esteroides, o hormônio se une a receptores presentes no citoplasma, que depois ingres-sam ao núcleo celular para intervir na regulação da transcrição do genoma. -/- De maneira independente ao mecanismo de ação de um determinado hormônio, sua presença finalmente desencadeará mudanças em um ou mais sistemas efetores da célula, o que permitirá que a mesma responda a mensagem que o emissor transmitiu originalmente. É evidente que para compreender a ação de qualquer hormônio é indispensável conhecer seu mecanismo de ação, o papel dos mensageiros intracelulares e as característi-cas dos sistemas efetores. Deve-se conhecer também quais são os fatores que afetam a transdução da mensagem já que uma célula pode regular seus sistemas efetores e dessa forma ter uma resposta maior, menor ou alterada ante a mesma mensagem. -/- -/- Resposta -/- Como mencionado, qualquer mensagem provoca uma resposta (embora somente seja potencial) sobre o efetor que a recebe. No sistema endócrino, as mensagens hormonais viajam constantemente pelo organismo e são captadas por todas as células que possuem receptores ativos para um determinado hormônio. Uma única célula pode ter receptores para diferentes hormônios, pelo qual pode estar recebendo diversas mensagens simultaneamente, e cada uma dessas mensagens pode afetar a resposta de outras mensagens. Por exemplo, a presença de progesterona pode alterar a resposta das células endometriais ao estradiol. Ademais, as células podem estar recebendo ao mesmo tempo uma informação não hormonal, como as concentrações de diversos metabólitos na circulação, ou a recebida pelo sistema nervoso. A célula analisa toda essa informação e com base nela decide se deve responder a mensagem hormonal que está recebendo como deve responder, com que intensidade e durante quanto tempo. A resposta final pode ser uma resposta física imediata (contração, secreção de um hormônio armazenado previa-mente), uma modificação bioquímica a curto prazo (síntese de um determinado hormônio ou outra substância), ou o início de uma série de mudanças que levam a uma mudança a longo prazo (divisão celular, diferenciação celular, crescimento, morte celular). -/- -/- Feedback ou retroalimentação -/- Quando em um sistema de comunicação se produz uma resposta, em muitos casos essa resposta engloba a geração de informação que vai retornar ao emissor, e que agora constituirá um ou mais dos elementos que o emissor tomará em conta antes de transmitir uma nova mensagem. Assim, se um jornal transmite uma mensagem “menina pobre necessita de doação de roupas”, a resposta de alguns efetores (telespectadores) que virão a doar roupas será conhecida pelo emissor, que assim saberá que já não será mais neces-sário voltar a transmitir a mensagem, o que o fará tomar a decisão de transmitir uma mensagem diferente como “menina pobre já não necessita de roupas, porém requer de ali-mentos para sua família”. Essa modificação da mensagem provocada pela resposta do efetor é conhecida como retroalimentação. -/- De forma análoga, no sistema endócrino a resposta da célula efetora geralmente é reconhecida pelo emissor, que em consequência modifica sua mensagem. Na maioria dos casos se produz uma retroalimentação negativa, que consiste em que a resposta do efetor provoca uma redução na intensidade da mensagem transmitida pelo emissor. Quando os gonadotropos de uma vaca secretam hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH), as células da granulosa de seus folículos ovarianos respondem realizando diversas funções, uma das quais é a secreção de inibina. A elevação nas concentrações circulantes de inibina é capta-da pelos gonadotropos, que logo sabem que o FSH já transmitiu sua mensagem, pelo que reduzem a secreção deste hormônio. A retroalimentação negativa é muito importante em qualquer sistema endócrino já que permite manter as concentrações hormonais dentro de limites aceitáveis. -/- A retroalimentação negativa pode ser de onda ultracurta, curta ou longa. A onda ultracurta é quando o hormônio produzido por uma célula pode inibir sua própria secre-ção. A retroalimentação negativa de onda curta é quando o hormônio produzido por uma célula pode inibir a de um órgão imediatamente superior na hierarquia (por exemplo, quando a progesterona produzida pelo corpo lúteo do ovário inibe a secreção de LH pelos gonadotropos da hipófise). O feedback negativo de onda longa sucede quando o hormônio produzido por uma célula inibe a uma célula de um órgão que está dois ou mais níveis por cima na escala hierárquica, por exemplo, quando a testosterona produzida pelas células de Leydig do testículo inibe diretamente os neurônios produtores de GnRH, saltando as células produtoras de LH e adenohipófise. -/- Existe também a retroalimentação positiva, da qual o primeiro hormônio estimula a secreção de um segundo hormônio, o que por sua vez estimula o primeiro, com o que se estabelece um círculo progressivo de estimulação. Um exemplo de retroalimentação positiva é a que se produz pouco antes da ovulação entre o LH hipofisário e o estradiol de origem folicular. Os dois hormônios se estimulam mutuamente até que alcancem níveis elevados de LH que provoca a ovulação. O círculo de feedback positivo termina quando o pico pré-ovulatório de LH mudanças sobre o folículo que incluem a perda da capacidade de produção de estrógenos. Todo o sistema de retroalimentação positiva deve ter um final abrupto sobre o qual se rompe o ciclo de estimulação mútua, já que não mais deverá ser produzida quantidades elevadas dos hormônios, até que todos os recursos do organismo sejam utilizados para esse fim. -/- -/- CLASSIFICAÇÃO QUÍMICA DOS HORMÔNIOS -/- Do ponto de vista químico e sobre o estudo da Fisiologia da Reprodução Animal, existem quatro grupos principais de hormônios: polipeptídios, esteroides, aminas e prostaglandinas; dentro de cada grupo, por sua vez, existem mais grupos de inúmeros outros hormônios dispostos em subdivisões. -/- -/- Hormônios polipeptídios -/- Os polipeptídios são cadeias de aminoácidos. Quando uma dessas cadeias está constituída por poucos aminoácidos é denominada simplesmente de polipeptídios, mas quando uma cadeia de aminoácidos é longa e adquire uma configuração espacial de três dimensões o polipeptídio é denominado proteína (figura 2). Muitos neurohormônios hipo-talâmicos são polipeptídios, como o liberador de gonadotropinas (GnRH), constituído por 10 aminoácidos, o hormônio liberador de tirotropina (TRH), formado por 3 aminoácidos, o somatostatina, constituído por 14 aminoácidos, a ocitocina que é formada por 8 aminoá-cidos etc. O sistema nervoso central e a hipófise produzem peptídeos opioides. -/- Entre os hormônios polipeptídios que por seu tamanho são considerados proteínas encontramos a prolactina, o hormônio do crescimento, os lactogênios placentários, a relaxina, a insulina e fatores de crescimento parecidos com a insulina (IGFs). Existe outro grupo de hormônios polipeptídios classificados como glicoproteínas. Trata-se de proteí-nas que possuem carboidratos unidos a alguns de seus aminoácidos. -/- -/- Figura 2: classificação dos hormônios polipeptídios. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Há um grupo de hormônios glicoproteicos que constituem uma família de molécu-las similares entre si, dentro das quais estão o hormônio luteinizante (LH), o hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH), o hormônio estimulante da tireoide (TSH), a gonadotropina coriônica humana (hCG) e a gonadotropina coriônica equina (eCG); todos estão formados pela subunidade alfa que é idêntica para os hormônios de uma determinada espécie animal, e por uma subunidade beta específica para cada hormônio. As duas subunidades mantém-se unidas através de ligações dissulfeto. Deve-se mencionar que os carboidratos associados as glicoproteínas podem ser distintos em diferentes idades, épocas do ano ou estados fisiológicos; esse processo é conhecido como microheterogenicidade, e recente-mente têm-se dado grande importância a seu estudo, já que é reconhecido fatores tais como a vida média de um hormônio ou sua atividade biológica podem ser modificados de acordo com o tipo de carboidratos presentes na molécula. -/- Existe outra família de hormônios glicoproteicos, que incluem a inibina A, a B, e a activina A, AB e B. Todos os hormônios polipeptídios possuem algumas características comuns. Em primeiro lugar, trata-se de moléculas hidrossolúveis que não conseguem atravessar as membranas celulares pelo qual se unem a receptores transmembranais que flutuam sobre a parede externa da membrana da célula branca e requerem de um segundo mensageiro intracelular, como o cálcio ou o AMPc, para levar sua mensagem ao interior da célula. -/- Os hormônios desse grupo, não podem ser administrados por via dérmica, oral, retal ou intravaginal, já que não podem atravessar a pela ou as mucosas intestinais, retais ou vaginais. Os polipeptídios são digeridos no estômago, o que também impede sua admi-nistração oral. Outra característica que deve-se tomar em conta é que as proteínas (embora não os polipeptídios pequenos) podem se desnaturalizar por fatores como o calor (são termolábeis), a congelação, ou mudanças de pH m a desnaturalização consiste em uma mudança na forma natural da proteína, o que leva a perda de sua função. Por essa razão, ao trabalhar com hormônios proteicos devem-se tomar cuidados especiais durante seu manejo para evitar a exposição a fatores desnaturalizantes. -/- -/- Hormônios esteroides -/- São moléculas derivadas do colesterol; a célula esteroidogênica pode sintetizar o colesterol, obtê-lo de reservas intracelulares ou da circulação. Na célula esteroidogênica existem diversas enzimas que atuam sequencialmente sobre a molécula de colesterol, provocando mudanças sucessivas até obter o hormônio final que será secretado, ao qual dependerá das enzimas que estão presentes e ativas na célula. -/- Existem cinco grupos principais de hormônios esteroides; os progestágenos, os estrógenos, os glicocorticoides e os mineralocorticoides (figura 3). -/- Os progestágenos são hormônios que favorecem o desenvolvimento da gestação; seus efeitos incluem, entre outros, a estimulação da secreção endometrial de substâncias nutritivas para o embrião, a estimulação do desenvolvimento embrionário e placentário, a inibição das contrações uterinas, bem como fazer com que a cérvix fique fechada. O principal hormônio natural desse grupo é a progesterona, mas existem uma grande quantidade de progestágenos sintéticos utilizados na medicina veterinária, tais como o acetato fluorogestona (FGA), o acetato de melengestrol (MGA), o altrenogest e o norgestomet. -/- Os estrógenos são os hormônios femininos responsáveis, entre outras funções, dos sinais do estro ou receptividade sexual nas fêmeas. A maior parte de seus efeitos estão no alcance da fertilização do ovócito. Os estrógenos, além de estimular a conduta sexual feminina, favorecem, entre outras coisas, a abertura da cérvix para permitir a passagem do espermatozoide, e as contrações uterinas para impulsionar o sêmen em direção aos ovidutos. O principal estrógeno natural é o estradiol 17β, outros membros naturais do grupo são a estrona, a equilina e a equilenina, esses dois últimos presentes exclusivamente em éguas gestantes. Também existem numerosos estrógenos sintéticos, tais como o valerato de estradiol, o benzoato de estradiol e o cipionato de estradiol. -/- Os andrógenos são hormônios masculinos. Possuem uma grande quantidade de efeitos encaminhados a alcançar o êxito reprodutivo do macho, como estimular a conduta sexual, estimular a produção de espermatozoides e estimular as secreções das glândulas sexuais acessórias. O andrógeno principal é a testosterona, outros andrógenos naturais incluem a androstenediona e a di-hidrotestosterona. Existe também inúmeros andrógenos sintéticos. -/- Os glicocorticoides ou corticosteroides possuem funções principalmente metabó-licas e de adaptação ao estresse. O principal corticosteroide na maioria das espécies é o cortisol, enquanto que nos ratos e outros roedores é a corticosterona. Na reprodução, os corticosteroides desempenham um papel relevante, em particular durante o parto e a lac-tação. -/- Os mineralocorticoides, como a aldotestosterona, se encarregam da regulação do balanço de líquidos e eletrólitos no organismo. -/- -/- Figura 3: subgrupos dos hormônios esteroides. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Os hormônios esteroides como grupos são hidrossolúveis, pelo qual podem atra-vessar livremente as membranas celulares, por essa razão utilizam receptores intracelula-res que se encontram no citoplasma da célula branca; também pode-se administrar por via oral, pela pele, e através das mucosas retal ou vaginal. São moléculas termoestáveis e não são digeridas no estômago, embora algumas possas sofrer modificações na pH ácido, alterando sua função. -/- -/- Aminas -/- São moléculas derivadas de um aminoácido que se modifica pela ação de enzimas específicas. Existem dois tipos de hormônios aminas: as catecolaminas e as indolaminas (figura 4). As catecolaminas derivam do aminoácido tirosina, e incluem a dopamina, a a-drenalina e a noradrenalina. As indolaminas derivam-se do triptofano, e incluem a seroto-nina e a melatonina. -/- As aminas são moléculas hidrossolúveis que não podem atravessar as membranas celulares e portanto atuam através de receptores membranais e segundos mensageiros intracelulares. -/- -/- Figura 4: classificação dos hormônios peptídicos. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Prostaglandinas -/- São substâncias derivadas do ácido araquidônico. A principal fonte desse ácido graxo são os fosfolipídios da membrana celular, a partir dos quais se podem liberar o ácido araquidônico mediante a ação da enzima fosfolipase A2. O ácido araquidônico se transforma em prostaglandina H mediante a ação da enzima ciclo-oxigenase (ou sintetase de prostaglandinas), que mais adiante se transforma em diferentes prostaglandinas especí-ficas pela ação de diversas enzimas. O tipo de prostaglandina produzido por cada célula dependerá do complemento de enzimas presentes. -/- A prostaglandina mais importante na reprodução é a PGF2α, a qual é responsável pela destruição do corpo lúteo na maioria das espécies; também provoca contrações uteri-nas, pelo qual é importante para o parto, e o transporte dos espermatozoides e a involução uterina depois do parto. Na prática veterinária a PGF2α natural (dinoprosr) ou seus seme-lhantes sintéticos (cloprostenol, luprostiol etc.) são utilizados para a sincronização do ciclo estral, para a indução do parto e para tratar diversas patologias. Outra prostaglandina com algumas ações relacionadas com a reprodução é a prostaglandina E2 (PGE2). -/- As prostaglandinas são substâncias anfipáticas (com propriedades hidrossolúveis e lipossolúveis), pelo qual podem atravessar as membranas celulares. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- AUSTIN, Colin Russell; SHORT, R. Reproduction in mammals. Cambridge, 1972. -/- BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Reproducción animal aplicada. México: Manual Moderno, 1982. -/- BECKER, Jill B. et al. (Ed.). Behavioral endocrinology. Mit Press, 2002. -/- BITTAR, Edward (Ed.). Reproductive endocrinology and biology. Elsevier, 1998. -/- BURNSTEIN, Kerry L. (Ed.). Steroid hormones and cell cycle regulation. Kluwer Academic Pub., 2002. -/- CUNNINGHAM, James. Tratado de fisiologia veterinária. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2011. -/- CUPPS, Perry T. (Ed.). Reproduction in domestic animals. Elsevier, 1991. -/- DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Editora Guanabara Koogan, 1996. -/- FELDMAN, Edward C. et al. Canine and feline endocrinology-e-book. Elsevier health sciences, 2014. -/- FUSCO, Giuseppe; MINELLI, Alessandro. The Biology of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press, 2019. -/- GILBERT, Scott F. Biologia del desarrollo. Ed. Médica Panamericana, 2005. -/- GORE, Andrea C. GnRH: the master molecule of reproduction. Springer Science & Business Media, 2002. -/- HAFEZ, Elsayed Saad Eldin; HAFEZ, Bahaa. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. -/- HERNÁNDEZ PARDO, Blanca. Endocrinología: Lo esencial de un vistazo. México: Panamericana, 2016. -/- HYTTEL, Poul; SINOWATZ, Fred; VEJLSTED, Morten. Embriologia veterinária. São Paulo: Elsevier Brasil, 2012. -/- ILLERA MARTIN, Mariano. Endocrinología veterinaria y fisiología de la reproducción. Madrid: COLIBAC, 1984. -/- JOHNSON, Martin H. Essential reproduction. Nova Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2018. -/- MANDOKI, Juan José et al. Hormone multifunctionalities: a theory of endocrine signaling, command and control. Progress in biophysics and molecular biology, v. 86, n. 3, p. 353-377, 2004. -/- MANDOKI, Juan José et al. Reflections on the mode of functioning of endocrine systems. Archives of medical research, v. 41, n. 8, p. 653-657, 2010. -/- MCKINNON, Angus O. et al. (Ed.). Equine reproduction. Nova Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. -/- MELMED, Shlomo (Ed.). The pituitary. Londres: Academic press, 2010. -/- NORRIS, David O.; LOPEZ, Kristin H. (Ed.). Hormones and reproduction of vertebrates. Academic Press, 2010. -/- PARHAR, Ishwar S. (Ed.). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: molecules and receptors. Elsevier, 2002. -/- PIMENTEL, C. A. Fisiologia e endocrinologia da reprodução da fêmea bovina. I Simpósio de Reprodução de Bovinos, Porto Alegre, RS, 2002. -/- PINEDA, Mauricio H. et al. McDonald's veterinary endocrinology and reproduction. Iowa state press, 2003. -/- RAMOS DUEÑAS, J. I. Endocrinología de la reproducción animal. 2018. -/- SALISBURY, Glenn Wade et al. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. WH Freeman and Company., 1978. -/- SANDERS, Stephan. Endocrine and reproductive systems. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2003. -/- SORENSEN, Anton Marinus. Reproducción animal: principios y prácticas. México, 1982. -/- SQUIRES, E. James. Applied animal endocrinology. Cambridge: Cabi, 2010. -/- YEN, Samuel SC; JAFFE, Robert B.; BARBIERI, Robert L. Endocrinología de la Reproducción. Fisiología, fisiopatología y manejo clínico. Madrid: Ed. Médica Panamericana, 2001. -/- ZARCO, L. Endocrinología. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. (shrink)

When are morally good actions beautiful, when indeed they are? In this paper, it is argued that morally good actions are beautiful when they appear to express the deep or true self, and in turn tend to give rise to an emotion which is characterised by feelings of being moved, unity, inspiration, and meaningfulness, inter alia. In advancing the case for this claim, it is revealed that there are additional sources of well-formedness in play in the context of moral beauty (...) in addition to those that have tended to be focused on to date: one which is connected to imagining a deep location for the goodness concerned, and another which is connected to imagining that the goodness stems from capacities which are essential to the person. (shrink)

What is the nature of the concept BEAUTY? Does it differ fundamentally from nearby concepts such as PRETTINESS? It is argued that BEAUTY, but not PRETTINESS, is a dual-character concept. Across a number of contexts, it is proposed that BEAUTY has a descriptive sense that is characterised by, inter alia, having intrinsically pleasing appearances; and a normative sense associated with deeply-held values. This account is supported across two, pre-registered, studies (N=500), and by drawing on analysis of corpus data. It is (...) suggested that this can help to explain why beauty, unlike prettiness, is thought to be deep in both the sense of being important, and in the sense of being less closely tied to sensory surfaces. (shrink)

According to the most important objection to the existence of moral beauty, true judgements of moral beauty are not possible as moral judgements require being motivated to act in line with the moral judgement made, and judgements of beauty require not being motivated to act in any way. Here, I clarify the argument underlying the objection, and show that it does not show that moral beauty does not exist. I present two responses: namely, that the beauty of moral beauty does (...) not lie in the moral goodness per se (the “adjacent properties” response); and that only a dispositional motivation to act is required for the moral judgements that are typically made as part of judgements of moral beauty, whereas aesthetic judgements only rule out state motivations to act (the “equivocation of motivation required” response). In addressing the objection, I show how moral beauty is consistent with disinterestedness, and so should be accepted more widely; and also clarify where the beauty in moral beauty resides, and how the moral-aesthetic distinction should be drawn. (shrink)

Why are moral actions beautiful, when indeed they are? This paper assesses the view, found most notably in Schiller, that moral actions are beautiful just when they present the appearance of freedom by appearing to be the result of internal harmony (the Schillerian Internal Harmony Thesis). I argue that while this thesis can accommodate some of the beauty involved in contrasts of the ‘continent’ and the ‘fully’ virtuous, it cannot account for all of the beauty in such contrasts, and so (...) needs to be weakened considerably (to the Internal Harmony Thesis). To account for the remaining beauty that cannot be fully accommodated even by this revised thesis, as well as the beauty contained in contrasts that involve agents who experience internal conflict as a result of being sensitive to different sources of moral value to an appropriate extent, a number of further theses need to be posited: namely, that the beauty of some moral actions is to be accommodated in terms of internal disharmony (the Internal Disharmony Thesis), and in terms of a felt harmony between the appreciator of the action and the executor of the action (the Affective Harmony Thesis). As such, in contrast to Schiller, I suggest that we need to take a pluralist and context-sensitive approach to accommodating the beauty of moral actions. (shrink)

This paper is about the similarity between the appreciation of a piece of art, such as a cherished music album, and the loving appreciation of a person whom one knows well. In philosophical discussion about the rationality of love, the Qualities View (QV) says that love can be justified by reference to the qualities of the beloved. I argue that the oft-rehearsed trading-up objection fails to undermine the QV. The problems typically identified by the objection arise from the idea that (...) love-worthy qualities could be coarse-grained, when in fact they must be fine-grained. The analogy with appreciation of aesthetic qualities helps to draw out this point. Once the fine-grained nature of love-worthy qualities is properly understood, it is clear that critics of the QV cannot rely on the trading-up objection to motivate its rejection. Moreover, the paper’s core argument helps to illuminate the persistently aesthetic nature of interpersonal affections. (shrink)

In their thought-provoking article, Sedlakova and Trachsel (2023) defend the view that the status—both epistemic and ethical—of Conversational Artificial Intelligence (CAI) used in psychotherapy is complicated. While therapeutic CAI seems to be more than a mere tool implementing particular therapeutic techniques, it falls short of being a “digital therapist.” One of the main arguments supporting the latter claim is that even though “the interaction with CAI happens in the course of conversation… the conversation is profoundly different from a conversation with (...) a human therapist” (Sedlakova and Trachsel 2023, 8). In particular, unlike a human therapist, CAI cannot help its users gain new insight and self-understanding (Sedlakova and Trachsel 2023). We agree that currently available therapeutic CAI cannot be considered a “digital therapist,” however, we think that the issue surrounding the acquisition of new self-understanding in the interaction with therapeutic CAI is more complicated than Sedlakova and Trachsel suggest. (shrink)

It is widely agreed that possession of consciousness contributes to an entity’s moral status, even if it is not necessary for moral status (Levy and Savulescu 2009). An entity is considered to have...

There is considerable disagreement about the epistemic value of novel predictive success, i.e. when a scientist predicts an unexpected phenomenon, experiments are conducted, and the prediction proves to be accurate. We survey the field on this question, noting both fully articulated views such as weak and strong predictivism, and more nascent views, such as pluralist reasons for the instrumental value of prediction. By examining the various reasons offered for the value of prediction across a range of inferential contexts , we (...) can see that neither weak nor strong predictivism captures all of the reasons for valuing prediction available. A third path is presented, Pluralist Instrumental Predictivism; PIP for short. (shrink)

How does microbiota research impact our understanding of biological individuality? We summarize the interdisciplinary summer school on "Microbiota, Symbiosis and Individuality: Conceptual and Philosophical Issues" (July 2019), which was supported by a European Research Council starting grant project "Immunity, DEvelopment, and the Microbiota" (IDEM). The summer school centered around interdisciplinary group work on four facets of microbiota research: holobionts, individuality, causation, and human health. The conceptual discussion of cutting-edge empirical research provided new insights into microbiota and highlights the value of (...) incorporating into meetings experts from other disciplines, such as philosophy and history of science. (shrink)

Fan culture has grown immensely over the past few years. People are constantly looking up to celebrities and personalities as role models for their fashion, identity, and success. During the stage of adolescence, it is normal for teenagers to admire well- known people and form fan attachments as part of their identity formation. However, this admiration of a specific media figure can be associated with one's personality, cognitive processes, and psychological well-being. Thus, the current study aims to investigate the correlation (...) between celebrity admiration and the self-esteem of 238 Filipino male teenagers. The research instruments, namely Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) were both utilized through google forms. Results have shown high scores on celebrity admiration and the normal range of self-esteem of the participants. Using Pearson’s r correlation coefficient, it was found that celebrity admiration and self-esteem of Filipino male teenagers have a significant relationship that exists in a negative direction. (shrink)

This study aims to investigate the relationship between job burnout and employee performance in the feed industry during the ASF outbreak. Further, the researchers employed a descriptive-correlational research design in order to analyze the acquired data and produce pertinent findings. Thus, the researchers gathered data from one hundred two (102) feed industry employees. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and Individual Work Performance Questionnaire (IWPQ) were employed to ascertain the extent of job burnout experienced by the respondents and evaluate employee performance, (...) respectively. Based on the statistical analysis, there is a significant relationship between job burnout and employee performance. Moreover, the study's findings were thoroughly analyzed and discussed. (shrink)

Epistemic terms of various syntactic categories can uniformly be used to do the same thing: to hedge. This essay clarifies hedging as a phenomenon and explains how hedging happens by advancing the positional theory. The guiding idea is that, in uttering declaratives, speakers signal what their epistemic position is towards the content put into play by the declarative. The default signal is that the speaker knows. But when an epistemic term hedges, the term overrides the default. The non-default signal sent (...) is that the speaker or someone else occupies the position indicated by the term. To make that idea precise, the positional theory treats hedging as a discourse function. Terms hedge because of how a declarative containing an epistemic term is situated within a discourse. (shrink)

Tennenbaum's Theorem yields an elegant characterisation of the standard model of arithmetic. Several authors have recently claimed that this result has important philosophical consequences: in particular, it offers us a way of responding to model-theoretic worries about how we manage to grasp the standard model. We disagree. If there ever was such a problem about how we come to grasp the standard model, then Tennenbaum's Theorem does not help. We show this by examining a parallel argument, from a simpler model-theoretic (...) result. (shrink)

Joseph Almog pointed out that Kripkean causal chains not only exist for names, but for all linguistic items (Almog 1984: 482). Based on this, he argues that the role of such chains is the presemantic one of assigning a linguistic meaning to the use of a name (1984: 484). This view is consistent with any number of theories about what such a linguistic meaning could be, and hence with very different views about the semantic reference of names. He concludes that (...) the causal theory is ‘rather trivial’ (1984: 487). In this paper I argue that Almog is correct to hold that the causal theory is trivial, but, contra Almog, argue that the triviality of the existence of causal chains is not a matter of such chains having a presemantic role in assigning linguistic meanings to utterances. Instead, such triviality is due to the fact that the causal theory reflects no more than a truism about the epistemology of convention acquisition. (shrink)

Inner speech is commonly understood as the conscious experience of a voice within the mind. One recurrent theme in the scientific literature is that the phenomenon involves a representation of overt speech, for example, a representation of phonetic properties that result from a copy of speech instructions that were ultimately suppressed. I propose a larger picture that involves some embodied objects and their misperception. I call it “the Body Error Theory,” or BET for short. BET is a form of illusionism, (...) but the particular version I favor is a cross-modal illusion. Newly described here, my hypothesis is that the experience of inner speech arises from a mix of interoception and audition. Specifically, there is the detection of slight but well-confirmed activities in the speech musculature that occur during inner speech, which helps to transform representations of normal but quiet nonverbal sounds that inevitably occur during inner speech, from breathing to background noise, into a mistaken perception of inner speech. Simply put, activities in the speech musculature mix with sounds to create the appearance of speech sounds, which thus explains the “voice within the mind.” I also show how BET’s cross-modal system fits with standard information processing accounts for speech monitoring and how it accommodates the central insights of leading theories of inner speech. In addition, I show how BET is supported by data from experience-sampling surveys and how it can be empirically tested against its rivals. (shrink)

Many critics, Descartes himself included, have seen Hobbes as uncharitable or even incoherent in his Objections to the Meditations on First Philosophy. I argue that when understood within the wider context of his views of the late 1630s and early 1640s, Hobbes's Objections are coherent and reflect his goal of providing an epistemology consistent with a mechanical philosophy. I demonstrate the importance of this epistemology for understanding his Fourth Objection concerning the nature of the wax and contend that Hobbes's brief (...) claims in that Objection are best understood as a summary of the mechanism for scientific knowledge found in his broader work. Far from displaying his confusion, Hobbes's Fourth Objection in fact pinpoints a key weakness of Descartes's faculty psychology: its unintelligibility within a mechanical philosophy. (shrink)

Searle claims that his theory of institutional reality is particularly suitable as a theoretical scheme of individuation for work in the social sciences. We argue that this is not the case. The first problem with regulatory individuation is due to the familiar fact that institutional judgments have constrained revisability criteria. The second problem with regulatory individuation is due to the fact that institutions amend their declarative judgments based on the inferential (syntactic) properties of the judgments and in response to regulatory (...) pressure, and not based on descriptive (semantic) properties and in response to matters of descriptive adequacy. These two problems imply that ‘regulatory kinds' (countries, borders, kings) will almost inevitably be disjunctive kinds that are ill-suited for scientific theorizing. This also explains why the law often makes odd pronouncements, e.g. calling ketchup a vegetable, considering an arm bent fifteen degrees to be straight, and not admitting that Somaliland is a country. (shrink)

Louis Pojman and Robert Westmoreland have compiled the best material on the subject of equality, ranging from classical works by Aristotle, Hobbes and Rousseau to contemporary works by John Rawls, Thomas Nagel, Michael Walzer, Harry Frankfurt, Bernard Williams and Robert Nozick; and including such topics as: the concept of equality; equal opportunity; Welfare egalitarianism; resources; equal human rights and complex equality.

Don Marquis’ future-like-ours account argues that abortion is seriously immoral because itdeprives the embryo or fetus of a valuable future much like our own. Marquis was mindful ofcontraception being reductio ad absurdum of his reasoning, and argued that prior tofertilisation, there is not an identifiable subject of harm. Contra Marquis, Tomer Chaffercontends that the ovum is a plausible subject of harm, and therefore contraception deprives theovum of a future-like-ours. In response, I argue that being an identifiable subject of harm is (...) notsufficient for Marquis’ argument to succeed. In addition, we must also share our identity withan ovum. I show that on the account of personal identity utilised by Marquis’ defenders, weare not identical with an ovum. As a result, Chaffer’s reductio fails. (shrink)

The Caesar problem arises for abstractionist views, which seek to secure reference for terms such as ‘the number of Xs’ or #X by stipulating the content of ‘unmixed’ identity contexts like ‘#X = #Y’. Frege objects that this stipulation says nothing about ‘mixed’ contexts such as ‘# X = Julius Caesar’. This article defends a neglected response to the Caesar problem: the content of mixed contexts is just as open to stipulation as that of unmixed contexts.

Modern fundamental science tends to avoid the principle of physical causality and realism, replacing it with heuristically postulated and separated mathematical constructions that impose their own rules before being adjusted to measurement results. While it is officially accepted as the single possible kind of rigorous knowledge, we argue that another, explicitly extended kind of science can provide the causally complete picture of reality avoiding the glaring gaps, growing problems and persisting stagnation of the artificially reduced knowledge paradigm. The logic of (...) science development and especially its current state call for the urgently needed transition to the extended, causally complete kind of knowledge and related sustainable progress at superior creativity levels of self-aware, reason-based society. (shrink)

Pascal’s wager uses decision theory to argue that it is rational to attempt to nurture belief in God, based on the expected utility of believing (infinite happiness) compared to not believing (at best, only finite happiness). A belief in an eternal conscious torment in hell (infinite suffering) for non-believers makes the differences in expected utility even more apparent, strengthening the argument. Similar reasoning can also be used to calculate the expected moral value of actions, including procreation. Under theism, if possible (...) future children might suffer eternal conscious torment, the expected moral value of procreation is extremely negative. This implies that theists have a moral obligation not to procreate, which for most theists, entails a moral obligation to be celibate or to undergo sterilisation surgery. (shrink)

Wars and crises worldwide force millions of people to flee and seek refuge, often outside their countries of origin. What moral responsibilities do states have towards refugees? In this Ethical Annotation, Dr Jos Philips and his co-authors zoom in on the responsibilities of EU countries. They consider arguments in favour of and against admitting refugees and argue that EU countries must do at least at much as they can do at little cost, and perhaps even more.

Purpose: The modern development of mass culture is characterized by the growth of the market for graphic narratives, the rapid increase in the segment of digital comics, and the active use of comics as a communication tool in various industries and disciplinary areas. The purpose of the study: to determine the media capabilities of the comics in presenting educational, cross-cultural, problematic, and ethical content of modern organizational culture. Design / Method / Approach: The review nature of the article involves the (...) use of traditional general scientific methods (description, comparison, abstraction, and specification). The interdisciplinary nature of the study actualized the comparative method in presenting the cross-cultural features of organizational/office/corporate comics. Findings: The influence of visual mass culture and the spread of interdisciplinary research tools made it possible to analyze three areas within the stated problematic: adaptive and audience-oriented comics techniques popularized their use for training and educational purposes; the possibility of comparing the typology of world comics with cross-cultural global studies (we relied on the methodology and results of the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) project); the ability of the comics to reproduce, maintain, and spread the tradition of a particular organizational culture. Theoretical value of the study: The work has expanded: (1) the possibilities of a multidisciplinary approach to comics culture in order to clarify the interdisciplinary methodology; (2) the idea of forming and maintaining an authentic organizational culture using comics techniques; (3) the possibilities of using graphic narratives in the process of educational and professional communication. Practical value of the study: The possibilities of using comics in modern organizational culture at the level of self-presentation, training, and maintaining traditions. Originality/value of the study: A multidirectional analysis of the influence of mass culture (comics as a part of it) on the representation of everyday modern business processes is presented. Research limitations / Future research: Analyzing business processes in the language of graphic culture requires valid methods. Further research requires a larger statistical sample and improved interdisciplinary methods. -/- Мета роботи: Сучасний розвиток масової культури характеризується зростанням ринку графічних наративів, стрімким збільшенням сегмента цифрових коміксів, активним використанням коміксу як інструменту комунікації в різних галузях і дисциплінарних напрямах. Мета дослідження: визначити медійні можливості коміксу в представленні освітньо-навчального, кроскультурного та проблемно-етичного контенту сучасної організаційної культури. Дизайн / Метод / Підхід дослідження: Оглядовий характер статті передбачає залучення традиційних загальнонаукових методів (опис, порівняння, абстрагування та конкретизація). Міждисциплінарність дослідження актуалізувала компаративний метод у представленні крос-культурних особливостей організаційних/офісних/корпоративних коміксів. Результати дослідження: Вплив візуальної масової культури та поширення міждисциплінарних інструментів дослідження уможливили в межах заявленої проблематики аналіз трьох напрямів: адаптивні та аудиторноспрямовані коміксові техніки популяризували їх використання з навчальною та освітньою метою; можливість зіставлення типології світових коміксів з кроскультурними глобальними дослідженнями (ми спиралися на методику та результати проєкту GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness); можливості коміксу відтворювати, підтримувати та поширювати традицію певної організаційної культури. Теоретична цінність дослідження: Робота розширила: (1) можливості різновекторного підходу до коміксової культури з метою уточнення міждисциплінарної методики; (2) уявлення щодо формування та підтримки автентичної організаційної культури за допомогою коміксових технік; (3) можливості використання графічних наративів в процесі навчально-освітньої та професійної комунікації. Практична цінність дослідження: Можливості використання коміксу в сучасній організаційній культурі на рівні самопрезентації, навчання та підтримки традицій. Оригінальність/цінність дослідження: Презентовано різновекторний аналіз впливу масової культури (коміксової як її частини) на представлення повсякдення сучасних бізнес-процесів. Обмеження дослідження / Майбутні дослідження: Аналіз бізнес-процесів мовою графічної культури вимагає валідних методів. Подальші дослідження потребують більшої статистичної вибірки та вдосконалення міждисциплінарних методик. (shrink)

Financial literacy is becoming a pivotal skill in navigating the marketplaces within the predominant rising digital branches of trading domains; however, there remains a concerning gap in the purchasing behavior of adolescents, who are its primary users. With this in mind, the main objective of our research is to determine whether there is a relationship between a student's level of financial literacy and their online purchase decision-making. The researchers employed an explanatory mixed approach and purposive sampling to identify respondents from (...) Immaculate Conception College of Balayan, Inc. A 5-point Likert scale survey was utilized to collect data from 66 respondents, followed by semi-structured interviews with 10 selected participants. The results showed a moderately positive correlation between a student's financial literacy and online purchase decisions, as determined by the Pearson correlation coefficient. Thus, the thematic analysis revealed that respondents generally have good financial literacy, emphasizing factors like pricing, online reviews, and product ratings when making digital marketplace decisions. However, there are notable gaps in their understanding of basic financial concepts and their ability to apply them in real-life situations. To effectively enhance students’ financial literacy and online purchasing decisions, a holistic approach is necessary, including targeted interventions, practical applications, and continuous adaptation to evolving consumer behaviors. Educational institutions, policymakers, and stakeholders should work together to create comprehensive programs that provide students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to negotiate real-world financial situations and make sound judgments in the digital commerce ecosystem. By emphasizing practical learning, key financial concepts, and trustbuilding approaches, educators may empower students to become responsible consumers capable of managing their resources successfully and ethically. (shrink)

To improve oneself and grow professionally, career development has been found to be crucial, as it serves as a roadmap for the professional growth of employees. However, a barrier, known as the glass ceiling, hinders the progress of employees, especially those in the LGBTQIA+ community. This study explores the impact of the glass ceiling on the career development of selected LGBTQIA+ individuals, shedding light on the barriers faced by this community in the workplace. The researchers used a qualitative multiple-case study (...) and selected ten (10) LGBTQIA+ participants from large enterprises via the judgmental sampling technique. Through thematic analysis, psychological impact, workplace discomfort, lack of recognition, and career progress challenges emerged as the impacts of the glass ceiling on the participants. Strategies for overcoming glass ceiling barriers, such as resilience, self-reflection, and community support, are identified. Thus, the study found that glass ceilings are really evident in the context of businesses. With this, the proposed advocacy plan in the study suggests interventions like workplace inclusion training, mentorship networks, and seminars on employee rights. Furthermore, it emphasizes the call for ongoing research and advocacy efforts to dismantle barriers and cultivate workplaces that not only embrace diversity but also provide equitable opportunities for career growth. (shrink)

Samuel Kerstein’s recent (2013) How To Treat Persons is an ambitious attempt to develop a new, broadly Kantian account of what it is to treat others as mere means and what it means to act in accordance with others’ dignity. His project is explicitly nonfoundationalist: his interpretation stands or falls on its ability to accommodate our pretheoretic intuitions, and he does an admirable job of handling carefully a range of well fleshed out and sometimes subtle examples. In what follows, (...) I shall give a quick summary of the chapters and then say two good things about the book and one critical thing. (shrink)

Layunin ng pananaliksik na ito na makabuo ng Gabay sa Pagtuturo (Teacher’s Guide) bilang kagamitang makatutulong sa pagkatuto ng asignaturang Filipino. Gamit ang deskriptibong pananaliksik, natuklasan na 81% ng mga guro ang nagsabing makatutulong ang paglikha ng Gabay sa Pagtuturo (Teacher’s Guide). Ayon naman sa 95% ng mga mag-aaral, nararapat isama ang mga gawaing kaugnay ng panonood upang mas maging interaktibo at epektibo ang pagkatuto ng nabanggit panitikan. Batay sa mga inilahad na kinalabasan, nabatid ng mananaliksik na malaking bahagdan ng (...) mga guro at mag-aaral ng asignaturang Filipino ang nagsasabing may kahirapan ang pagtuturo at pagkatuto ng Noli Me Tangere bilang akdang pampanitkan sa ikaapat na markahan ng ika-9 na baitang. Sa makatuwid, ang pagkakaroon ng Gabay sa Pagtuturo (Teacher’s Guide) ng nabanggit na Obra Maestra ay makatutulong nang malaki hindi lamang sa guro bagkus ay pati na rin sa mag-aaral. (shrink)

One shortcoming of the chain rule is that it does not iterate: it gives the derivative of f(g(x)), but not (directly) the second or higher-order derivatives. We present iterated differentials and a version of the multivariable chain rule which iterates to any desired level of derivative. We first present this material informally, and later discuss how to make it rigorous (a discussion which touches on formal foundations of calculus). We also suggest a finite calculus chain rule (contrary to Graham, Knuth (...) and Patashnik's claim that "there's no corresponding chain rule of finite calculus"). (shrink)

This study examines the correlation between job descriptions and salaries at Immaculate Conception College of Balayan Inc. (ICCBI), a private Catholic institution devoted to faith-based education. Using qualitative research, a single-case study was conducted with ten (10) participants selected through purposive sampling based on specific criteria. Through face-to-face interviews, data was collected and analyzed using a narrative approach. Thus, it was found out that job descriptions at ICCBI are established through methods like job analysis, role and responsibility approaches, qualifications, and (...) the school manual-based method. Salary determination involves factors such as tenure, educational attainment, performance, teaching loads, experience, and collegial care. Key factors influencing job descriptions include salary differentiation, aligned job descriptions, career development opportunities, and increased duties and responsibilities. Variations in the salary structure are affected by teaching loads, department designations, and educational qualifications. The findings indicate that job descriptions impact employee salaries at the institution, and future research is encouraged to explore identified factors for insights into developing more efficient roles and contributing to organizational effectiveness. With this, the study proposed a strategic plan for future use and implementation. (shrink)

This qualitative study employing the sentiment analysis method uncovered the people's sentiments on the appointment of Vice-President Sara Z Duterte as the Secretary of the Department of Education. The comments from the Facebook online news platforms were used as the corpora of this study. Results revealed that the appointment of Vice-President Sara Z. Duterte as the Department of Education Secretary received 79% positive sentiments, 11% negative sentiments, and 10% neutral sentiments from the people. This indicates that most people responded favorably (...) to the appointment of Vice President Sara Z. Duterte to the position of Secretary of the Department of Education. This suggests that people believed Vice President Duterte's ability to lead the Education Department and bring about significant changes within the department. (shrink)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a rapidly growing technology that connects and integrates billions of smart devices, generating vast volumes of data and impacting various aspects of daily life and industrial systems. However, the inherent characteristics of IoT devices, including limited battery life, universal connectivity, resource-constrained design, and mobility, make them highly vulnerable to cybersecurity attacks, which are increasing at an alarming rate. As a result, IoT security and privacy have gained significant research attention, with a particular focus on (...) developing anomaly detection systems. In recent years, machine learning (ML) has made remarkable progress, evolving from a lab novelty to a powerful tool in critical applications. ML has been proposed as a promising solution for addressing IoT security and privacy challenges. In this article, we conducted a study of the existing security and privacy challenges in the IoT environment. Subsequently, we present the latest ML-based models and solutions to address these challenges, summarizing them in a table that highlights the key parameters of each proposed model. Additionally, we thoroughly studied available datasets related to IoT technology. Through this article, readers will gain a detailed understanding of IoT architecture, security attacks, and countermeasures using ML techniques, utilizing available datasets. We also discuss future research directions for ML-based IoT security and privacy. Our aim is to provide valuable insights into the current state of research in this field and contribute to the advancement of IoT security and privacy. (shrink)

Instead of the half-century old foundational feud between set theory and category theory, this paper argues that they are theories about two different complementary types of universals. The set-theoretic antinomies forced naïve set theory to be reformulated using some iterative notion of a set so that a set would always have higher type or rank than its members. Then the universal u_{F}={x|F(x)} for a property F() could never be self-predicative in the sense of u_{F}∈u_{F}. But the mathematical theory of categories, (...) dating from the mid-twentieth century, includes a theory of always-self-predicative universals--which can be seen as forming the "other bookend" to the never-self-predicative universals of set theory. The self-predicative universals of category theory show that the problem in the antinomies was not self-predication per se, but negated self-predication. They also provide a model (in the Platonic Heaven of mathematics) for the self-predicative strand of Plato's Theory of Forms as well as for the idea of a "concrete universal" in Hegel and similar ideas of paradigmatic exemplars in ordinary thought. (shrink)

Many philosophers have thought that our folk, or pre-reflective, view of persistence is one on which objects endure. This assumption not only plays a role in disputes about the nature of persistence itself, but is also put to use in several other areas of metaphysics, including debates about the nature of change and temporal passage. In this paper, we empirically test three broad claims. First, that most people (i.e. most non-philosophers) believe that, and it seems to them as though, objects (...) persist by enduring rather than perduring. Second, that most people have a view of change on which enduring but not perduring objects count as changing. Third, that one reason why the folk represent time as dynamical is because it seems to them, and they believe that, they endure through time. We found no evidence to support these claims. While there are certainly plenty of ‘folk’ endurantists in the population we tested, there are also plenty of ‘folk’ perdurantists. We did not find robust evidence that a majority of people believed that, or it seemed to them as though, objects endure rather than perdure. We conclude that many arguments in favour of endurantism that appeal to folk beliefs about, or experiences of, persisting objects and change rest on views about those beliefs and experiences that are empirically unsupported. There is no evidence to suggest that endurantism is the folk friendly view of persistence, and so we should stop treating it as such without argument. (shrink)

I introduce "nomic-role nonreductionism" as an alternative to traditional causal-role functionalism in the philosophy of mind. Rather than identify mental properties by a theory that describes their intra-level causal roles via types of inputs, internal states, and outputs, I suggest that one identify mental properties by a more comprehensive theory that also describes inter-level realization roles via types of lower-level engineering, internal mental states, and still higher-level states generated by them. I defend this position on grounds that mental properties should (...) be understood by our best scientific theories, which at present include informatioin about mental engineering. I further defend this claim by a "parity of reasons" argument. Causal-role functionalists are justified to include sensory stimuli in their theory of mind as opposed to, say, the remote causes of sensory stimuli because the former but not the latter are items of direct mental production. But ditto for the system's physical realizations. They too directly produce mental states, only not by "causing" them but by "realizing" them. Engineering realizations and their input triggering conditions work in tandem. In addition, I tell a related but more general metaphysical story about property identity, namely, that the traditional causal theory should be replaced by a more comprehensive nomic theory that individuates properties by their intra-level causal powers as well as their inter-level realization capacities. (shrink)