Is the societal-level of analysis sufficient today to understand the values of those in the global workforce? Or are individual-level analyses more appropriate for assessing the influence of values on ethical behaviors across country workforces? Using multi-level analyses for a 48-society sample, we test the utility of both the societal-level and individual-level dimensions of collectivism and individualism values for predicting ethical behaviors of business professionals. Our values-based behavioral analysis indicates that values at the individual-level make a more significant contribution to (...) explaining variance in ethical behaviors than do values at the societal-level. Implicitly, our findings question the soundness of using societal-level values measures. Implications for international business research are discussed. (shrink)

Purpose – To review and discuss Luciano Floridi’s 2019 book The Logic of Information: A Theory of Philosophy as Conceptual Design, the latest instalment in his philosophy of information (PI) tetralogy, particularly with respect to its implications for library and information studies (LIS). Design/methodology/approach – Nine scholars with research interests in philosophy and LIS read and responded to the book, raising critical and heuristic questions in the spirit of scholarly dialogue. Floridi responded to these questions. Findings – Floridi’s PI, including (...) this latest publication, is of interest to LIS scholars, and much insight can be gained by exploring this connection. It seems also that LIS has the potential to contribute to PI’s further development in some respects. Research implications – Floridi’s PI work is technical philosophy for which many LIS scholars do not have the training or patience to engage with, yet doing so is rewarding. This suggests a role for translational work between philosophy and LIS. Originality/value – The book symposium format, not yet seen in LIS, provides forum for sustained, multifaceted and generative dialogue around ideas. (shrink)

The aim of this study is to proof the argument – i.e. ‘there are significant linkages amongst tolerance, hybrid identities and migration.’ These linkages can be comprehended by means of conceptualising extensions of hybrid identities in aggregate trans/inter-migration processes. It can be put forward that arising hybrid identities are embedded in a blurring structure of thoughts, beliefs, states of affairs, facts, belongings and so forth. From multiculturalism and cosmopolitanism viewpoints, it is argued that tolerance and migration ought to be analysed (...) in frame of sociology of law, human rights, international migration law, and of course the European Union law. So far, normative arguments and soft law approaches are very much well integrated with social aspects of migration, tolerance, identity and culture. In this context, the study examines to what extent cultural and human components are protected by law in multiple levels from an interdisciplinary perspective. In this framework, it is crucial to raise the research enquiries: What are possible criteria for the limits of tolerance? To what extent tolerance is related to human rights and morality? What ought to be the limit of tolerance towards hybrid identities in multicultural and cosmopolitan societies? In a consistent manner, the criteria and standards developed by some leading scholars were reconstructed and discussed throughout this paper. These criteria and standards are both moral (part of a universal system of morality) and legal (international, supranational, or national – i.e. constitutional). In order to apply such standards their validity was discussed (i.e. the respective normative power has the norms at the various levels). In the case of morals, their difference to particular ethnic systems was established (i.e. criteria by which the two can be distinguished). Then the research argument was elaborated on whether and how the legal standards comply with the moral standards, how national standards comply with supranational or international standards. Likewise, the study highlights the crucial contributions of “World Society and World System Paradigms” that are associated with social space, global civil society, cosmopolitanism, ethnic diversity, cultural hybridity, human rights activism and public sphere. Recent debates in Refugee Studies (e.g. Syrian Refugee Crisis, Dual and Multiple Citizenship Issues and so forth) highlight the fact that the European Union needs to consider new aspects of tolerance for hybrid identities and tolerate cultural rights of hybrid identities, create cohesion in communities and establish intercultural dialogue amongst home-states and host-states. Sanguinely, the efforts of hybrid identities are strengthening the relations between home-host states and these ought to attract some considerable attention. The authors of this study hope that their endeavours may contribute somewhat towards that. (shrink)

Before remarking on “The New Science of the Mind”, I first offer some comments on philosophy and its relationship to contemporary psychological research as exemplified in the works of Searle (S),Wittgenstein (W), Hacker (H) et al. It will help to see my reviews of PNC (Philosophy in a New Century), TLP, PI, OC, Making the Social World (MSW) and other books by and about these geniuses, who provide a clear description of higher order behavior, not found in psychology nor philosophy, (...) that I will refer to as the WS framework. -/- As with so many philosophy books, we might stop with the title. As the quotes and comments above and in my other reviews and the books they cover indicate, there are compelling reasons for regarding the problems we face in describing the psychology of higher order thought as conceptual and not scientific. This ought to be crystal clear to all, but science envy and almost complete oblivion to WSH etc. is a la mode! But as H notes above, the issues discussed here are all about language games and have nothing to do with science. In fact, as usual, if one translates into plain English there is very little of interest here, and certainly nothing not said before and better by WS etc. countless times since the 30’s (see e.g., The Blue and Brown Books from 1933-35). It is not surprising that he makes no significant references to any of the above books or persons (the only reference to S is an article from 1958!), though in my view they are at the top of the list of the major figures in descriptive psychology. -/- On p119 he tells us that the key to all this is to figure out how “…a personal level cognitive process can belong to a representational subject. This is the task of the second half of the book.” But W did this 80 years ago and since we have the beautifully clear explanations of WSH, H&M etc., there is no point to torturing oneself with the rather aimless and opaque prose that veers off at the end into Sartre, Heidegger, Husserl, and Frege, with a dash of postmodernist word salad for good measure. A valiant effort on an interesting topic, but ultimately exhausting and fruitless. -/- Those wishing a comprehensive up to date framework for human behavior from the modern two systems view may consult my book ‘The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle’ 2nd ed (2019). Those interested in more of my writings may see ‘Talking Monkeys--Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet--Articles and Reviews 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Human Behavior (2019), and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019). (shrink)

REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL -/- ANIMAL BREEDING: ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE E-mail: [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)98143-8399 -/- 1. INTRODUÇÃO A inseminação artificial impôs-se em todo o mundo como um método de grande interesse do ponto de vista zootécnico e econômico, incrementando os rendimentos produtivos através da melhoria acelerada e da uniformidade no reagrupamento das populações. Os resultados positivos obtidos nestas últimas décadas testemunham esta possibilidade, válida tanto para os países mais desenvolvidos como (...) para os países em processo de desenvolvimento. A necessidade de uma rápida melhoria da estrutura das raças, o aumento da produção, bem como o máximo emprego de reprodutores selecionados difundiram consideravelmente o método da inseminação artificial, principalmente na espécie bovina, de forma que hoje se insemina artificialmente mais de 150 milhões de vacas e novilhas aptas para reprodução. Em certos países desenvolvidos, do ponto de vista pecuário, mais de 90% das vacas são inseminadas artificialmente, concretamente na Dinamarca 98%, mais de 95% no Japão e Israel ou 94% na Hungria; na Espanha chega-se a níveis muito próximos dos 50%. 2. CONCEITO E PRINCÍPIOS BÁSICOS O Larousse agrícola (1981) define a inseminação artificial como uma «técnica que consiste em depositar, no aparelho genital de uma fêmea, com a ajuda de instrumentos adequados, o sêmen de um macho colhido artificialmente». O sêmen, colhido por um processo variável e adequadamente diluído, serve para a inseminação artificial de um elevado número de fêmeas, o que permite multiplicar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos e, portanto, constitui um poderoso meio de melhoria do gado. 3. BREVE HISTÓRIA DA INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL Embora a zootecnia iniciasse seu verdadeiro desenvolvimento como ciência e ainda estivesse longe de abordar aspectos econômicos, Lazzaro Spallanzani no século XVIII já intuíra a extensão aplicativa da inseminação artificial realizando testes demonstrativos iniciais. Ilya Ivanov começou um século depois a aplicação prática da IA e compreendeu seu significado tecnológico. Nos primeiros anos do século XX, cientistas e técnicos tentaram desenvolver um método com profundidade; no entanto, os resultados obtidos foram escassos. As razões pelos escassos resultados podem se explicar mediante os deficientes conhecimentos da anatomia, fisiologia e patologia da reprodução e o comportamento nos dois sexos estudados, tanto do ponto de vista biológico como técnico, bem como haver trabalhado sobre espécies pouco fáceis tais como o cavalo e o cão. O conhecimento tecnológico e a aplicação sistemática da técnica tornou-se possível, em primeiro lugar, com a ideia que levou à realização da primeira vagina artificial, obra de Amantea em 1914, em seguida com a criação de eficientes mênstruos diluentes e mais recentemente com o progresso da técnica de conservação prolongada "in vitro" do material espermático por congelação. A partir dos anos trinta, em certos países como a Itália ou a Alemanha, a IA foi utilizada como meio de profilaxia das doenças genitais (brucelose, tricomoníase, vibriose, etc.). A aplicação organizada do método foi realizada pela primeira vez na Dinamarca nos anos 1938-1939, com a criação de cooperativas de inseminação com o objetivo de realizar a melhoria zootécnica bovina, alargando-se posteriormente aos outros países da Europa até à sua aplicação sistemática na atualidade. -/- 4. A PRODUÇÃO DO SÊMEN A expansão da IA na maioria das espécies de interesse zootécnico implica uma forte responsabilidade dos que se ocupam dela, tanto na fase de aplicação como na de seu desenvolvimento. No que se refere aos bovinos do Brasil, foi seguida uma ordenação coordenada das práticas de reprodução com os programas de seleção e expansão das diferentes raças. Para o efeito, foi criada uma legislação que permite dispor de normas mais completas possíveis. 4.1 Atividades a desenvolver em um centro de IA O real decreto que regula as atividades dos centros de IA (Decreto nº 91.111, de 12 de Março de 1985), que regulamenta a Lei n° 6.446, de 05 de outubro de 1977, que dispõe sobre a inspeção e fiscalização obrigatórias do sêmen destinado à inseminação artificial em animais domésticos, e dá outras providências, define como centro de IA, em seu Art. 20 Inciso 1, todo o estabelecimento que mantenha alojados reprodutores doadores de sêmen e que realize as tarefas de coleta, manipulação, Industrialização, armazenagem, comércio ou aplicação de sêmen, com as seguintes dependências: a - quarentenário; b - alojamento dos reprodutores; c - setor de coleta de sêmen; d - sala de material de coleta; e - sala de limpeza, desinfecção e esterilização de todos os materiais e instrumentos de coleta e processamento de sêmen; f - laboratório destinado ao exame, avaliação, diluição, envasamento e congelação de sêmen; g - banco de conservação de sêmen; h - setor administrativo e de expedição; i - outras dependências, se necessário. A atividade destes centros baseia-se na coleta do sêmen de reprodutores de qualidade, na sua armazenagem e subsequente distribuição; para tanto, é necessário realizar toda uma série de procedimentos para a apreciação da qualidade do sêmen e da sua aptidão para o armazenamento. A determinação da capacidade fecundante do sêmen, das suas qualidades e garantias sanitárias deve ser efetuada por técnicos especializados. 4.2 Valores genéticos do reprodutor Os centros de inseminação artificial dispõem dos melhores reprodutores de qualidade em termos de valores genéticos. De acordo com as disposições em vigor, os reprodutores devem ser submetidos a testes de descendência dos progenitores, de aptidão leiteira e estes mesmos testes ou, pelo menos, os testes de rendimento de carcaça próprio nas raças autóctones de produção de carne. Os centros devem dispor de catálogos ou listas contendo dados pormenorizados sobre a origem, qualidades reprodutivas e genéticas do reprodutor, o que permite ao criador conhecer com precisão qual é o touro (no caso dos bovinos) que lhe fornece o esperma e que melhorias pode esperar na qualidade da sua descendência. Por estas razões, os peritos dos centros devem ser responsáveis e assegurar que: a) Os reprodutores não transmitam genes letais ou semiletais ou qualquer outra anomalia geneticamente condicionada em relação à descendência. b) Os reprodutores transmitam realmente as qualidades genéticas declaradas e assegurem, em condições de manejo e alimentação dadas, uma importante produtividade da descendência. c) O preço da dose do sêmen reflita efetivamente o valor genético do reprodutor. d) O sêmen seja corretamente identificado, ou seja, pertença ao reprodutor indicado. 5. AS TÉCNICAS DE INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL 5.1 A coleta do sêmen A coleta do sêmen constitui a primeira operação a efetuar-se na técnica da IA. Nos mamíferos domésticos existem duas formas: a) Por recolha sobre a fêmea (pós-coito). b) Por recolha sobre o macho. Para desenvolvê-las foram preconizados diversos métodos: alguns como as esponjas vaginais ou aparelhos de borracha colocados nas vias genitais da fêmea não têm mais que um interesse histórico; outros, como a criação de fístulas ou punção direta no testículo, só são úteis como métodos experimentais, inclusive existem outros métodos, porém de uso pouco frequente (eletroejaculação, amaciamento das vesículas seminais, etc.). Hoje em dia tanto para o touro, carneiro, porco, cavalo e coelho o método usual é a obtenção de sêmen a partir do macho, concretamente mediante a aplicação da técnica da vagina artificial. Nas aves a emissão do esperma obtém-se mediante a massagem manual na região abdominal dos galos reprodutores. Nas abelhas, é necessário provocar a evaginação do pênis do zangão utilizando clorofórmio para depois ser efetuada a coleta do sêmen com o auxílio de uma micropipeta. 5.1.1 O método da vagina artificial Baseia-se na utilização de um aparelho prático e simples que tenta satisfazer as condições que imitem o máximo possível o aparelho genital feminino das fêmeas no momento do coito e que permite verificar uma rápida coleta de um ejaculação livre de contaminação. -/- É essencialmente constituído por um cilindro exterior de borracha endurecida e suficientemente compacto para ser utilizado como isolante térmico. Este cilindro apresenta uma abertura com parafuso de fecho; no interior do cilindro grosseiro introduz-se outro de borracha fina e flexível (camisa) revertido em suas extremidades para mantê-lo fixo mediante umas fitas de borracha. Limitada por ambos os cilindros fica uma cavidade que só se comunica com o exterior pelo orifício praticado na parede do cilindro externo. Uma das extremidades da vagina permanece aberta e a outra ajusta-se a um tubo coletor graduado de vidro no qual se recolhe o esperma. Para simular as condições naturais, introduz-se água quente (41-42ºC em bovinos) dentro da câmara em quantidade suficiente para criar uma pressão e temperatura semelhantes à da vagina da fêmea. 6. AVALIAÇÃO E TRATAMENTO DO SÊMEN: OPERAÇÕES E TÉCNICAS No laboratório podem ser avaliadas e medidas uma série de características e propriedades do sêmen através de um controle da sua qualidade. Estes exames são conclusivos ao permitir a diluição do sêmen e a sua posterior utilização ou, se for o caso, a sua eliminação. 6.1 Estudo macroscópico do esperma 6.1.1 O volume do sêmen ejaculado O volume do esperma é muito variável segundo as espécies (Tabela 1). Mesmo dentro da mesma espécie há variações, como, por exemplo, no caso dos bovinos. Circunstâncias tais como a idade, raça, momento da coleta, método no regime sexual da mesma, época do ano, regime alimentar e grau de excitação sexual em que se encontra, provocam grandes variações no total de quantidade ejaculada por animal. Tabela 1: Características médias do sêmen dos mamíferos domésticos Espécie Volume de uma ejaculação (ml) Concentração 1099/ml N° total de spz (109) Porcentagem de spz móveis Touro 5 (1 – 12) 1,2 (0,5 – 2,5) 6 65 Carneiro 0,9 (0,1 – 0,5) 4 (1,5 – 6) 3,6 90 Porco 300 0,3 90 70 Cavalo 100 0,15 15 65 Cão 2 0,1 0,2 85 Fonte: SOLTNER, 1993. A técnica para a sua medição é imediata, é realizada após a coleta mediante a utilização de um tubo graduado. O volume total de esperma é um fator secundário de apreciação. No entanto, o interesse do seu estudo reside no fato de que o volume normal ser um índice favorável que condiciona o número de doses seminais a preparar. Além disso, outras características macroscópicas importantes do esperma são a cor e o odor característicos em cada uma delas. 6.2 Estudo microscópico do esperma 6.2.1 A motilidade massal Imediatamente após a emissão, o exame microscópico direto do esperma fresco nos permite conhecer de forma aproximada a porcentagem de espermatozoides móveis, sua morfologia, tendência dos zoospermios à aglutinação (movimento de ondas e remoinhos, já que as células vivas varrem as mortas, agrupando-as) e a presença eventual de elementos estranhos (células epiteliais, pus, partículas de terra, restos de vaselina, etc.). O método é subjetivo e serve unicamente como avaliação de conjunto; no entanto, é importante a motilidade dos espermatozoides no fluido espermático. Uma boa ejaculação não deverá conter menos de 60% de espermatozoides em movimento, e este deve ser em avanço progressivo, nunca curvo, rotatório ou oscilante. A atividade massal é avaliada tecnicamente mediante microscópio, com ligeiro aumento (20 x 40), colocando uma gota de esperma sobre uma lâmina situada numa placa de aquecimento (38-39ºC). A observação pode ser direta sobre a ocular ou pode ser facilitada por um sistema que permita a visualização num monitor de televisão. 6.2.2 A concentração zoospérmica É o número de espermatozoides por mililitro de esperma variável para as diferentes espécies (tabela 1). A determinação pode ser feita utilizando sistemas semelhantes à contagem globular utilizada em hematologia, utilizando câmaras contabilísticas especiais como a câmara Burker. Esta câmara possui uma grelha integrada por três tipos de retângulos de diferentes áreas, o que permite operar com qualquer concentração. Antes de iniciar o processo é necessário diluir o esperma para uma melhor observação colocando uma quantidade conhecida sobre a câmara sobrepondo uma lamela. A contagem consiste em anotar o número de espermatozoides cujas cabeças se encontram dentro da grade, de modo que cada dois espermatozoides que eventualmente possam apresentar sua cabeça sobreposta sobre a linha divisória se conta um. O número de quadrados sobre os quais se deve fazer a contagem é de 30, obtendo depois a média aritmética do valor que resultava do número total de espermatozoides encontrados nas 30 quadras. Um exemplo prático para conhecer a concentração de espermatozoides no gado bovino pode ser deduzida utilizando a seguinte fórmula: N = M x 400 x 10 x 200 x 1.000 Onde: N: Número de espermatozoides/mm3. M: Média dos espermatozoides contados por grade. 400: Área da grelha (1/20 x 1/20 = 1/400 mm2). 10: Altura delimitada entre a câmara e a lamela (1/19 mm). 200: Título de diluição (1/200). 1000: Conversão de mm3 para cm3. Pode-se também apreciá-lo de forma rápida e precisa usando um fotômetro, avaliando uma pequena quantidade de esperma diluído. O método é baseado na relação direta que existe entre a transparência ou densidade ante a passagem da luz através do fluido espermático e sua concentração em espermatozoides. Uma fotocélula mede a luz que atravessa a preparação, o que permite deduzir diretamente a concentração. O sistema de videomicrografia consiste em um microscópio óptico focado na amostra de sêmen (foco que é feito manualmente por meio de parafuso micrométrico), uma câmera de vídeo recolhe imagens microscópicas e estas são processadas por computador. Sua vantagem é que o sistema, totalmente automatizado, pode ser ajustado para analisar a concentração no sêmen fresco e após a descongelação do mesmo. 6.2.3 A porcentagem de espermatozoides mortos e anormais Uma das provas de aptidão genésica dos reprodutores é a determinação de formas anormais de espermatozoides. Todos os animais em que o teor de tais formas ultrapasse repetidamente um determinado limite ou que sejam de um tipo característico devem ser eliminados. As colorações específicas permitem diferenciar as formas vivas das mortas em função da aceitação dos diferentes corantes utilizados. Uma das técnicas de coloração seletiva consiste em diluir uma gota de esperma num corante vital (eosina) juntamente com nigrosina. Uma vez aplicado o corante, deixa-se secar o esfregaço ao ar de modo que a eosina cora imediatamente os zoospermios mortos no momento da mistura, enquanto a nigrosina resulta na solução de contraste. A medição pode ser feita em um hematímetro ou por colorímetro. A porcentagem de formas anormais é dada pela seguinte fórmula: x=( A x 100 )/N Onde: A: Número de espermatozoides anormais encontrados. N: Número total de espermatozoides contados. Quando o teor de espermatozoides anormais ultrapassa um certo limite ou se as malformações são de um tipo característico, considera-se a ejaculação como não válida. 6.3 Os controles biológicos e bioquímicos Os controles biológicos ao esperma e espermatozoides limitam-se a testes de resistência ou grau de vigor e a testes de sobrevivência. Os controles químicos incluem, em geral, a determinação da atividade metabólica dos espermatozoides em relação a determinados produtos: frutólise, redução do azul de metileno, consumo de oxigênio, ou a utilização de testes indicadores como GOT, DNA e acrosina. 6.4 A diluição do esperma Esse processo tem por finalidade aumentar o volume total da massa espermática. Os objetivos buscados nesse processo de diluição são: a) Partindo de uma ejaculação, o poder de inseminar o maior número possível de fêmeas. b) A criação de um meio favorável à sobrevivência dos espermatozoides "in vitro". Como diluidores são utilizados diluentes e conservantes, a maioria deles são feitos a partir de gemas de ovo, frutose, leite desnatado reconstituído ou produtos químicos como o TRIS (hidroximetilaminometano) com a adição de antibióticos e glicerol. Em qualquer caso, devem satisfazer as seguintes condições: a) Que tenha um pH idôneo para cada tipo de sêmen, com bom efeito de mistura. b) Que tenham a mesma pressão osmótica e a propriedade de mantê-la. c) Que contenham substâncias alimentares necessárias para o metabolismo dos espermatozoides. d) Que contenham os minerais necessários e na concentração adequada sem ânions nem cátions tóxicos. e) Não devem conter elementos prejudiciais para os órgãos sexuais femininos, para o processo de fecundação e o desenvolvimento do óvulo fecundado. A frutose é a principal fonte de energia para o espermatozoide; este como qualquer outra célula é capaz de metabolizar os hidratos de carbono mediante um mecanismo oxidativo anaeróbio. As proteínas do ovo regulam as variações bruscas de temperatura e certos agentes químicos e efeito conservador sobre os zoospermios, o que permite uma melhor sobrevivência dos mesmos. Os lipídeos do ovo comportam-se como fatores de proteção e os complexos lipoproteicos protegem, mas também conservam o esperma. O leite desnatado apresenta a desvantagem de uma observação mais difícil dos espermatozoides ao fazer a constatação das doses seminais. Os antibióticos têm a função de inibir o desenvolvimento dos germes que acompanham o esperma no momento da coleta. A ação mais eficaz é a penicilina e a estreptomicina. À medida que certos agentes patogênicos (vibriofetus) e outras infecções específicas são erradicados, a tendência é a diminuição na utilização de antibióticos, porque, juntamente com a sua ação positiva, implica também uma diminuição da fertilidade do sêmen. O glicerol intervém no processo de conservação e favorece a formação de cristais muito pequenos durante a congelação, o que evita o dano celular e favorece a sobrevivência dos espermatozoides. 6.4.1 A taxa de diluição É um processo importante, uma vez que é necessário assegurar os resultados da fecundação. Realizado o número de espermatozoides de cada um dos ejaculados, uma vez que têm densidade diferente, procede-se ao cálculo do volume do dilúvio-conservador necessário. O número de doses obtidas por ejaculação é muito variável. De 100 a 300 ou mais para ejaculação de touro, de 10 a 15 para o de carneiro ou de bode e de 30 a 40 para o porco. Após a diluição do esperma com o mênstruo, é requerido um período de equilíbrio para que a temperatura do sêmen desça lentamente evitando, dessa maneira, o choque térmico. 6.5 O condicionamento do esperma: o enchimento e o fechamento das palhetas Para o condicionamento dos espermatozoides, sempre que se pratique a congelação do sêmen, como é o caso dos bovinos, foram utilizados diferentes sistemas como as ampolas e os tubos de celofane. No entanto, o mais frequente no Brasil é a aplicação do método francês das palhetas, de capacidade variável (0,25 ou 0,50 ml para o sêmen de touro) e grande resistência. As palhetas devem ser previamente identificadas de acordo com os códigos estabelecidos para estes casos nos centros correspondentes onde devem recolher as chaves de número e a data do congelamento, centro, raça e reprodutor com o seu nome correspondente. As operações de marcação, enchimento e fechamento das palhetas são totalmente automatizadas, no caso dos bovinos. 6.6 A congelação do sêmen Terminada a diluição, começa o processo de conservação correta do sêmen para que conserve sua efetividade de fecundação, para isso podemos recorrer à refrigeração e à congelação. O primeiro sistema é reservado aos animais cujos espermatozoides não resistem a temperaturas baixas ou quando se procura uma inseminação imediata. Nas espécies nas quais se pode realizar a congelação, como no bovino, mesmo com o aperfeiçoamento exaustivo das técnicas atuais, existe uma porcentagem de espermatozoides mortos na operação. Para evitar o máximo possível que isso aconteça, é feita uma descida gradual da temperatura, procurando uma curva adequada, de modo a evitar os riscos acima referidos. A congelação realiza-se a —196ºC com nitrogênio líquido; a conservação neste estado é praticamente indefinida. 6.6.1 Controle após a congelação Deve ser realizada em condições de qualidade, a qual é estabelecida em função do número de espermatozoides vivos e progressivamente móveis (em bovinos nunca inferior a 35%) que apareçam uma vez descongelada a palha. Terminada a análise e estabelecidos os correspondentes controles, os centros são responsáveis por: a) A distribuição de um sêmen controlado e de qualidade. b) O sêmen após descongelação contenha um número suficiente de espermatozoides móveis e fecundantes. 6.7 A qualidade sanitária do sêmen A qualidade sanitária do sémen depende diretamente das condições de vida sanitária em que se encontra o reprodutor, das condições de coleta do sêmen, do tratamento do mesmo e da sua manipulação. A infecção do esperma pode ocorrer durante a diluição e a conservação e, mais eficazmente ainda, durante a coleta e com o ar do ambiente. A infecção pode ser causada por: a) Agentes específicos das infecções genitais, que podem propagar doenças infecciosas através da inseminação (vibriose, tricomoníase, brucelose, etc.). b) Agentes não específicos como diferentes bactérias (estafilococos, estreptococos, colibactérias, germes pirógenos, etc.), fungos (micose) e vírus (IBR) que podem provocar inflamações dos órgãos genitais da fêmea e que exercem uma influência nociva dos seus produtos de metabolismo sobre o poder fecundante dos espermatozoides. Atualmente, é possível obter esperma estéril desde que se trabalhe corretamente com os diluentes; no entanto, apesar de todas as garantias que possam oferecer a tecnologia dos centros dos diferentes países, existe uma regulamentação jurídica clara, a fim de evitar a difusão de riscos para a saúde. 7. A INSEMINAÇÃO ARTIFICIAL NA PRÁTICA No processo de inseminação propriamente dito, o sêmen é introduzido e depositado nas vias genitais da fêmea mediante o instrumental adequado. Para o seu desenvolvimento no gado bovino, são necessárias uma série de operações. 7.1 Coleta e transferência no termo de transporte As palhetas são recolhidas pelos inseminadores nos centros levando-as em pequenos contentores de transporte que contêm nitrogênio líquido. Ao retirar a palheta do recipiente é conveniente tê-la perfeitamente localizada para conseguir uma correta manipulação da cesta onde está situada, uma vez que uma queda brusca da temperatura faz diminuir a sobrevivência das células espermáticas. 7.2 A descongelação Realiza-se rapidamente num banho de água ou num termo que mantém a temperatura da água entre 35-37ºC. Outros sistemas diferentes não são recomendados, pois aumentam o tempo de descongelação e diminuem a capacidade fecundante do sêmen. 7.3 A aplicação do sêmen no aparelho genital da vaca Uma vez descongelada a palheta, seca-se e homogeneíza-se o seu conteúdo, corta-se uma das suas extremidades selada com álcool polivinílico solidificado e introduz-se no cateter de inseminação, instrumento cilíndrico no qual se introduz a palheta, posteriormente ajusta-se perfeitamente para evitar perdas de material seminal e, no momento da aplicação, o seu conteúdo é empurrado através de um sistema de êmbolo. O cateter é revestido com uma bainha de plástico, descartável após cada utilização. O método técnico que se impôs atualmente é o americano, no qual o lugar ideal para depositar o sêmen é na bifurcação dos cornos uterinos guiando-se por palpação manual através da parede retal. 7.4 O momento ideal de inseminação na vaca Há uma série de fatores que determinam o momento ideal de inseminação da vaca: a) A capacidade de sobrevivência dos espermatozoides nos órgãos sexuais femininos. b) A necessidade da maturidade dos espermatozoides (capacitação). c) O tempo de maturidade do óvulo e sua passagem pelo oviduto. Em geral, como média, as vacas permanecem no cio por 18 horas e ovulam às 14 horas depois, sendo a vida do óvulo de 6 a 10 horas. Em função destes fatores e para obter uma fertilidade ideal as vacas podem ser servidas durante os últimos dois terços do período de cio, ou algumas horas depois de este ter terminado, o que na prática se traduz em que se observa o cio pela manhã, as vacas podem ser servidas nessa mesma tarde e as que mostram o cio pela tarde são inseminadas na manhã seguinte. Em caso de dúvidas é sempre melhor deixar passar mais tempo. 7.5 Inseminação em caprinos, ovinos, suínos, equinos, coelhos, aves e abelhas Nos ovinos e caprinos, a inseminação é feita com sêmen fresco e refrigerado, normalmente conservado a 16 ºC com ampolas de ácido acético. A técnica da inseminação em si é simples, mas requer a utilização de espéculo para abrir a vulva e guiar a pistola inseminadora, injetando a dose correspondente à entrada do colo do útero. A dose seminal depositada varia entre 0,2 e 0,4 ml em concentrações de 5 x 106 espermatozoides/ml. No caso dos caprinos, a técnica é semelhante à das ovelhas, com a ressalva de que as doses seminais são geralmente, um pouco mais elevadas. Em suínos utiliza-se para inseminação o sêmen fresco, a temperatura de conservação varia entre 40 ºC e 15 ºC. As técnicas de congelação resultam na obtenção de espermatozoides móveis após a descongelação, mas com má fertilidade. Na porca o cio ou estro, momento apropriado para a inseminação, tem uma duração aproximada de 3 dias. A ovulação ocorre às 35 horas após o início do cio; este fato acontece às 30-40 horas de imobilização ante o cachaço, sendo a sobrevivência do óvulo de 12 horas. As fêmeas em cada cio podem ser inseminadas uma ou duas vezes. O momento apropriado é 24 horas após o início do estro quando se aplica uma única dose; caso se aplicarem duas, recomenda-se fazê-la de 24 à 36 horas após o aparecimento do estro. Devido à disposição peculiar do colo do útero na porca, a prática da inseminação suína requer: a) Uma deposição do sêmen intrauterina. b) Uma fixação do cateter correta para estimular as contrações uterinas e facilitar o transporte de espermatozoides. c) Evitar o refluxo do sêmen e a consequente diminuição do número de espermatozoides, o que entra em detrimento com a finalidade da fertilidade. A forma do cateter é adaptada à necessidade de uma correta fixação cervical para praticar a inseminação intrauterina de um volume importante de sêmen diluído (cerca de 100 cc). Os diversos modelos existentes, com variantes, tratam de imitar a forma do pênis do macho e introduzem-se na vagina girando para a esquerda para permitir seu deslizamento e uma boa fixação. O sêmen contido no recipiente é depositado por gravidade no útero. Nos equinos, o sêmen utilizado é fresco, normalmente a 4 ºC. A técnica apresenta uma maior dificuldade decorrente da necessidade de utilizar um longo tubo acoplado ao cateter de inseminação para o acesso fácil à zona de deposição do esperma no aparelho genital da égua. A dose correspondente é injetada a nível uterino. Nos coelhos é utilizado sêmen fresco, refrigerado e diluído. Para inseminar existem vários procedimentos, embora o mais comum seja a utilização de palhetas e pistola de inseminação. A aplicação do esperma efetua-se entre 1 e 4 horas após a coleta do mesmo. Nas aves, a técnica de inseminação é realizada com sêmen fresco extraído pouco antes da sua implantação na fêmea, uma vez que na maioria das espécies se constata uma rápida diminuição das taxas de fecundação com o tempo. O material e a metodologia do inseminador consistem em pipetas para a obtenção do esperma, dosador de sêmen diluído, palhetas descartáveis e seringas adequadas para a colocação do sêmen no aparelho genital da fêmea. Os intervalos de inseminação são, geralmente, de uma semana. Nas abelhas, a inseminação artificial das rainhas é prática corrente em centros especializados na seleção de reprodutores. A técnica requer um efeito sedativo na rainha durante a manipulação, abertura da prega da vagina e introdução da seringa na vagina. Para efetuar estas operações é necessário utilizar um aparelho especial de inseminação. 8. RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES Aspectos como a melhoria genética, a proteção sanitária ou a organização e gestão da empresa pecuária têm sido as principais motivações para que a técnica da inseminação artificial tenha se difundido atualmente nos países com uma pecuária organizada e desenvolvida. A utilização da técnica implica na utilização de um sêmen de qualidade, garantido pelos centros de inseminação. Através de técnicas laboratoriais, é possível prever essa qualidade mediante a realização de testes macroscópicos (motilidade massal) e microscópicos (quantidade, motilidade, porcentagem de espermatozoides anormais e densidade). Constatada a sua qualidade, o sêmen é diluído com o objetivo de conservá-lo e aumentar o volume de ejaculação, sendo-lhe adicionados diferentes tipos de diluentes e aditivos. O sêmen pode ser conservado refrigerado ou congelado com nitrogênio líquido a uma temperatura negativa de -196 ºC. Para obter uma porcentagem elevada de inseminações fecundantes nos bovinos, faz-se necessário a manipulação correta das palhetas, evitando as mudanças de temperatura até à sua posterior utilização. Os processos de descongelação, secagem e colocação no cateter devem ser realizados de forma rápida e eficiente. Nas espécies em que se utiliza sêmen fresco, além de um correto desenvolvimento da técnica em si, é de vital importância a conservação do mesmo a temperatura adequada, além da sua aplicação em um curto espaço de tempo para evitar baixas taxas de fecundação. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva – Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE. Recife, 2020. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ASBIA. Informações Técnicas sobre inseminação artificial. Acesso em: Março de 2020. ASBIA. Manual de Inseminação de Artificial, Uberaba – MG: Associação Brasileira de Inseminação Artificial, 2003. BRACKETT, B. G.; JÚNIOR, G. E. A.; SEIDEL, S. M. Avances en zootecnia. Nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. 1ª ed. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1988. BRASIL. Legislação Informatizada - Decreto n° 91.111 de 12/03/1985. Acesso em: Março de 2020. CLÉMENT, Jean Michel. Larousse agricultural dictionary. Paris: Larousse, 1981. DERIVAUX, Jules. Fisiopatología de la reproducción e inseminación artificial de los animales domésticos. Havana: Instituto Cubano del libro, 1976. GOFFAUX, M. Quelques aspects relatives a la technologie de insémination artificielle des bovins. Elevage et insémination, n. 216, p. 5-9. 1986. HAFEZ, E. S. E. Artificial Insemination in Reproduction in Farm Animals. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, p. 481-497, 1990. HOPPER, Richard M. (Ed.). Bovine reproduction. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2014. HUNTER, Ronald Henry Fraser et al. Physiology and technology of reproduction in female domestic animals. Londres: Academic Press, 1980. JOHNSON, L. A.; LARSSON, K. Deep freezing of boar semen. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 1985. LABBATE, Rodolfo D. Manual del inseminador. Córdoba: Sayg, 2000. ORGEUR, P.; SIGNORET, J. P. L'activité sexuelle du taureau: revue bibliographique. Paris: INRA, 1990, 3 (4), pp.235-242. ORTUÑO, Arturo Duarte. Manual de inseminación artificial de ganado. Disponível em: ——. Acesso em: Março de 2020. PÉREZ PÉREZ, F.; PÉREZ GUTIÉRREZ, F. Reproducción animal, inseminación animal y transplante de embriones. Barcelona: Cientifico-medica, 1985. Y PÉREZ, Félix Pérez. Reproducción e inseminación artificial ganadera. Barcelona: Cientifico-Medica, 1966. SALISBURY, G. W.; VANDERMARK, N. L. Phisiology of the reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. San Francisco : Freeman e Company, 1961, 630 p. SEVERO, N. C. História ilustrada da inseminação artificial. São Paulo: Livre Expressão, 2013. SOLTNER, D. La reproduction des animaux domestiques d’élevage. Zootechnie générale, v. 1, Paris: Sciences et techniques agricole, 1993. (shrink)

The study aimed to identify the role of administrative procedures and systems in enhancing the performance of the educational institutions in the Islamic University in Gaza. To achieve the research objectives, the researchers used the analytical descriptive approach to collect information. The researchers used the questionnaire distributed to three categories of employees at the Islamic University (senior management, faculty members, their assistants and members of the administrative board). A random sample of 314 employees was selected and 276 questionnaires were retrieved (...) with a recovery rate of 88.1%. The Statistical Analysis Program (SPSS) was used to enter process and analyze data. The results of the research showed a positive role for the administrative procedures and systems in enhancing the performance of the Islamic University from the point of view of the members (senior management, teaching staff and their assistants and the administrative body), where the relative weight of all the paragraphs (73.728%). The analysis of the results revealed that the administrative procedures at the Islamic University in Gaza are used to an acceptable degree. The relative weight of all the paragraphs is 70%. This indicates a relationship between administrative procedures and regulations and the performance of the Islamic University in the Gaza Strip. The study found that there was a good degree of approval from the sample regarding the administrative procedures and their relationship to the job performance. There exist a sufficient degree of powers to the deans and department managers to carry out their tasks, with the use of plans as control tools. And that there are rules and procedures provided for decision-making in the University Council. It also has full powers to manage the university to improve the teaching and learning environment. The researchers also recommended a number of recommendations, including the need to follow up on the procedures and systems of management and update them continuously in the light of changes that may occur and to ensure the existence of a strong system of electronic information systems within the university. There is a need to provide mechanisms for obtaining information about the surrounding external environment, and effective mechanisms to provide managers with the necessary information in a timely manner. The importance of providing channels of communication that enables staff to communicate information about any violations and breaches. The study also recommended the follow-up, review, procedures and administrative systems, and work to modify them in line with the mission of the university and the objectives that the university seeks to reach. (shrink)

This paper argues that, by construing emotion as epistemologically subversive, the Western tradition has tended to obscure the vital role of emotion in the construction of knowledge. The paper begins with an account of emotion that stresses its active, voluntary, and socially constructed aspects, and indicates how emotion is involved in evaluation and observation. It then moves on to show how the myth of dispassionate investigation has functioned historically to undermine the epistemic authority of women as well as other social (...) groups associated culturally with emotion. Finally, the paper sketches some ways in which the emotions of underclass groups, especially women, may contribute to the development of a critical social theory. (shrink)

This editorial introduces the Journal of Consciousness Studies special issue on "Animal Consciousness". The 15 contributors and co-editors answer the question "How should we study animal consciousness scientifically?" in 500 words or fewer.

Multidimensional concepts are everywhere, and they are important. Examples include moral value, welfare, scientific confirmation, democracy, and biodiversity. How, if at all, can we aggregate the underlying dimensions of a multidimensional concept F to yield verdicts about which things are Fer than which overall? Social choice theory can be used to model and investigate this aggregation problem. Here, we focus on a particularly thorny problem made salient by this social choice-theoretic framework: the underlying dimensions of a given concept might be (...) measurable on different types of scales—e.g., some ordinal and some cardinal. An underappreciated impossibility theorem due to Anna Khmelnitskaya shows that seemingly plausible constraints on aggregation across scale types are inconsistent. This impossibility threatens to render the notion of overall Fness incoherent. We attempt to defuse this threat, arguing that the impossibility depends on an overly restrictive conception of measurement and of how measurement constrains aggregation. Adopting a more flexible—and, we think, more perspicuous—conception of measurement opens an array of possibilities for aggregation across disparate scale types. (shrink)

Problem of the existence of God and His relation to the world and human being is seen as one of quite old and main problems of philosophy. Though the existence of God and His essence as a knowledge subject is related to a transcendent being over this universe, human being can find rules made by Him in physical world in which stands. The concept of God constitutes one of the most involved points of Descartes’ philosophy. In fact, for Descartes, who (...) built his philosophy on physical bases or mechanical world, to place God as condition to his metaphysics originates from the conception that if God does not exist a being does not. In this paper, we will try to explain the relation of God and human and the world in Descartes’ philosophy. (shrink)

Abilitism is an approach to the metaphysics of concepts according to which each concept consists of a managing cognitive ability coordinating other abilities (cognitive and non-cognitive) and a set of subordinate abilities associated with this managing ability. As I argue here, if we accept the abilitist approach, we can efficiently solve such puzzles in the metaphysics of concepts as the partial possession problem, the concept pluralism problem, etc. However, there are some possible objections to abilitism, concerning the abilitist explanation of (...) compositional properties of concepts, knowledge-that, an extension/intension of concepts, and the idea that concepts are constituents of thought. As I demonstrate here, these objections can be answered. (shrink)

While there seems to be much evidence that perceptual states can occur without being conscious, some theorists recently express scepticism about unconscious perception. We explore here two kinds of such scepticism: Megan Peters and Hakwan Lau's experimental work regarding the well-known problem of the criterion -- which seems to show that many purported instances of unconscious perception go unreported but are weakly conscious -- and Ian Phillips' theoretical consideration, which he calls the 'problem of attribution' -- the worry that many (...) purported examples of unconscious perception are not perceptual, but rather merely informational and subpersonal. We argue that these concerns do not undermine the evidence for unconscious perception and that this sceptical approach results in a dilemma for the sceptic, who must either deny that there is unconscious mentality generally or explain why perceptual states are unique in the mind such that they cannot occur unconsciously. Both options, we argue, are problematic. (shrink)

Conceptions of acceptability-based moral or political justification take it that authoritative acceptability constitutes, or contributes to, validity, or justification. There is no agreement as to what bar for authoritativeness such justification may employ. The paper engages the issue in relation to (i) the level of idealization that a bar for authoritativeness, ψ, imparts to a standard of acceptability-based justification, S, and (ii) the degree of discursive purchase of the discursive standing that S accords to people when it builds ψ. I (...) argue that (i) and (ii) are interdependent: high idealization values entail low discursive purchase, while high degrees of purchase require low idealization values. I then distinguish between alethic conceptions of justification that prioritize ends that commit to high idealization values, and recognitive conceptions that favour high discursive purchase. On this basis, I argue for a moderately recognitivist constraint on idealization. To render the recognitive discursive minimum available to relevant people at the site of justification, S should set ψ low enough so that it is a genuine option for actual people to reject relevant views in ways that S recognizes as authoritative. (shrink)

Recently, bioethicists and the UNCRPD have advocated for supported medical decision-making on behalf of patients with intellectual disabilities. But what does supported decision-making really entail? One compelling framework is Anita Silvers and Leslie Francis’ mental prosthesis account, which envisions supported decision-making as a process in which trustees act as mere appendages for the patient’s will; the trustee provides the cognitive tools the patient requires to realize her conception of her own good. We argue that supported decision-making would be better understood (...) as a collaborative process, giving patients with intellectual disabilities the opportunity to make decisions in a respectful relationship with trusted others. We offer an alternative account of supported decision-making where the primary constraint is to protect the patient from domination by the trustee. This is advantageous in its preservation of the prospects for genuine collaboration, for the mental prosthesis approach ultimately reinforces a problematic ideal of isolated patient self-determination. (shrink)

It has been a common assumption that words are substances that instantiate or have properties. In this paper, I question the assumption that our ontology of words requires posting substances by outlining a bundle theory of words, wherein words are bundles of various sorts of properties (such as semantic, phonetic, orthographic, and grammatical properties). I argue that this view can better account for certain phenomena than substance theories, is ontologically more parsimonious, and coheres with claims in linguistics.

The aim of this paper is to bring recent work on metaphysical grounding to bear on the phenomenon of social construction. It is argued that grounding can be used to analyze social construction and that the grounding framework is helpful for articulating various claims and commitments of social constructionists, especially about social identities, e.g., gender and race. The paper also responds to a number of objections that have been leveled against the application of grounding to social construction from Elizabeth Barnes, (...) Mari Mikkola, and Jessica Wilson. (shrink)

This paper explores the idea of robust discursive equality on which respect-based conceptions of justificatory reciprocity often draw. I distinguish between formal and substantive discursive equality and argue that if justificatory reciprocity requires that people be accorded formally equal discursive standing, robust discursive equality should not be construed as requiring standing that is equal substantively, or in terms of its discursive purchase. Still, robust discursive equality is purchase sensitive: it does not obtain when discursive standing is impermissibly unequal in purchase. (...) I then showcase different candidate conceptions of purchase justice, and draw conclusions about the substantive commitments of justificatory reciprocity. (shrink)

As inductive decision-making procedures, the inferences made by machine learning programs are subject to underdetermination by evidence and bear inductive risk. One strategy for overcoming these challenges is guided by a presumption in philosophy of science that inductive inferences can and should be value-free. Applied to machine learning programs, the strategy assumes that the influence of values is restricted to data and decision outcomes, thereby omitting internal value-laden design choice points. In this paper, I apply arguments from feminist philosophy of (...) science to machine learning programs to make the case that the resources required to respond to these inductive challenges render critical aspects of their design constitutively value-laden. I demonstrate these points specifically in the case of recidivism algorithms, arguing that contemporary debates concerning fairness in criminal justice risk-assessment programs are best understood as iterations of traditional arguments from inductive risk and demarcation, and thereby establish the value-laden nature of automated decision-making programs. Finally, in light of these points, I address opportunities for relocating the value-free ideal in machine learning and the limitations that accompany them. (shrink)

The article is dedicated to the popular argument among nativists, who use it against the empiricist approach. We analyze the strongest objection against the poverty of the stimulus argument which is the curry argument. As a result of the critical consideration of the poverty of the stimulus discussion, we conclude that the curry argument is quite sound.

Moral and political forms of constructivism accord to people strong, “constitutive” forms of discursive standing and so build on, or express, a commitment to discursive respect. The paper explores dimensions of discursive respect, i.e., depth, scope, and purchase; it addresses tenuous interdependencies between them; on this basis, it identifies limitations of the idea of discursive respect and of constructivism. The task of locating discursive respect in the normative space defined by its three dimensions is partly, and importantly, an ethical task (...) that is beyond constructivism. Interdependencies between these dimensions call into question the possibility of a plausible and coherent form of discursive respect that is deep, inclusive in scope, and rich in purchase. This does not mean that we should reject discursive respect, or constructivism, for that matter. But it suggests that the task of reconciling the dimensions of discursive respect may not allow for widely shareable results. This task needs to be addressed on non-constructivist grounds. Accordingly, we have reasons to concede that constitutive forms of discursive standing are less fundamental in the order of justification than weaker, “derivative” forms, and this is so especially if we take constitutive standing to mark an important good. (shrink)

Although the first thing coming to mind when called Alghazali is theologian celebrated for criticism of philosophy, we only will not mention his critical thinking. It can be thought that this famous thinker of Islamic world has purely attempted to criticism of metaphysics but in our opinion this is not exactly true. With reference to traditional commentaries on Alghazali is not quite well, we desire to try in order to show a reliable approach. In this paper we will argue whether (...) or not the coherence of some commentaries on Alghazali such as destruction philosophy, inhibition to the intellectual development, prohibition to scientific and ideational advancement and so on. (shrink)

Waiting time is widely used in health and social policy to make resource allocation decisions, yet no general account of the moral significance of waiting time exists. We provide such an account. We argue that waiting time is not intrinsically morally significant, and that the first person in a queue for a resource does not ipso facto have a right to receive that resource first. However, waiting time can and sometimes should play a role in justifying allocation decisions. First, there (...) is a duty of fairness prohibiting line-cutting where a sufficiently just queue exists. Second, waiting time has several morally attractive features that can justify its incorporation into allocation schemes. Where candidates are in relevantly similar circumstances, allocating by waiting time is relatively efficient, maximizes distribution equality relative to other Pareto efficient distributions, and treats candidates fairly. The claim that allocation using waiting time is fair is controversial. Some have claimed that formal lotteries are a fairer way to select among equal beneficiaries. We argue that lotteries are no fairer than allocation based on waiting time when it is equiprobable how a prospective queue will be ordered. In practice, lotteries share many of the disadvantages of queues; which is fairer will depend on contingent features of the allocation scenario. The upshot is that first-come, first-served is in fact a just way to allocate resources in many of the cases where it seems pre-theoretically compelling, and waiting time has unique normative properties which frequently justify its incorporation into resource allocation schemes. (shrink)

The genetic modification of pigs as a source of transplantable organs is one of several possible solutions to the chronic organ shortage. This paper describes existing ethical tensions in xenotransplantation (XTx) that argue against pursuing it. Recommendations for lifelong infectious disease surveillance and notification of close contacts of recipients are in tension with the rights of human research subjects. Parental/guardian consent for pediatric xenograft recipients is in tension with a child’s right to an open future. Individual consent to transplant is (...) in tension with public health threats that include zoonotic diseases. XTx amplifies concerns about justice in organ transplantation and could exacerbate existing inequities. The prevention of infectious disease in source animals is in tension with the best practices of animal care and animal welfare, requiring isolation, ethologically inappropriate housing, and invasive reproductive procedures that would severely impact the well-being of intelligent social creatures like pigs. (shrink)

Dance, as a mode of physical interaction, offers opportunities to care and be cared for, but this does not mean that dancers will, in fact, care. There may be no moral motivation underlying a lift, dip or intricate sequence of coordinated action. Choreographic scores may (knowingly or not) encourage merely perfunctory movements that are a poor simulacrum to care. Moreover, the caring that is expressed through dance need not transfer to other walks of life. I am not alone in knowing (...) spectacularly talented dancers whose behaviour off the dance floor is far from ethical – from the arrogant and petty to the flagrant abuse that plagues institutions of art and culture. This article considers how dance can illuminate both the acts and sentiments of care, conveying particular ethical orientations that trouble straightforward, absolute moral reasoning. The article frames an enquiry into the relation between ethics and aesthetics of care, drawn from feminist epistemologists Joan Tronto, Maurice Hamington, and Nel Noddings, as well as my own performance research on partnering. I frame a zone between technique and competence, foregrounding care in dance as both a technical and ethical issue. I will consider the necessary conditions by which dancing together can manifest care, rather than suggest blanketly that it always does or even that it should. To make this argument, I will describe and analyse Considered Care, a duet I created in the autumn of 2021 in collaboration with Boston Ballet. This performance research project provided the material from which to consider the concept of need, a condition of care in a dancing situation. I will conclude by considering the relationship between needs and trust in conceptualizing care within partnering. (shrink)

In this chapter, I argue that communication in partnering is a physical exchange of information on the basis of ethically-bound conditions. Simply put, partners can cause each other harm. Thus, the criteria of communication in partnering is always within an ethical domain, where action runs along a continuum ranging from the ethical to the unethical. To make this argument, I will first lay out the conditions to which the relevant norms of evaluation can adhere. These conditions include proximity, orientation, and (...) point(s) of contact. Rather than provide a how-to guide for communication, I will examine a critical vocabulary for practically approaching communication in partnering. Section I begins with the conditions of communication, followed by Section II which examines the norms of communicating well. (shrink)

According to the “internal” conception (Quong), political liberalism aims to be publicly justifiable only to people who are reasonable in a special sense specified and advocated by political liberalism itself. One advantage of the internal conception allegedly is that it enables liberalism to avoid perfectionism. The paper takes issue with this view. It argues that once the internal conception is duly pitched at its fundamental, metatheoretical level and placed in its proper discursive context, it emerges that it comes at the (...) cost of public dogma. The paper examines this problem and argues that a plausible response to this problem is to go beyond the internal conception and adopt a more inclusive, dynamic conception. But this calls for a form of perfectionism. Thus, the internal conception of political liberalism, far from showing how liberalism can be had without perfectionism, effectively calls for perfectionism as a remedy for its problems. (shrink)

According to Rainer Forst, (i) moral and political claims must meet a requirement of reciprocal and general acceptability (RGA) while (ii) we are under a duty in engaged discursive practice to justify such claims to others, or be able to do so, on grounds that meet RGA. The paper critically engages this view. I argue that Forst builds a key component of RGA, i.e., reciprocity of reasons, on an idea of the reasonable that undermines both (i) and (ii): if RGA (...) builds on this idea, RGA is viciously regressive and a duty of justification to meet RGA fails to be agent transparent. This negative result opens the door for alternative conceptions of reciprocity and generality. I then suggest that a more promising conception of reciprocity and generality needs to build on an idea of the reasonable that helps to reconcile the emancipatory or protective aspirations of reciprocal and general justification with its egalitarian commitments. But this requires to downgrade RGA in the order of justification and to determine on prior, substantive grounds what level of discursive influence in reciprocal and general justification relevant agents ought to have. (shrink)

The paper challenges the view that public justification sits well with emancipatory and egalitarian intuitions. I distinguish between the depth, scope and the purchase of the discursive standing that such justification allocates, and situate within this matrix Rawls’s view of public justification. A standard objection to this view is that public justification should be more inclusive in scope. This is both plausible and problematic in emancipatory and egalitarian terms. If inclusive public justification allocates discursive standing that is rich in purchase, (...) as seems desirable in emancipatory terms, it may be unable to allocate equal standing to all relevant people. And if it is to allocate equal standing, then the equality of that standing should be construed in terms that allow for unequal discursive purchase. (shrink)

Recent theorizing argues that online communication technologies provide powerful, although precarious, means of emotional regulation. We develop this understanding further. Drawing on subjective reports collected during periods of imposed social restrictions under COVID-19, we focus on how this precarity is a source of emo-tional dysregulation. We make our case by organizing responses into five distinct but intersecting dimensions wherein the precarity of this regulation is most relevant: infrastructure, functional use, mindful design (individual and social), and digital tact. Analyzing these reports, (...) along with examples of mediating technologies (i.e., self-view) and common interactive dynamics (e.g., gaze coordination), we tease out how breakdowns along these dimensions are sources of affective dysregulation. We argue that the adequacy of available technological resources and competencies of various kinds matter greatly to the types of emotional experiences one is likely to have online. Further research into online communication technologies as modula-tors of both our individual and collective well-being is urgently needed, especially as the echoes of the digital push that COVID-19 initiated are set to continue rever-berating into the future. (shrink)

In this article, I present a two-pronged argument for the immorality of contemporary, asymmetric drone warfare, based on my new interpretations of the just war principles of “proportionality” and “moral equivalence of combatants” (MEC). The justification for these new interpretations is that drone warfare continues to this day, having survived despite arguments against it that are based on traditional interpretations of just war theory (including one from Michael Walzer). On the basis of my argument, I echo Harry Van der Linden’s (...) call for “an international treaty banning all weaponized UAV [uninhabited aerial vehicles].”. (shrink)

The paper advances a non-orthodox reading of political liberalism’s view of political legitimacy, the view of public political justification that comes with it, and the idea of the reasonable at the heart of these views. Political liberalism entails that full discursive standing should be accorded only to people who are reasonable in a substantive sense. As the paper argues, this renders political liberalism dogmatic and exclusivist at the level of arguments for or against normative theories of justice. Against that background, (...) the paper considers aspects of a more plausible, deeper and more inclusive idea of public political justification that builds on a thinner, potentially cosmopolitan idea of the reasonable. The paper considers what content such an idea may have, and identifies a method of inclusive abstraction through which it may be enriched in content to render it fruitful for the purposes of a justification of principles of political justice. But the move toward more depth and inclusiveness faces constructivism with two challenges. First, inclusivism about the scope of political justification might not be able to avoid dogmatism unless it invokes perfectionist considerations. And second, the authority and appeal of a fruitfully rich idea of the reasonable depends on whether the addressees of political justification already value wide acceptability. (shrink)

One widely used method for allocating health care resources involves the use of cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) to rank treatments in terms of quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained. CEA has been criticized for discriminating against people with disabilities by valuing their lives less than those of non-disabled people. Avoiding discrimination seems to lead to the ’QALY trap’: we cannot value saving lives equally and still value raising quality of life. This paper reviews existing responses to the QALY trap and argues that all (...) are problematic. Instead, we argue that adopting a moderate form of prioritarianism avoids the QALY trap and disability discrimination. (shrink)

How partners encounter each other plays a role in whether they will be able to sustain their interaction. How partners go about maintaining their interaction reveals features of their epistemological system, particularly with respect to factors like what they know, what they take to be relevant to the interpretation, and what they value. In this way, the value system (what partners want) and the epistemological system (what partners know) intersect. By focusing on the role of reasoning and understanding, I believe (...) we stand to gain a clearer picture of how expectations about interactions inform the dynamics between partners. This, in turn, affords a picture of what partners can actually achieve in and through their connection. I am particularly interested in considering what features of interaction are necessary for maximizing the affordances of the partnership. I say this not as a utilitarian interested in maximizing good simpliciter, but as a social epistemologist thinking about the contingent goods that are present in relation (e.g. care). The epistemic picture assumes that there are things that are knowable in dancing together, while the ethical picture assumes that partners are responsible for the things they ought to know. -/- . (shrink)

The paper considers contemporary models of presumption in terms of their ability to contribute to a working theory of presumption for argumentation. Beginning with the Whatelian model, we consider its contemporary developments and alternatives, as proposed by Sidgwick, Kauffeld, Cronkhite, Rescher, Walton, Freeman, Ullmann-Margalit, and Hansen. Based on these accounts, we present a picture of presumptions characterized by their nature, function, foundation and force. On our account, presumption is a modal status that is attached to a claim and has the (...) effect of shifting, in a dialogue, a burden of proof set at a local level. Presumptions can be analysed and evaluated inferentially as components of rule-based structures. Presumptions are defeasible, and the force of a presumption is a function of its normative foundation. This picture seeks to provide a framework to guide the development of specific theories of presumption. (shrink)

Averroes, considered to be the greatest Aristotelian commentator in the Middle Ages, has written three different types of commentary on almost all the works of this great philosopher: short, middle and long. These commentaries have been translated into Latin and Hebrew in the early period, and profoundly influenced both Medieval Europe and Jewish thought for centuries. The effect of Averroes in the West was to spread the whole of Europe under the name of Latin Averroism. The text what you have (...) consists of some remarks about the translation of the commentary on the ‘Book Alpha Meizon’, the second book of Averroes’ Tafsīr Mā Ba’d at-Tabī’a. (shrink)

The innate knowledge problem is a classical problem in philosophy, which has been known since the classical antiquity. Plato in his dialogues Meno and Phaedo formulated the doctrine of innate ideas and proposed an early version of the poverty of the stimulus argument, which is the most frequently used argument in innate knowledge debates. In the history of philosophy there was also an opposite view. This approach is often associated with J. Locke’s philosophy. Locke thought that all our knowledge about (...) the world is a product of the universal learning mechanisms whose functioning is based on perception. The question about the presence of innate ideas in the human mind still remains relevant. New findings in cognitive science and neurosciences and also some recent arguments from philosophers contribute to the contemporary discussion between the spokesmen of the rival approaches to this problem. The paper presents the investigation of one of the approaches to solving the problem of innate concepts, which is called a “concept nativism.” It highlights the outstanding characteristics of the concept nativism: (a) domain specificity position, (b) belief that domain-specific mechanisms of learning are innate and (c) belief that at least some concepts are innate. The article also proposes an analysis of notions “innateness” and “idea” which is important for understanding nativists’ approach to innate ideas theory. And finally, it describes the most popular nativists’ arguments: (a) references to empirical studies using the preferential looking technique, (b) the poverty of the stimulus argument and (c) the argument from animals. (shrink)

Public justification in political liberalism is often conceptualized in light of Rawls’s view of its role in a hypothetical well-ordered society as an ideal or idealizing form of justification that applies a putatively reasonable conception of political justice to political matters. But Rawls implicates a different idea of public justification in his doctrine of general reflective equilibrium. The paper engages this second, more fundamental idea. Public justification in this second sense is actualist and fundamental. It is actualist in that it (...) fully enfranchises actual reasonable citizens. It is fundamental in that political liberalism qualifies conceptions of political justice as reasonable to begin with only if they can be accepted coherently by actual reasonable citizens. Together, these features invite the long-standing concern that actualist political liberalism is objectionably exclusionary. I argue that the exclusion objection, while plausible, is more problematic in own right than it seems if actualist and fundamental public justification hypotheticalizes and discursive respect is compatible with substantive discursive inequality. This leaves proponents and critics of political liberalism with deeper questions about the nature of permissible discursive inequality in public justification. (shrink)

In the field of machine consciousness, it has been argued that in order to build human-like conscious machines, we must first have a computational model of qualia. To this end, some have proposed a framework that supports qualia in machines by implementing a model with three computational areas (i.e., the subconceptual, conceptual, and linguistic areas). These abstract mechanisms purportedly enable the assessment of artificial qualia. However, several critics of the machine consciousness project dispute this possibility. For instance, Searle, in his (...) Chinese room objection, argues that however sophisticated a computational system is, it can never exhibit intentionality; thus, would also fail to exhibit consciousness or any of its varieties. This paper argues that the proposed architecture mentioned above answers the problem posed by Searle, at least in part. Specifically, it argues that we could reformulate Searle’s worries in the Chinese room in terms of the three-stage artificial qualia model. And by doing so, we could see that the person doing all the translations in the room could realize the three areas in the proposed framework. Consequently, this demonstrates the actualization of self-consciousness in machines. (shrink)

Our study aims to deal with different and similar conditions between Ghazzali and Kant, as characters at whom can show two different thinking form and two different cultural structure in their thoughts, in the context of the same subject. The article investigates the stages of these two thinkers approaches to the topic of transcendental dialectic and tries to display that why and how two different cultural worlds incline to this subject.

The paper argues that applications of the principle that “ought” implies “can” (OIC) depend on normative considerations even if the link between “ought” and “can” is logical in nature. Thus, we should reject a common, “factualist” conception of OIC and endorse weak “normativism”. Even if we use OIC as the rule ““cannot” therefore “not ought””, applying OIC is not a mere matter of facts and logic, as factualists claim, but often draws on “proto-ideals” of moral agency.

Rainer Forst’s constructivism argues that a right to justification provides a reasonably non-rejectable foundation of justice. With an exemplary focus on his attempt to ground human rights, I argue that this right cannot provide such a foundation. To accord to others such a right is to include them in the scope of discursive respect. But it is reasonably contested whether we should accord to others equal discursive respect. It follows that Forst’s constructivism cannot ground human rights, or justice, categorically. At (...) best, it can ground them hypothetically. This opens the door wide for ethical foundations of human rights. (shrink)

Consonant with the ongoing “aesthetic turn” in legal scholarship, this article pursues a new conception of law as poetry. Gestures in this law-as-poetry direction appear in all three main schools in the philosophy of law’s history, as follows. First, natural law sees law as divinely-inspired prophetic poetry. Second, positive law sees the law as a creative human positing (from poetry’s poesis). And third, critical legal theory sees these posited laws as calcified prose prisons, vulnerable to poetic liberation. My first two (...) sections interpret two texts at the intersections among these three theories, namely Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “A Defense of Poetry” and Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in America. Shelley identifies a poetic rebirth in the ruins of natural law, suggesting a philosophy of law as “natural poesis.” And Tocqueville names several figurative aristocracies capable of redeploying aristocratic law against democratic despotism, suggesting a philosophy of law as “aristo-poetic counterforce.” Finally, I propose a new theory of law as poetry bridging these two theories, “natural aristo-poetic counterforce.”. (shrink)

This project was provoked by the almost nonexistent pushback from the Democratic liberal establishment to the (2020) exoneration of Kyle Rittenhouse, despite his acknowledged killing of two Black Lives Matters protesters against the police murder of George Floyd. It builds on three prior articles arguing for the revival of ancient Dionysian practice, Haitian Vodou, and Indigenous South American shamanism to empower leftist revolution. In essence, I propose an assemblage of spiritual practices that are accessible today for the neo-colonized 99% of (...) the global population, by synthesizing and reconstructing three democratic, lower-SES, Indigenous religions, all of which share a militant defiance of their respective tyrannical plutocracies. To avoid cultural appropriation, I center these reconstructed spiritual practices on the figure of the “mage,” a psychosocial healer loosely analogous to a shaman. And the mage’s signature activity, “magic,” I redefine naturalistically as free interpersonal performative action, practiced using two theoretical disciplines (philosophy and psychology) and two practical disciplines chosen by each mage. More precisely, Spirit/Dance channels the “spirits” of dead ancestors, historical figures, legendary heroes, mythical beings, and fictional characters, into the three ultimate objectives of “mindfulness” for psyches/souls, “liberation” for mindful bodies, and “social justice” for liberated communities, indirectly empowering long-term revolution. (shrink)

In August 2021, Froese et al. published survey data collected from 2,543 respondents on their subjective experiences living under imposed social distancing measures during COVID-19 (1). The questionnaire was issued to respondents in the UK, Japan, and Mexico. By combining the authors’ expertise in phenomenological philosophy, phenomenological psychopathology, and enactive cognitive science, the questions were carefully phrased to prompt reports that would be useful to phenomenological investigation and theorizing (2–4). These questions reflected the various author’s research interests (e.g., technology, grief, (...) time). Between April 7th and July 31st, 2021, a second questionnaire with the same question set was issued to respondents of the original who had agreed to do a follow-up. This was intended to capture subjective reports of life under social distancing measures a year after the initial survey. By this time–depending on their country of residence and health status–respondents had potentially lived with repeated and prolonged lockdowns and a variety of other restrictions on their social lives. When taken together, Survey I and Survey II provide a cross-cultural and longitudinal dataset that allows for analysis of longer-term impacts of imposed social distancing measures on people’s experiences. For researchers working in diverse disciplines, this dataset offers a rich resource that reflects people’s reactions to the imposition of different social restrictions in different countries and over different time periods. (shrink)

Most of human-robot interaction (HRI) research relies on an implicit assumption that seems to drive experimental work in interaction studies: the more anthropomorphism we can reach in robots, the more effective the robot will be in 'being social.' The notion of 'sociomorphing' was developed in order to challenge the assumption of ubiquitous anthropomorphizing. This paper aims to explore the notion of sociomorphing by analysing the possibilities offered by actor-network theory (ANT). We claim that ANT is a valid framework to re-think (...) the conceptual couple anthropomorphizing / sociomorphing and answer the following question: What kind of negotiation process and social practices can be developed in HRI, given the notion of sociomorph interactional networks? (shrink)

The natural name theory, recently discussed by Johnson (2018), is proposed as an explanation of pure quotation where the quoted term(s) refers to a linguistic object such as in the sentence ‘In the above, ‘bank’ is ambiguous’. After outlining the theory, I raise a problem for the natural name theory. I argue that positing a resemblance relation between the name and the linguistic object it names does not allow us to rule out cases where the natural name fails to resemble (...) the linguistic object it names. I argue that to avoid this problem, we can combine the natural name theory with a type-realist metaphysics of language, and hold that the name is natural because the name is an instance of the kind that it names. I conclude by reflecting on the importance of the metaphysics of language for questions in the philosophy of language. (shrink)