The conceptual model of United Nations reform - "UN 3.0" includes the General Program of Action on UN Reform, consisting of two stages. The first stage for 2020-2025 envisages the transformation of the main organs of the UN - the General Assembly and the Security Council with measures to improve the effectiveness of the management system, address the "veto problem", problem of financing, improve staff work and administrative and financial control, strengthen UN media, improvement of work with the global (...) civil society. The General Assembly is converted into the General All-Parliamentary Assembly of the UN. In the structure of the Assembly, the Council for Law is being established, which coordinates the activities of UN structures in the field of law. To coordinate the activities of the UN in the field of human rights and civil society, ethical issues, the General all-parliamentary Assembly creates the Council on ethics, human rights and civil society and transforms the Committee on information into the Council on public information and communication with civil society. The structure of the Council includes all UN media. The reform of the UN Security Council is carried out in three sub-stages. At the 1st sub-stage (2020-2021) the Security Council is transformed into the Council of Existential Security (CES). The membership of the CES is increased to 25 member countries, of which five countries have the right of the unconditional (absolute, eternal) veto: Great Britain, France, China, Russian Federation, USA. The General All-Parliamentary Assembly elects 15 new permanent members of the Council of Existential Security with the right of the conditional (limited) veto: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, South Africa, Nigeria, Pakistan , Turkey, Japan (if they fulfill the mandatory restrictive conditions). At this sub-stage, the CES elects also five non-permanent members with the right of a conditional (limited) veto when they meet the mandatory restrictive conditions, with a rotation period of 2 years from geographical regions (or regional unions): Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific Ocean (2 places), Eastern Europe. On the second sub-stage (2022-2023), subject to the effective activity of the CES of the enlarged composition and compliance with mandatory restrictive conditions, new permanent members of the "Existential Security Council" are elected with the right of a conditional (limited) veto: Iran, Spain, Poland, Saudi Arabia. Members of the CES may be regional unions, whose member countries are not represented in the CES, but still have one vote with the right of a conditional (limited) veto. -/- Two essential levels of the veto: 1. Unconditional (absolute, eternal) veto is the historical right of veto of the five permanent members of the Council of Existential Security - Great Britain, China, Russia, USA, France; 2. Сonditional (limited) veto is the veto of other permanent and non-permanent members of the Council of Existential Security. The right of veto is a unique international school for the achievement of consensus, a school of high democracy for Humanity, a reliable guarantee of the viability of the UN structure. The Council for Existential Security centralises the management of the UN subsidiary bodies with the expansion of their security functions: the Military Staff Committee, the Counter-Terrorism Committee, the Committee for the Prevention of the Spread of Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Weapons, the Sanctions Committees and other committees. On the basis of the decision of the Council of Existential Security, the General All-Parliamentary Assembly creates permanent contingents of UN peacekeeping and counter-terrorism forces. In addition, two Centers are being created in the structure of the Council for Existential Security: the World Center for the Elimination of the Effects of Technogenic and Natural Disasters with branches on all continents and the World Center for the Analysis of Existential Risks and the Overall Security Strategy. The Center is developing the Programs of research and monitoring of global existential threats and risks. In order to increase the level of legitimacy and authority of the Secretary General of the United Nations, the Rules of procedure for elections to this post are changing. Each member country of the Council for Existential Security represents one of the most authoritative candidates for election to the post of Secretary General at the session of the General All-Parliamentary Assembly, with the possibility of nominating candidates from other countries, including those not members of the Council for Existential Security. Elections are held in two rounds during one day of the session of the Assembly. The Legal Committee of the UN General Assembly is developing a Program for the Reform of the Judicial System of the United Nations, which takes into account the proposals of the previous international discussion and determines the scope and terms of the reform of the courts. In accordance with the Program of Action on UN Reform for 2020-2025, reforms are under way in the structure of the Economic and Social Council. The central task of the reform is to strengthen the coordinating role of ECOSOC in the entire system of UN-related specialized agencies, funds and programs related to the Council. The key task of the UN reform is the solution of the financing problem. A unified "UN Open Budget "Solidarity XXI" is being created, including the financing of peacekeeping operations and other expenses. Each country, a member of the United Nations, lists in an established period, once a year, an Existential contribution - the Earth Tax. The Earth Tax for each UN member state is established on the basis of four scales of calculation: Scale I - for 5 permanent members of the Council of Existential Security, who have the right of absolute (absolute) veto; Scale II - for the permanent members of the SEB, who have the right to a conditional (limited) veto; Scale III - for non-permanent members of the SEB, who have the right to a conditional (limited) veto; Scale IV - for all other UN member countries. The program of action on UN reform includes a set of measures to ensure transparent work of the International Civil Service Commission with the involvement of the UN media. To strengthen control functions in the sphere of personnel policy, administrative and financial management, the General All-Parliamentary Assembly of the United Nations establishes the Permanent Commission on Ethics and Administrative and Financial Control. All members of the Commission, members of the Committees and auditors are independent in their activities from the leadership of the United Nations, its funds and programs. The General All-Parliamentary Assembly completes the first stage of the Program of Action on UN Reform in 2025 and, following an open discussion, introduces a single language of international communication - Esperanto and approves it as the official language of the United Nations. With a view to more effective work of the central UN governing bodies in the face of increasing existential threats and risks, reducing the current expenses for the maintenance of the central bodies of the UN, the Council for Existential Security and the General All-Parliamentary Assembly decide on the relocation of the UN headquarters to Iceland. The UN building complex in New York is transferred to preferential use of non-governmental organizations, which contribute to the implementation of the goals of the United Nations. At the second stage of the UN reform in the period 2026-2028, additional necessary transformations are being made in the UN system. At the end of the first stage of the reform, taking into account the reforms carried out by the main organs of the United Nations and the internal improvement of the work of all its structures, the United Nations Program of Action for the years 2026-2028 is being developed. (shrink)

-/- Title: The Major Problems of U.S. Society and Their Possible Solutions -/- The United States, known for its wealth, innovation, and global influence, continues to face significant societal challenges that hinder its ability to create a fair, peaceful, and sustainable future. While the country has achieved remarkable progress in many areas, several persistent and interrelated problems remain. Among the most pressing are political polarization, income inequality, inadequate healthcare, gun violence, systemic racism, mental health issues, climate change, (...) homelessness, immigration challenges, and disparities in education. Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach grounded in evidence, compassion, and long-term thinking. -/- 1. Political Polarization -/- Political division has reached historic levels, making compromise and collaboration difficult. Misinformation, social media echo chambers, and partisan media outlets deepen the divide. -/- Solution: Encourage civic education and critical thinking in schools. Promote media literacy to help citizens identify reliable information. Electoral reforms such as ranked-choice voting may also reduce extreme partisanship by encouraging moderate candidates. -/- 2. Income Inequality -/- The wealth gap continues to grow, with millions struggling to meet basic needs while the wealthiest accumulate immense fortunes. This disparity undermines economic mobility and social stability. -/- Solution: Introduce fairer tax policies and invest in job training and education to support upward mobility. Raising the federal minimum wage and improving labor rights would also help reduce inequality. -/- 3. Healthcare Access and Costs -/- The U.S. healthcare system is among the most expensive in the world, yet millions lack sufficient access to care. -/- Solution: Expand access to affordable healthcare through public options or universal health coverage. Regulate pharmaceutical pricing and reduce administrative overhead through streamlined systems. -/- 4. Gun Violence -/- Frequent mass shootings and high rates of gun-related deaths remain a critical concern. -/- Solution: Enact comprehensive gun reform, including universal background checks, safe storage laws, and restrictions on high-capacity weapons. At the same time, invest in community-based violence prevention programs. -/- 5. Systemic Racism -/- Racial disparities in education, income, policing, and healthcare reflect deep-seated systemic issues. -/- Solution: Implement equitable policies that dismantle systemic barriers—such as reforming police practices, improving access to quality education in underserved communities, and promoting diversity in leadership roles. -/- 6. Mental Health Crisis -/- Mental health disorders, especially among youth, have increased sharply in recent years, yet mental health services remain underfunded and stigmatized. -/- Solution: Increase public funding for mental health care and make services accessible in schools and workplaces. Launch national campaigns to reduce stigma and raise awareness. -/- 7. Climate Change -/- The effects of climate change—wildfires, floods, and extreme weather—are intensifying, posing a major threat to both the environment and the economy. -/- Solution: Invest in renewable energy, enforce stricter emissions standards, and rejoin international climate agreements. Local communities should be supported in adapting to climate-related threats. -/- 8. Homelessness and Housing Crisis -/- Rising housing costs and insufficient affordable housing contribute to widespread homelessness in major cities. -/- Solution: Build more affordable housing, support rental assistance programs, and provide wraparound services for the homeless, including mental health care and addiction treatment. -/- 9. Immigration Challenges -/- Immigration remains a polarizing topic, especially in regard to undocumented migrants and border control. -/- Solution: Create a fair and humane immigration system that includes a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants and modernizes border management to balance security and compassion. -/- 10. Education Disparities -/- Educational quality varies drastically depending on geography and income level, reinforcing cycles of poverty. -/- Solution: Increase federal funding for public schools in underserved areas. Support universal pre-K and reduce student loan burdens through debt forgiveness and affordable college initiatives. -/- Conclusion -/- The problems facing U.S. society are complex but not insurmountable. By acknowledging these issues and working collaboratively across political, economic, and social lines, real progress is possible. A more just and unified society can emerge by embracing inclusive policies, empowering education, and nurturing empathy. The future of the United States depends not just on innovation and prosperity, but on the moral courage to confront and correct the systemic issues that hold its people back. -/- . (shrink)

DAVID CROW and JAMES RON look at how global publics view the relationship between human rights organizations and the U.S. government. They argue that ordinary people across various world regions do not perceive human rights groups as “handmaidens” of U.S. foreign policy.

Initial responses to questionnaires used to assess participants' understanding of informed consent for malaria vaccine trials conducted in the United States and Mali were tallied. Total scores were analyzed by age, sex, literacy (if known), and location. Ninety-two percent (92%) of answers by United States participants and 85% of answers by Malian participants were correct. Questions more likely to be answered incorrectly in Mali related to risk, and to the type of vaccine. For adult participants, independent (...) predictors of higher scores were younger age and female sex in the United States, and male sex in Mali. Scores in the United States were higher than in Mali (P = 0.005). Despite this difference participants at both sites were well informed overall. Although interpretation must be qualified because questionnaires were not intended as research tools and were not standardized among sites, these results do not support concerns about systematic low understanding among research participants in developing versus developed countries. (shrink)

-/- Redesigning the U.S. 401(k) Pension System Based on the Universal Formula of Natural Laws -/- By Angelito Malicse -/- Introduction -/- The 401(k) pension system in the United States was designed to empower individuals to save for retirement. However, through the lens of my Universal Formula—composed of three universal laws of nature—it becomes clear that this system is fundamentally flawed and in need of reform. These flaws not only endanger the individual’s future but also destabilize society (...) at large. To build a sustainable future, any pension system must align with: -/- 1. The Law of Karma (Cause and Effect + System Integrity) -/- 2. The Universal Law of Balance in Nature -/- 3. The Feedback Mechanism of Conscious Minds -/- I. System Flaws According to the Universal Formula -/- 1. Dependence on Individual Financial Literacy -/- The 401(k) system puts the responsibility of investment decisions on individuals, assuming they understand market risks, diversification, and long-term planning. -/- Violation of System Integrity: A stable system must function correctly for all its components—this includes those with limited financial education. -/- Cause and Effect: Ignorance causes poor decisions, leading to insufficient savings and long-term suffering. -/- Imbalance in Nature: Expecting uniform results from unequal starting conditions creates systemic failure. -/- 2. Exposure to Market Volatility -/- A 401(k) account’s value depends on stock market performance. -/- Violation of Balance: The natural aging process demands stability and security—not exposure to external market shocks. -/- Systemic Defect: A pension should not function like a gamble; it must protect future well-being. -/- Negative Feedback: People panic and withdraw early, worsening both personal and national economic health. -/- 3. Inequality in Access and Employer Discretion -/- Many low-income or part-time workers do not receive 401(k) benefits. -/- Violation of Natural Balance: A fair system must ensure equal access for all working individuals, not just the privileged. -/- Karmic Consequence: Social unrest, poverty, and generational inequality arise from systemic neglect. -/- Broken Feedback: Governments and corporations fail to respond adequately to the needs of marginalized workers. -/- 4. Tax Benefits Favor the Wealthy -/- High earners gain more from tax deferrals, while low earners receive minimal benefits. -/- Unbalanced Cause and Effect: When benefit flows primarily to the rich, the system breeds resentment and social imbalance. -/- Systemic Design Flaw: A pension system should redistribute wealth to promote harmony, not concentrate it. -/- 5. Retirement Insecurity and Extended Work Life -/- Millions of Americans cannot afford to retire at a healthy age. -/- Violation of Homeostasis: Humans need rest and reflection in old age, not prolonged labor. -/- Karmic Debt of Society: A system that drains the elderly fails to function as a nurturing whole. -/- II. Redesigning the System: A Holistic Model Based on Natural Laws -/- 1. Universal Access and Basic Pension Guarantee -/- All working individuals should automatically be enrolled in a basic pension program. -/- Funded through a national trust integrating contributions from employers, employees, and government. -/-  Balance Restored: Security becomes a right, not a gamble. System Integrity Ensured: No one is left behind. -/- 2. Stable Public Fund with Optional Private Layer -/- Create a national, low-risk fund that guarantees basic returns. -/- Allow optional private investments only after basic needs are secured. -/-  Protects the System from Instability Honors Natural Law of Aging and Stability -/- 4. Educational Integration and Transparent Feedback -/- Mandatory financial literacy education in schools and workplaces. -/- Regular feedback loops: workers receive understandable, transparent updates. -/-  Conscious Feedback Strengthened Corrects Ignorance = Prevents Future Harm -/- 5. Balanced Redistribution Through Tax Incentives -/- Redirect tax advantages to favor low- and middle-income workers. -/- Cap benefits for high earners to ensure equity. -/-  Cause-Effect Harmonized with Justice Corrective Balance Mechanism Built In -/- III. The Ethical and Spiritual Dimension -/- This redesign is not merely technical—it reflects the moral responsibility of a society to care for all its members. A pension system that honors the Universal Law of Balance nurtures both the body and the mind, and prevents suffering caused by man-made system errors. -/-  A pension system aligned with natural laws becomes not only functional—but ethical, holistic, and humane. -/- Conclusion -/- The U.S. 401(k) system, when analyzed through the universal formula, shows signs of systemic imbalance, unjust cause-effect relationships, and broken feedback loops. If we are to prevent future suffering and build a society that truly serves all, we must redesign our systems according to the laws that govern all life—not just economic theories. -/- . (shrink)

The recent trend toward privately owned and operated prisons calls attention to a variety of issues involving human rights. The growing number of corporatized correctional institutions is especially notable in the United States, but it is also a global phenomenon in many countries. The reasons cited for privatizing prisons are usually economic; the opportunity to outsource prison services enables local political leaders to save tax revenue, and local communities are promised a chance to create new jobs and bring (...) in a new industry. This article will address the history of prisons and the recent trend toward privatizing prisons and the perception of prisons as a for-profit enterprise. This new economic order brings with it a set of human rights concerns, including the relationship of for-profit prisons to increased numbers of incarcerated persons and increased sentences, racism and classism. The contractual relationship between political leaders and prison corporations will be addressed, noting that conditions of liability frequently mean that prison administrations lack motivation to safeguard the human rights of prisoners. The human rights issues often extend outside of the private prison itself, having a negative effect on the local community. (shrink)

In the words of Aristotle, "The state is a union of families and villagers having for an end, a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean a happy and honourable life. A state exists for the sake of good life and not for the sake of life only". This definition has given a clear vision on the relationship between man and the state. The state, in modern times is regarded as an important agency or in other words a human (...) organization for maintaining disciplined and a well-arranged environment for education. In contemporary world, the functions to be performed by a state are going wide day by day. So, one of the functions of a state is to give proper education and to create a proper environment for imparting knowledge among people. In a democratic country the role of state in spreading education is very much important. These states provide educational aims and objectives, open schools and colleges; arrange the syllabus and curriculum, plan, control and direct educational activities for their citizens. Performing these functions the modern states can create such an environment in every society where every citizen can be made educated enough to understand the complexities of modern world. Besides these, the modern world can make proper arrangements for research and experiments in various fields of education. For this a state should establish such institutions and organisations to inspire the eligible individuals. In a big country like India, the state makes educational policies based on needs, ideals and aspirations of the people. For this there are various administrative unites are established. Each such unites maintain an educational department of it’s own for providing liberal and vocational education up to highest standard. States also maintain one or more universities for higher education. Thus, it can be said that a state exerts it’s direct and indirect influences on all aspects of education. (shrink)

This article examines the use of ‘enhanced interrogation techniques’ in the context of international legal obligations under the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984 (CAT) and the domestic implementation of the international prohibition of torture into United States (US) law under 18 United States Code Sections 2340-2340A. The legal basis for the interrogation programme was a series of contentious legal memoranda written by Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel (...) lawyers.1 This article examines whether the memo drafters ought to be investigated for incurring criminal liability for the consequences of their memoranda, namely under CAT and Sections 2340-2340A and what has unfolded under President Obama’s administration. (shrink)

The global water crisis is being exacerbated by climate change, even in the United States. Recycled water is a feasible alternative to alleviate the water shortage, but it is constrained by humans’ perceptions. The current study examines how residents’ water scarcity awareness and climate change belief influence their willingness to use recycled water directly and indirectly. Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics was employed on a dataset of 1831 residents in Albuquerque, New Mexico, an arid inland region in the (...) US. We discovered that residents’ willingness to use direct recycled potable water is positively affected by their awareness of water scarcity, but the effect is conditional on their belief in the impacts of climate change on the water cycle. Meanwhile, the willingness to use indirect recycled potable water is influenced by water scarcity awareness, and the belief in climate change further enhances this effect. These findings implicate that fighting climate change denialism and informing the public of the water scarcity situation in the region can contribute to the effectiveness and sustainability of long-term water conservation and climate change alleviation efforts. (shrink)

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service in Alaska, USA, conducted a species status assessment for a petition to list the Alexander Archipelago wolf (Canis lupus ligoni) under the Endangered Species Act in 2020-2022. This federal undertaking could not be adequately prepared without including the knowledge of Indigenous People who have a deep cultural connection with the subspecies. Our objective is to communicate the authoritative expertise and voice of the Indigenous People who partnered on the project by demonstrating (...) how their knowledge contributed to the species status assessment. The Indigenous knowledge applied in the assessment is the cultural and intellectual property of those who have shared it. We employed rapid appraisal research to expeditiously develop a preliminary and qualitative understanding of Indigenous People's cultural and ecological knowledge of Alexander Archipelago wolves. We used semi-directed interviewing and inductive coding from grounded theory for text analysis. Indigenous knowledge contributed to the agency's understanding of the Alexander Archipelago wolf in Southeast Alaska and helped the agency with their classification decision. Indigenous research partners explained the rich cultural significance and position of wolves in Tlingit society and described human–wolf relationships and ecological interactions. The agency used a single-species assessment approach based in species ecology and conservation biology, whereas the Indigenous wolf experts applied a multi-species, community ecology approach based in a sociocultural context of balance and respect. The Indigenous wolf experts successfully addressed knowledge gaps identified by the agency. The partners were challenged by a short regulatory timeframe that did not allow for comprehensive study of Indigenous knowledge and constrained review and feedback by Indigenous experts. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service learned that its assessment framework was not designed to account for an Indigenous worldview. To level the playing field, the agency and Indigenous experts should discuss how to co-develop an assessment framework that equitably applies both perspectives. (shrink)

This chapter explores the tripartite relationship between transgender identities, political activism, and sonic practice. In particular, this chapter employs theorizations of noise to explore a rupture in the prevalent binarisms of sound and gender in the American punk scene and its aesthetics. Drawing upon theoretical frameworks such as Herbert Marcuse’s one-dimensional society and Jean-François Lyotard’s conception of a libidinal economy, the sonic practices of trans-feminist artists such as GLOSS (Girls Living Outside Society’s Shit) and the HIRS Collective are (...) re-examined to interrogate their capacities to initiate acts of intentional antagonism to construct new spaces for the invisible and/or overlooked. Through such a trajectory, the intended goal is to reveal not only such trans-feminist artists’ collective actions of political resistance towards the modern neoliberal state, but perhaps most importantly, the typically less examined yet far-reaching ramifications of their inherent situatedness outside of such socio-political structures and machinery. While such artistic practice pits itself against the increasingly one-dimensional state of commodification in the punk genre, it also probes deeper to illuminate the related homonormative currents which have exerted considerable effort to flatten notions of diversity and difference within contemporary LGBTQ2S communities. It is ultimately through this complex matrix of identity, affective flows, and a political (dis)engagement with the dynamics of the American punk genre that we can begin to bear witness upon a modern form of sonic anarchism; one which fragments itself off from previous constructions yet reveals a possibility for new formations to those previously rendered silenced, both figuratively and literally. (shrink)

With the 21st century, we are witnessing the mass spread of the communication technologies and social media revolution. Interactive networks built on a global scale have led to the formation of a virtual world of reality that is connecting the whole world. With the global spread of communication networks, the question of whether social media points to a new public sphere has been raised. Social media applications such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram are nowadays seen as a place where political (...) campaigns are carried out, causing the destruction of authoritarian regimes, organizing global protests and innovation culture, and discussing political, social and cultural changes. What gives social media a similar quality to the agora of Ancient Greek city-states is the characteristic of been a place where citizens come together and talk about issues that are considered to be public, eventhough in a virtual reality. This work, following the Arendtian sense, discusses whether social media really is a place where public issues are discussed, common ideas are produced and transparency prevails. In her work "The Human Condition", Arendt makes a fundamental distinction between private and public sphere based on human activities. By conceiving the activities that she describes as labour and work in relation to the private sphere, Arendt tackles the activity of action through linking it to public sphere. Arendt defines the public sphere as a sphere of freedom and a political sphere. The public sphere consists of equal people without hierarchy, who come together with their completely free will. According to Arendt, the condition for the public sphere to be possible is transparency and commonality. Firstly; it has a wide transparency in the sense that something have to be seen and heard by others, and the second is that it points to a common world that belongs to everyone, except for the part that is privately owned. Considering the public sphere in relation to the transparency not a direct transfer of things that happen in the private or intimate sphere. It is precisely related to the fact that something pertaining to the private exhibits a presence within the world of public and the fact that the private acquires a public chatacter. This does not mean that the public sphere is a sphere in which the private and intimate are directly transferred. According to Arendt, leading a private life as a whole will lead to the lack of what is necessary to be a true person. It also leads to the lack of a common world that unites and separates them. Arendt thinks that with the modern period, what belongs to the purely private and intimate sphere expands and causes the collapse of the public. The collapse of the public sphere in the modern period; It has caused both the loss of difference and interaction and the emergence of individuals who are increasingly alike, unable to think and act. In this kind of society, action has left its place to behavior, difference to standartization and thought to obedience. Arendt sees the public sphere as a sphere where public affairs are discussed, while the private sphere is a sphere where intimate and private activities take place. Arendt argues that with modern society the distinction between public and private has became indistinct , and as a third sphere, the social sphere has swallowed up both the public and the private. The social sphere has removed the distinction between the public transparency and commonality of the public and the privacy of the private sphere and activities. This study considers social media as a sphere where public issues are discussed. It also dıscusses the private sphere events and the most intimate issues. It claims that social media is not a new public sphere as it is cosidered, but it is a social sphere in which the distinction between private and public in the Arendtian sense is become indistinct. In this context, the study seeks to answer the following questions: How does the distinction between public and private spheres, which is central in Arendt's thought, look like in today’s world? Is it possible to talk about a public sphere in the modern age? Can social media be considered as a public sphere? Or is social media a sphere of freedom and a political sphere? Does social media allow discussions on public issues? Is social media a non-hierarchical nature open to the free participation of everyone, difference and plurality? (shrink)

The ideal of the United Nations was first put forward by Immanuel Kant in his 1795 essay Perpetual Peace. Kant, in the tradition of Locke and Rousseau is a liberal who believes that relations between individuals can either be based upon law and consent or upon force and violence. One way that such the ideal of world peace could be achieved would be through the creation of a single world state, of which every human being was a citizen. Such (...) an ideal was advocated by a number of eighteenth century liberals. Kant, however, rejects this ideal and instead argues that the universal rule of law can be achieved through the establishment a federation of independent states. I examine the relevance of Kant’s arguments today, focusing on two questions: Firstly, as advocates of the rule of law, why advocate a federation of independent nations rather than a single world state. Secondly, is this ideal realizable? Is Kant right to think that republics are natural and are likely to live peacefully with one another? Kant’s arguments on this issue have been taken up again in recent decades by defenders of the theory of the “democratic peace”, the theory that democracies are more likely to live at peace with one another. (shrink)

This special issue of Science and Engineering Ethics is devoted to the ethical, societal and political implications of new and emerging technologies in the area of Human Security. Its aim is to address the wider implications of an altered security landscape. Specifically, and in accordance with SEE’s main area of interest, contributions to this special issue focus on those ethical considerations warranted by scientific and technological advances in the field of human security. This includes, but is not restricted to, issues (...) of privacy and data protection, control, trust, surveillance, authority, and freedom. Papers consider some of the ethical and societal challenges related to new and emerging technologies in the context of the Human Security Doctrine (HSD), as it has been initially formulated by the United Nations Commission on Human Security (UNCHS 2003). The HSD argues for a paradigm shift from understanding security based on tangible assets (e.g., national borders, goo .. (shrink)

This paper, focusing on the diverse directionality of the 'Resonance Drive' (RD)—a core concept of Judgemental Philosophy—attempts a new understanding of the fundamental structure of human desires, human nature, neurodiversity, and the conditions for a healthy society. RD, originating from the Pre-Judgemental Field (PJF), is a fundamental human inclination to construct meaning (Constructivity), pursue coherence (Coherence), and experience living resonance (Resonance). This paper first critiques previous approaches to understanding human desires for failing to adequately structuralize their diversity or for (...) having a misguided direction, and offers a new perspective on the diversity of human desires and their unified structure through RD and the Judgemental Triad (JT). Second, it argues that this RD is not necessarily oriented solely in a social direction, thereby re-examining the proposition that 'humans are essentially social animals.' Third, based on this diverse directionality of RD, it presents the possibility of reinterpreting conditions traditionally regarded as specific 'mental illnesses' as 'differing RD profiles' from the perspective of neurodiversity. Fourth, if individual RD orientations are inherently diverse, it critiques societies with uniform values as pathological states that inevitably frustrate the RD of many members, causing widespread Resonance failure. This paper asserts that recognizing the diverse paths of RD is crucial for understanding a more inclusive and healthy individual and society. (shrink)

Within the United States, the most prominent justification for criminal punishment is retributivism. This retributivist justification for punishment maintains that punishment of a wrongdoer is justified for the reason that she deserves something bad to happen to her just because she has knowingly done wrong—this could include pain, deprivation, or death. For the retributivist, it is the basic desert attached to the criminal’s immoral action alone that provides the justification for punishment. This means that the retributivist position is (...) not reducible to consequentialist considerations nor in justifying punishment does it appeal to wider goods such as the safety of society or the moral improvement of those being punished. A number of sentencing guidelines in the U.S. have adopted desert as their distributive principle, and it is increasingly given deference in the “purposes” section of state criminal codes, where it can be the guiding principle in the interpretation and application of the code’s provisions. Indeed, the American Law Institute recently revised the Model Penal Code so as to set desert as the official dominate principle for sentencing. And courts have identified desert as the guiding principle in a variety of contexts, as with the Supreme Court’s enthroning retributivism as the “primary justification for the death penalty.” While retributivism provides one of the main sources of justification for punishment within the criminal justice system, there are good philosophical and practical reasons for rejecting it. One such reason is that it is unclear that agents truly deserve to suffer for the wrongs they have done in the sense required by retributivism. In the first section, I explore the retributivist justification of punishment and explain why it is inconsistent with free will skepticism. In the second section, I then argue that even if one is not convinced by the arguments for free will skepticism, there remains a strong epistemic argument against causing harm on retributivist grounds that undermines both libertarian and compatibilist attempts to justify it. I maintain that this argument provides sufficient reason for rejecting the retributive justification of criminal punishment. I conclude in the third section by briefly sketching my public health-quarantine model, a non-retributive alternative for addressing criminal behavior that draws on the public health framework and prioritizes prevention and social justice. I argue that the model is not only consistent with free will skepticism and the epistemic argument against retributivism, it also provides the most justified, humane, and effective way of dealing with criminal behavior. (shrink)

-/- Understanding Military War through the Lens of the Universal Formula -/- By Angelito Malicse -/- War has long been one of humanity’s most destructive and persistent problems. Despite centuries of progress in science, technology, and diplomacy, military conflict remains a recurring phenomenon in modern civilization. However, through the application of a universal formula grounded in the laws of nature, we can clearly understand why wars occur — and more importantly, how they can be prevented. This essay explains the phenomenon (...) of military war using my universal formula composed of three interrelated natural laws: the Law of Karma, the Law of Homeostasis, and the Law of Feedback Mechanism between Conscious Minds. -/- I. The Law of Karma: Systemic Cause and Effect -/- The first universal law reveals that everything operates within a system governed by cause and effect. Any defect or error within a system — whether it is a political, economic, or social institution — inevitably leads to imbalance and dysfunction. War is a consequence of such systemic defects. -/- Example: The Iraq War (2003) The U.S. invasion of Iraq was justified by the belief that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). Later investigations by the Iraq Survey Group found no such weapons, revealing a fundamental failure in intelligence and political judgment (Duelfer, 2004). This systemic error led to instability in the Middle East, thousands of civilian deaths, and the rise of extremist groups like ISIS. -/- Example: World War I World War I was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, but its true causes lay in the militarization of Europe, entangled alliances, and imperial competition (Clark, 2012). These long-term systemic defects made the war inevitable once a small trigger occurred — a clear example of karma in complex systems. -/- II. The Law of Homeostasis: The Balance of Nature -/- The second universal law is the law of balance, or homeostasis. Nature functions through balance — and the same applies to human societies. When nations or leaders act in a way that disrupts equilibrium, nature reacts. Military war represents a violent attempt to restore or assert balance, but one that ironically worsens the imbalance. -/- Example: The Russian-Ukrainian War (2022–present) Russia’s justification for the invasion of Ukraine involved security concerns about NATO’s expansion (Mearsheimer, 2014). However, the resulting war led to massive destruction, economic sanctions, and global instability in food and energy supply chains (UN News, 2022). The attempt to assert geopolitical balance only deepened global imbalance. -/- Example: The Vietnam War The Vietnam War was fought under the U.S. doctrine of “containment” to stop the spread of communism. However, the war destabilized the region, caused millions of deaths, and led to internal unrest in the U.S. (Herring, 2002). The U.S. intervention upset both regional and domestic balance. -/- III. The Law of Feedback Mechanism: Conscious Minds and Collective Decision-Making -/- The third universal law states that conscious minds act as feedback mechanisms, continuously influencing and responding to one another. When these minds interact with ignorance, fear, or ideology, they produce escalating conflict. -/- Example: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict The enduring conflict between Israelis and Palestinians is driven by cycles of retaliation, differing historical narratives, and deeply rooted trauma (Khalidi, 2020). Each act of aggression or defense feeds a feedback loop of mistrust, with generations growing up in an environment of conflict. Education, empathy, and historical truth are essential to break this pattern. -/- Example: North Korea’s Militarization North Korea continues to develop nuclear weapons partly in response to perceived threats from the West. This leads to counter-responses such as sanctions and military drills from the U.S. and allies. These feedback loops, lacking constructive communication, reinforce mistrust and increase the potential for war (Revere, 2017). -/- Conclusion -/- Military war is not a mystery, nor is it an unsolvable problem. Through the lens of the universal formula — the Law of Karma, the Law of Homeostasis, and the Law of Feedback Mechanism — we can clearly see that war is the product of systemic defects, imbalance in nature, and broken feedback between conscious minds. It is a preventable outcome, not a natural necessity. -/- By teaching this universal formula in all levels of education and applying it to leadership, governance, and global cooperation, we can replace the culture of war with a culture of balance, truth, and harmony. In doing so, we do not simply end war — we evolve beyond it. -/- References -/- Clark, C. (2012). The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914. Harper. -/- Duelfer, C. (2004). Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD. CIA. -/- Herring, G. C. (2002). America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975. McGraw-Hill. -/- Khalidi, R. (2020). The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance. Metropolitan Books. -/- Mearsheimer, J. (2014). Why the Ukraine crisis is the West’s fault. Foreign Affairs, 93(5), 77–89. -/- Revere, E. J. R. (2017). North Korea: The Gathering Storm. Brookings Institution. -/- UN News. (2022). Ukraine war’s global fallout will ‘worsen,’ UN warns. -/- . (shrink)

-/- An Assessment of the Cultural Mentality of the Philippines Using the Three Universal Laws -/- By Angelito Malicse -/- Understanding the mindset of a people is essential to solving the deep-rooted issues that hinder national progress. To evaluate the cultural mentality of the Philippines, I apply my Three Universal Laws—a formula I have developed to explain the natural principles that govern human decision-making and societal development. These laws are: (1) the Law of Karma (understood as systems and cause-effect relationships), (...) (2) the Law of Balance in Nature, and (3) the Law of Feedback Mechanism. -/- Using a 1–10 grading scale for each law (with 10 representing full alignment and 1 representing major deviation), we can assess how well Filipino society aligns with each law and what areas need urgent reform. -/- 1. The Law of Karma (Systems, Cause and Effect) -/- This law emphasizes that every action has consequences, and every system must be free from defects to function properly. Social institutions such as government, education, and justice must be grounded in integrity and accountability. -/- In the Philippines, however, systemic corruption continues to plague many areas of public life. While democratic institutions exist, the implementation of laws is often undermined by impunity and political favoritism. Public services, such as health and education, remain inefficient due to mismanagement and underfunding. The Filipino people have grown accustomed to tolerating these systemic flaws, weakening their understanding of the cause-and-effect principles that should govern society. -/- Score: 3/10 -/- 2. The Law of Balance in Nature -/- This law states that human behavior—both individually and collectively—must harmonize with the natural world and the internal-external realities of society. Imbalance leads to suffering, degradation, and instability. -/- In the Philippines, decision-making often favors short-term gains at the expense of long-term sustainability. Environmental degradation continues due to illegal logging, unregulated mining, and pollution. Furthermore, decision-making is often influenced by religious dogma and traditional beliefs, rather than critical thinking or scientific understanding. Rapid population growth with insufficient resource management contributes to an ever-widening imbalance between people and the environment. -/- Score: 4/10 -/- 3. The Law of Feedback Mechanism -/- This law recognizes the importance of feedback systems—where individuals and institutions adapt and grow through continuous input, response, and correction. A healthy society must be self-aware and self-correcting. -/- In the Philippines, the feedback between leaders and citizens is weak. Though democratic mechanisms like elections exist, many voters still choose candidates based on personality, celebrity status, or family name rather than competence or platform. Political dynasties thrive, and electoral outcomes often repeat cycles of poor governance. While social media offers a platform for public expression, it is often dominated by misinformation, limiting true corrective feedback. -/- Score: 5/10 -/- Final Evaluation: A Cultural Score of 4.0/10 -/- Taking the average of the three scores—3 (Karma), 4 (Balance), and 5 (Feedback)—the overall cultural mentality of the Philippines receives a 4.0 out of 10. This suggests a moderate to serious misalignment with the universal laws of natural systems, balance, and feedback. The most critical problem lies in the breakdown of systemic cause-and-effect relationships, followed by widespread imbalances and a poorly functioning cultural feedback loop. -/- A Path Forward: Re-Education Through Natural Law -/- To realign the Filipino cultural mentality with the natural order, a holistic educational reform must be prioritized. The Three Universal Laws should be taught as foundational principles at all levels of education. This reform must cultivate critical thinking, systems awareness, ecological balance, and ethical feedback. Only by doing so can we build a society that truly understands the consequences of its actions, makes decisions in harmony with nature, and learns from its past in order to build a better future. -/- References -/- 1. Transparency International. (2023). Corruption Perceptions Index. -/- 2. Asian Development Bank. (2021). Philippines: Public Services and Governance. -/- 3. World Bank. (2022). Population Growth (Annual %) – Philippines. -/- 4. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2022). Philippines Human Development Report: Sustainability and Climate Resilience. -/- 5. Freedom House. (2023). Freedom in the World: Philippines. -/- 6. Philippine Statistics Authority. (2022). Education and Literacy Indicators. -/- 7. Rappler. (2022). Why Filipinos Vote for the Same Names in Politics. -/- 8. Malicse, A. (Unpublished). The Three Universal Laws: A Formula for Solving the Problem of Free Will. -/- . (shrink)

Canada’s Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical conduct for research involving humans, first published in 1998, has recently been updated.1 The US Department of Health and Human Services has just issued an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking that would substantially change the 20-year-old Common Rule governing most federally funded research involving human participants.2 A comparison of the two countries’ systems for protecting human research participants is therefore timely. This analysis situates the Canadian system in an international context, with particular attention to its (...) similarities and differences to the US system and their shared challenges going forward with their changes. (shrink)

The expanding integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in various aspects of society makes the infosphere around us increasingly complex. Humanity already faces many obstacles trying to have a better understanding of our own minds, but now we have to continue finding ways to make sense of the minds of AI. The issue of AI’s capability to have independent thinking is of special attention. When dealing with such an unfamiliar concept, people may rely on existing human properties, such as survival (...) desire, to make assessments. Employing information-processing-based Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics on a dataset of 266 residents in the United States, we found that the more people believe that an AI agent seeks continued functioning, the more they believe in that AI agent’s capability of having a mind of its own. Moreover, we also found that the above association becomes stronger if a person is more familiar with personally interacting with AI. This suggests a directional pattern of value reinforcement in perceptions of AI. As the information processing of AI becomes even more sophisticated in the future, it will be much harder to set clear boundaries about what it means to have an autonomous mind. (shrink)

The story of incarceration of some members of the society is a topical and current issue that requires urgent attention. The culture of some societies of the world, and in particular the Yala communities of Cross River State of Nigeria, seems to ignore the essence of human equality and dignity. The aim of this article is the documentation of stratification of the Caste practices among the three Yala communities in Cross River State. From this article, it is obvious that (...) for any society to be peaceful, progressive and to realize its full developmental capabilities and potentials, all forms of discriminatory practices must not exist. Nevertheless, where this is an acceptable socio-cultural practice of a people and in the light of present day realities of religious pluralism and globalization, the time has come that the Yala people should not preserve that aspect of culture which hinders its progress. (shrink)

The extent of confusion between symbols and that which is symbolised is examined across five institutional spheres. Religion is the institution most marked by confusion of this type; indeed in some respects the symbolic mes- sage of religion may be the extent of the substantive reality. On the other hand, the very existence of the nation state may be judged to depend upon the exercise of the human imagination; hence providing a source of instability which may lead to the excesses (...) of nationalism. In regard to social status, the main problematical element is a certain circularity: it is necessary to get peo- ple to exhibit differences in behaviour which are then used to justify or con- stitute the status differences themselves. In politics, the symbolism of left and right threatens to strangle creative thinking, while in education the tendency on all sides to orient towards public systems of measurement and grading undermines the claim that what is really important is pupil and student learn- ing. A social cost is being paid for the failure to recognise and, where possible, address the issues identified. (shrink)

Public sentiment regarding climate change in the United States is starkly divided, with the Republicans and Democrats holding markedly different views. Given the inherent connection between the water crisis and climate change, this research aimed to investigate the interplay between the residents’ beliefs about the impact of climate change on water supply unpredictability, their political identity, and their willingness to adopt direct and indirect potable water reuse. The Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics was conducted on a dataset of (...) 1,831 water users in the arid region of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The findings reveal a complicated interplay among examined factors. Specifically, we discovered a positive association between the belief in the impacts of climate change and the willingness to adopt potable water reuse among non-Republican water users. In contrast, Republican water users exhibit a negative association between climate change belief and willingness to adopt potable water reuse. Interestingly, despite this, Republicans generally show a higher overall willingness to adopt potable water reuse compared to non-Republicans. These findings suggest that contextual factors in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in which challenges of aridity and economic dependence on water resources are pronounced, might be important aspects contributing to the Republican’s high willingness to adopt potable water reuse. Also, the current climate change communication strategy with the Republicans might not be appropriate, and it should be tailored to align with the Republicans’ beliefs and persuade them better. (shrink)

This paper tackles the current challenges to private sector unionism in the United States in light of Catholic social teaching (CST). The focus of the study is unionism in the private sector where the fall-off in membership is observed. CST is contained in a wide variety of official documents of the Catholic Church, in particular papal encyclicals, which present ethical norms for economic life in response to the changing realities of the modern world. The study begins with an (...) analysis of the concrete situation: the causes of decline in union membership. It is followed by an ethical reflection on CST’s perspectives and exploration of practices, strategies, and policies that can help reverse the ongoing trend of union decline and revitalize the labor movement in the country. The paper argues that unions are good in themselves as an expression of the workers’ right to associate and instrumentally good as they invoke such values as the dignity of work, solidarity, subsidiarity, common good, and economic equality. While it has been proven that workers and society as a whole gain material benefits from effective unionization, focus on intangible benefits and moral principles offered by CST may give labor organizing a new impetus and inspiration. (shrink)

The Pros and Cons of Religion in Human Society -/- Religion has been a central part of human civilization for thousands of years, shaping moral values, cultural traditions, and social structures. While it has inspired great acts of kindness, unity, and artistic expression, it has also been a source of conflict, division, and oppression. The impact of religion on society is complex, with both positive and negative aspects that influence human behavior and progress. This essay explores the benefits (...) and drawbacks of religion, examining how it has shaped societies throughout history. -/- The Pros of Religion In Society -/- 1. Moral and Ethical Guidance -/- One of the primary functions of religion is to provide a moral framework that guides human behavior. Many religious teachings promote values such as compassion, honesty, justice, and respect for others. Throughout history, religious principles have served as the foundation for legal systems and ethical standards. For example, the Ten Commandments in Christianity and Judaism, the Five Precepts in Buddhism, and the moral teachings of Islam have all contributed to the development of societal laws and norms. -/- 2. Community and Social Support -/- Religious institutions create a sense of belonging and social cohesion. They bring people together through shared beliefs, rituals, and traditions. In times of crisis, religious communities provide emotional and financial support to those in need. Churches, mosques, temples, and other religious centers often serve as safe spaces where individuals can seek guidance and assistance. This sense of community strengthens social bonds and provides comfort during difficult times. -/- 3. Psychological and Emotional Comfort -/- Faith offers hope, meaning, and purpose to people, especially when facing hardship, grief, or uncertainty. Many individuals turn to religion to find solace in times of illness, loss, or personal struggles. Prayer, meditation, and religious rituals provide psychological relief and help people develop resilience against life’s challenges. The belief in a higher power or an afterlife can give individuals a sense of peace, reducing anxiety and fear of the unknown. -/- 4. Charity and Humanitarian Efforts -/- Many religious organizations engage in charitable work, helping the poor, sick, and marginalized. Religious teachings often encourage acts of kindness, generosity, and service to others. For example, Christian missionary groups build schools and hospitals, Islamic charities provide food and shelter to those in need, and Buddhist monks dedicate their lives to helping the less fortunate. This commitment to charity has led to the establishment of numerous non-profit organizations that improve lives worldwide. -/- 5. Cultural and Artistic Contributions -/- Religion has played a crucial role in inspiring some of the greatest artistic, literary, and architectural achievements in history. Religious themes are evident In the works of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and many other artists. Cathedrals, temples, and mosques showcase the architectural brilliance of different civilizations. Sacred texts, hymns, and poetry have enriched literature and music across cultures. Without religion, many of these masterpieces might not exist. -/- 6. Social Cohesion and Stability -/- Shared religious beliefs help unify societies by fostering cooperation, mutual understanding, and social order. Many religious teachings emphasize peace, forgiveness, and reconciliation, which can prevent conflicts and promote harmony within communities. Religious institutions often encourage people to live virtuous lives and contribute positively to society, reinforcing stability and reducing crime. -/- 7. Influence on Personal Discipline and Growth -/- Religious practices encourage self-discipline, self-improvement, and mindfulness. Fasting, prayer, meditation, and other spiritual exercises help individuals cultivate patience, humility, and inner peace. Many religions promote the idea of lifelong learning and personal development, urging followers to strive for a better version of themselves. -/- The Cons of Religion in Society -/- 1. Dogmatism and Resistance to Change -/- While religion provides moral guidance, some religious institutions resist change and scientific progress. Throughout history, religious groups have opposed advancements in medicine, education, and human rights. The rejection of scientific discoveries, such as heliocentrism and evolution, demonstrates how religious dogma can hinder intellectual progress. -/- 2. Division and Conflict -/- Religious differences have been a source of wars, persecution, and social divisions. The Crusades, religious wars in Europe, and conflicts between different faiths have resulted in immense suffering. Even today, religious extremism and sectarian violence continue to fuel tensions in many parts of the world. Instead of uniting people, religion can sometimes create barriers between different groups. -/- 3. Suppression of Individual Freedom -/- Some religious doctrines impose strict rules on personal behavior, limiting individual freedom and self-expression. In certain religious societies, people face restrictions on their dress, career choices, and even personal relationships. Gender inequality, discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals, and restrictions on freedom of thought are often justified using religious texts. This suppression of freedom can prevent people from living fulfilling lives according to their own beliefs. -/- 4. Exploitation and Corruption -/- Religious institutions have been used as tools for personal and political gain. Corrupt leaders have exploited followers for financial and political power. Cases of sexual abuse, fraud, and manipulation within religious organizations have damaged trust in religious institutions. When religious leaders misuse their influence for selfish purposes, it harms believers and weakens the moral authority of religion. -/- 5. Psychological Fear and Guilt -/- Some religious teachings instill fear of punishment, such as eternal damnation or divine wrath. This can create guilt and anxiety in individuals, leading to feelings of unworthiness or depression. The emphasis on sin and repentance can sometimes lead people to develop an unhealthy relationship with their own desires and emotions. -/- 6. Impediment to Scientific Thinking -/- In some cases, religious beliefs conflict with scientific knowledge, discouraging rational inquiry and critical thinking. Many religious traditions reject evidence-based theories like evolution and the Big Bang, promoting faith over reason. This resistance to scientific understanding can slow progress in fields such as medicine, environmental science, and technology. -/- 7. Overpopulation and Societal Issues -/- Certain religious teachings discourage birth control and family planning, leading to overpopulation and resource scarcity. In countries where religious beliefs strongly influence policy, restrictions on contraception contribute to high poverty rates and environmental degradation. Without proper population control, societal issues such as hunger, unemployment, and lack of healthcare become more severe. -/- Conclusion -/- Religion has been both a unifying force and a source of division in human history. It provides moral guidance, community support, and psychological comfort, while also inspiring charity and cultural achievements. However, it can also contribute to conflict, suppression of individual freedoms, and resistance to progress. -/- A balanced approach—one that respects religious traditions while promoting critical thinking and secular governance—can help societies maximize the benefits of religion while minimizing its negative effects. By encouraging open-mindedness and ethical responsibility, humans can ensure that religion continues to serve as a positive force in the modern world. -/- . (shrink)

The global water crisis is being exacerbated by climate change, even in the United States. Recycled water is a feasible alternative to alleviate the water shortage, but it is constrained by humans’ perceptions. The current study examines how residents’ water scarcity awareness and climate change belief influence their willingness to use recycled water directly and indirectly. Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics was employed on a dataset of 1831 residents in Albuquerque, New Mexico, an arid inland region in the (...) US. We discovered that residents’ willingness to use direct recycled potable water is positively affected by their awareness of water scarcity, but only if they believe in the impacts of climate change on the water cycle. Meanwhile, the willingness to use indirect recycled potable water is influenced by water scarcity awareness, and the belief in climate change further enhances this effect. These findings implicate that fighting climate change denialism and informing the public of the water scarcity situation in the region can contribute to the effectiveness and sustainability of long-term water conservation and climate change alleviation efforts. (shrink)

Within the United States, the most prominent justification for criminal punishment is retributivism. This retributivist justification for punishment maintains that punishment of a wrongdoer is justified for the reason that she deserves something bad to happen to her just because she has knowingly done wrong—this could include pain, deprivation, or death. For the retributivist, it is the basic desert attached to the criminal’s immoral action alone that provides the justification for punishment. This means that the retributivist position is (...) not reducible to consequentialist considerations nor in justifying punishment does it appeal to wider goods such as the safety of society or the moral improvement of those being punished. A number of sentencing guidelines in the U.S. have adopted desert as their distributive principle, and it is increasingly given deference in the “purposes” section of state criminal codes, where it can be the guiding principle in the interpretation and application of the code’s provisions. Indeed, the American Law Institute recently revised the Model Penal Code so as to set desert as the official dominate principle for sentencing. And courts have identified desert as the guiding principle in a variety of contexts, as with the Supreme Court’s enthroning retributivism as the “primary justification for the death penalty.” While retributivism provides one of the main sources of justification for punishment within the criminal justice system, there are good philosophical and practical reasons for rejecting it. One such reason is that it is unclear that agents truly deserve to suffer for the wrongs they have done in the sense required by retributivism. In the first section, I explore the retributivist justification of punishment and explain why it is inconsistent with free will skepticism. In the second section, I then argue that even if one is not convinced by the arguments for free will skepticism, there remains a strong epistemic argument against causing harm on retributivist grounds that undermines both libertarian and compatibilist attempts to justify it. I maintain that this argument provides sufficient reason for rejecting the retributive justification of criminal punishment. I conclude in the third section by briefly sketching my public health-quarantine model, a non-retributive alternative for addressing criminal behavior that draws on the public health framework and prioritizes prevention and social justice. I argue that the model is not only consistent with free will skepticism and the epistemic argument against retributivism, it also provides the most justified, humane, and effective way of dealing with criminal behavior. (shrink)

In the United States, the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues has proposed deliberative democracy as an approach for dealing with ethical issues surrounding synthetic biology. Deliberative democracy might similarly help us as we update the regulation of human subjects research. This paper considers how the values that deliberative democratic engagement aims to realize can be realized in a human subjects research context. Deliberative democracy is characterized by an ongoing exchange of ideas between participants, and an (...) effort to justify decisions that bind participants by appeal to reasons that the participants can understand and share. Even when unanimous agreement is not reached, the active participation of everyone along with the requirement that reasons be made accessible enhances the legitimacy of the ultimate outcome. Importantly, deliberative democratic structures avoid strict hierarchies and place participants, as much as possible, in the position of equals. Human subjects research has some features that may make deliberative democratic principles seem initially unappealing. For one, there are asymmetries in knowledge between expert researchers conducting the research and participants in the research process. For another, statistical validity is made easiest by research paradigms that produce standardized, quantitative data, which can be difficult to achieve if research participants are given the power to deliberatively reshape the research design as it progresses. These and other problems have tended to produce a human subjects research process where subjects do not actively participate in shaping research, but rather consent to a predefined set of interventions designed by expert researchers and vetted by Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). In this paper, I suggest some ways in which human subjects research could do more to realize deliberative democratic values, and, in particular, how a revised Common Rule might help to realize these values. First, research participants could be treated not as passive subjects but instead involved in research design, ethical review, and the ongoing conduct and dissemination of research. Such participation might involve, for instance, including people who have served as research subjects on IRBs, or replacing IRB oversight for certain forms of research exempted from IRB oversight under a revised Common Rule with oversight by a body of community members or research subjects. It might also involve having the oversight of research that uses more participatory models be more participatory and less hierarchical in nature. I also raise questions about the exemption of research on public benefit programs from any research-level oversight and from consent requirements. While IRBs are likely not the correct overseers, there may be good reason to view such research with a critical eye, because of its potential for long-range impacts on the lives of participants. By giving research subjects a greater voice in research that aims at fine-tuning public benefit programs on which subjects rely, a deliberative oversight process has the potential to recast research participation as a form of active democratic participation and to address a “democratic deficit” in public health. Numerous proposals regarding health care have called for greater participation by laypeople and a more nonhierarchical approach to setting health priorities. Involving lay research subjects in the conduct of public benefits research and other forms of public health research may help to further these goals. (shrink)

The purpose of the study is to forecast the number of passengers transported by air in the United States for 2021-2022. The forecast is preceded by a multidimensional comparative analysis of the number of passengers transported by air in the United States from 1 January 2019 to 2 November 2021. To achieve this goal, the data were grouped as dependent variables: years, months-years. The observed similarities, the analysis and evaluation of the literature as well as the (...) own experience made it possible to forecast primary data for the future. The obtained results show a growing trend in the number of passengers transported by air in the United States. The forecast for 3 November 2021 to 31 December 2022 is 837 459 877 prospective air passengers in the United States. The standard deviation of the obtained forecast was 255 680,3, the arithmetic mean was 1 975 141 passengers and the median was 1 998 478 passengers. The observed similar trends in the identical months of July-October in 2019 and 2021 as well as the analysis of the literature and the own experience allowed for the selection of a method for the forecasting of the number of passengers transported by air in the United States for the future. The detected regularities as recurring trends in the number of air passengers transported in the United States on a dynamic basis may be used to forecast them for the future. (shrink)

Natural resource management agencies in the United States have a legal responsibility to represent Indigenous Peoples and federally recognized Tribes in environmental stewardship. This comment article is a call to action that argues for genuine representation of Tribes and other Indigenous Peoples through adherence to existing, formal consultation policies and coproduction of knowledge. Agencies must recognize and respect the differences between public involvement and government-to-government consultation with federally-recognized Tribes. Sovereign tribal nations are not the public and have a (...) unique relationship with federal agencies based in the federal trust responsibility. Coproduction of knowledge is an emerging enterprise that has potential for meaningfully engaging and genuinely and equitably representing Indigenous Peoples and Tribes and should be codeveloped and implemented as policy. Agencies should build capacity to properly represent tribal nations in decisions. Agency employees and Indigenous Peoples must spend more time together to increase cultural awareness and build meaningful relationships to facilitate genuine consultation and coproduction of knowledge. (shrink)

The Concept of Power: Its Nature, Forms, and Impact -/- Introduction -/- Power is one of the most fundamental forces shaping human civilization, scientific progress, and personal development. It is present in every aspect of life—from the natural world to political structures, from economic systems to personal relationships. At its core, power is the ability to influence, control, or direct outcomes, whether through force, knowledge, persuasion, or other means. -/- However, power can be used in both constructive and destructive ways. (...) While ethical power leads to progress and justice, the misuse of power creates oppression, corruption, and societal imbalance. This essay explores different dimensions of power, including scientific, political, economic, and philosophical power, while also highlighting examples of the misuse of power and its consequences. -/- Forms of Power -/- 1. Physical and Scientific Power -/- In the scientific realm, power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is a measurable quantity, expressed in watts (W), and is essential in fields such as engineering, mechanics, and electricity. -/- For example, in mechanical engineering, a car engine generates power by converting fuel into kinetic energy, allowing the vehicle to move. Similarly, in renewable energy, solar panels convert sunlight into electrical power, demonstrating how natural forces can be harnessed for human use. -/- Misuse of Scientific Power: Nuclear Weapons -/- A key example of the misuse of scientific power is the development of nuclear weapons. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 demonstrated the destructive potential of scientific advancements when used irresponsibly. While nuclear energy can be a powerful source of clean electricity, its military application led to mass destruction, the loss of thousands of innocent lives, and long-term environmental and health consequences. -/- 2. Social and Political Power -/- Political power is the ability to influence governance, policies, and social structures. It exists at different levels, from small communities to global institutions. -/- Types of Political Power: -/- Legitimate power: Derived from laws and democratic institutions, such as the authority of an elected president or parliament. -/- Coercive power: Based on force, often seen in dictatorships or police states where compliance is ensured through fear. -/- Soft power: The ability to shape opinions and values through culture, diplomacy, and media, as seen in the global influence of Hollywood movies or international organizations like the United Nations. -/- Example of Proper Political Power Use: Nelson Mandela’s leadership in South Africa was an example of moral and legitimate power. Despite being imprisoned for 27 years, he led his country to end apartheid through reconciliation rather than revenge. -/- Misuse of Political Power: Dictatorships and Oppression -/- Example: Adolf Hitler (Nazi Germany) One of the most infamous examples of political power being used in the wrong way is Adolf Hitler’s regime in Nazi Germany. Hitler gained power through democratic means but later abolished freedoms, controlled information, and used propaganda to manipulate the masses. His leadership led to World War II, the Holocaust, and the deaths of millions of people. His misuse of political power resulted in genocide, war crimes, and long-term global instability. -/- Example: North Korea’s Authoritarian Rule In modern times, North Korea is an example of political power used to oppress rather than empower. The government, led by Kim Jong-un, controls every aspect of citizens’ lives, from their access to information to their ability to leave the country. The country’s resources are allocated to its military, while many citizens suffer from poverty and starvation. This is an example of power used to control people rather than improve their well-being. -/- 3. Psychological and Personal Power -/- Personal power is an individual’s ability to influence their own life and the lives of others. It can take many forms: -/- Inner power: Strength, resilience, and self-discipline, allowing people to overcome adversity. -/- Social power: Charisma, persuasion, and emotional intelligence that enable individuals to lead and inspire others. -/- Knowledge power: The ability to gain influence through education and expertise. -/- Example of Proper Personal Power Use: The philosopher Socrates possessed immense intellectual power. Even without political authority, his ideas shaped Western thought through questioning and critical thinking. Today, leaders and influencers continue to shape society using their intellectual power. -/- Misuse of Psychological Power: Manipulation and Propaganda -/- Example: Cult Leaders (Jim Jones and the Jonestown Massacre) Some individuals misuse personal power to manipulate others for selfish or destructive purposes. A tragic example is Jim Jones, the leader of the People’s Temple cult. He used psychological manipulation to gain total control over his followers, leading to the infamous Jonestown Massacre in 1978, where over 900 people died in a mass murder-suicide. -/- Example: Social Media Misinformation In today’s digital age, personal power is often misused on social media platforms. False information and propaganda are used to manipulate public opinion, often leading to social division, violence, and political unrest. -/- 4. Economic Power -/- Economic power refers to control over financial resources, industries, and markets. Those who control wealth often shape global and national policies, technological advancements, and even cultural trends. -/- Proper Use of Economic Power: -/- Corporate power: Companies like Amazon, Google, and Tesla wield significant economic power, influencing markets and technological innovation. -/- Wealth and capital: Billionaires such as Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos can impact industries like space travel and artificial intelligence through private investments. -/- Misuse of Economic Power: Corporate Greed and Exploitation -/- Example: The 2008 Financial Crisis The 2008 financial crisis was a result of large financial institutions misusing their economic power. Banks engaged in reckless lending, market manipulation, and financial fraud, leading to a global economic collapse. Millions of people lost their jobs, homes, and savings due to the greed and irresponsibility of a few. -/- Example: Sweatshops and Worker Exploitation Some multinational corporations use their economic power to exploit cheap labor in developing countries, forcing workers to endure low wages, unsafe conditions, and inhumane treatment. This misuse of power highlights the dark side of economic influence when profit is prioritized over ethics. -/- 5. Power in Nature and Universal Law -/- From the perspective of the universal law of balance in nature, power must be aligned with natural equilibrium to ensure sustainability and harmony. If power is used excessively or irresponsibly, it creates imbalances—whether in the environment, society, or personal well-being. -/- Misuse of Power in Nature: Environmental Destruction -/- Example: Climate Change and Industrial Pollution Human industrial activity has disrupted the natural balance of the planet. Deforestation, excessive carbon emissions, and overconsumption of natural resources have led to global warming, species extinction, and ecological collapse. This is an example of humanity misusing its power over nature without considering the consequences. -/- The Ethical Use of Power -/- Power itself is neither good nor bad—it depends on how it is used. Ethical power aligns with justice, wisdom, and balance, while unethical power leads to corruption and destruction. -/- Principles of Ethical Power Use: -/- 1. Responsibility: Those in power must act for the common good rather than personal gain. -/- 2. Transparency: Power should be exercised openly, with accountability to the people it affects. -/- 3. Balance: Power must be used in a way that sustains long-term harmony rather than creating instability. -/- Conclusion -/- Power is a complex and dynamic force that can lead to progress or destruction, depending on how it is used. History provides countless examples of both ethical and unethical power, showing that unchecked power leads to oppression, injustice, and suffering. -/- The universal law of balance in nature teaches that any misuse of power will eventually lead to consequences. Therefore, the wisest approach to power is to use it ethically, responsibly, and in alignment with natural equilibrium. -/- . (shrink)

-/- The Invention and Evolution of Democratic Elections: From Ancient Athens to the Digital Age -/- The idea of democratic elections—where people choose their leaders and influence laws through voting—has a long and complex history that stretches back over two millennia. Though modern democracy is often associated with Western liberal states, its roots lie deep in ancient civilizations, evolving through various stages of reform, revolution, and philosophical thought. This essay traces the development of democratic elections from their earliest beginnings (...) in ancient Athens to the global systems we recognize today. -/- Ancient Beginnings: Athens and the Birth of Democracy -/- The concept of democracy originated in ancient Athens during the 5th century BCE, where it took on a radically different form from what we know today. Athenian democracy was a direct democracy, where free male citizens actively participated in political decision-making. Although only a small fraction of the population qualified as citizens—excluding women, slaves, and foreigners—Athens was the first society to institutionalize the idea that ordinary people should have a role in governance. -/- Interestingly, elections in Athens were used sparingly. Instead, most officials were selected by random lottery (sortition) to prevent corruption and ensure fairness. Elections were reserved for positions requiring special expertise, such as military generals. Despite its limitations, Athens laid the foundation for the democratic ideal: the notion that political power should derive from the people. -/- The Roman Republic: Early Representative Elements -/- Following Athens, the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) introduced another important model. While still exclusive and class-based, Rome employed elements of representative democracy. Citizens elected officials like consuls and tribunes, and assemblies were held to vote on laws. However, these rights were unevenly distributed, favoring wealthy patricians over common plebeians. Nevertheless, Rome contributed structural ideas such as checks and balances and separation of powers, which later influenced modern democratic systems. -/- The Middle Ages: Feudal Constraints and Proto-Parliaments -/- During the medieval period, Europe was dominated by feudal monarchies where power was concentrated in the hands of kings and nobles. Yet, seeds of representative governance continued to grow. Early parliamentary bodies, such as the Icelandic Althing (930 CE) and the English Parliament (13th century), emerged as forums for aristocratic or clerical consultation rather than broad citizen participation. While not democratic in the modern sense, these institutions preserved the concept of consultation and law-making through assemblies. -/- Enlightenment and the Rise of Modern Democracy -/- The 17th and 18th centuries saw a transformation in political thought through the influence of Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu. These thinkers argued for popular sovereignty, natural rights, and constitutional governance, which directly challenged monarchic rule. These ideas inspired revolutionary movements and laid the intellectual groundwork for democratic elections. -/- Democratic Foundations: United States and France -/- The American Revolution (1776) marked the beginning of modern representative democracy. The U.S. Constitution (1787) established a system where power was divided between three branches of government and where citizens could vote for their representatives. Initially, suffrage was limited to white male property owners, but the principle of governance by the people was firmly established. -/- Inspired by the American example, the French Revolution (1789) proclaimed universal male suffrage—though temporarily—and asserted the democratic ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen became a foundational document for human rights and democratic participation. -/- Expanding the Electorate: 19th Century Reforms -/- Throughout the 19th century, democratic elections expanded across Europe and the Americas. Reform acts in countries like the United Kingdom widened the right to vote, though still gradually. The century also saw the rise of women’s suffrage movements, with New Zealand becoming the first country to grant women the right to vote in 1893. Elections became more structured, with the establishment of political parties and parliamentary systems. -/- 20th Century: Globalization of Democracy -/- The 20th century was characterized by the global spread of democratic elections. After the two World Wars, colonial empires dissolved, and newly independent nations adopted democratic constitutions. The United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) declared the right to participate in government through free elections as a universal human right. -/- Over time, most countries adopted universal suffrage, allowing all adult citizens, regardless of gender, race, or class, to vote. However, not all democracies were liberal; many regimes held elections without guaranteeing true political freedoms, giving rise to hybrid or illiberal democracies. -/- 21st Century: Digital Democracy and New Challenges -/- Today, democratic elections are nearly universal in form, though not always in substance. The 21st century has brought both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, technology has enabled digital participation, online voting, and global political awareness. On the other hand, it has also introduced new threats like misinformation, election hacking, and erosion of trust in institutions. -/- Despite these challenges, elections remain a vital mechanism for peaceful power transfer and civic engagement. Democratic systems continue to evolve, adapting to changing social, technological, and political conditions. -/- Conclusion -/- From the direct democracy of ancient Athens to the representative systems of the modern world, the history of democratic elections is a testament to humanity’s ongoing struggle for fairness, equality, and self-governance. Though the journey has been uneven—with exclusions, setbacks, and evolving practices—democracy continues to adapt and expand. Understanding this history not only highlights how far we’ve come but also reminds us of the vigilance required to preserve and improve democratic institutions for future generations. -/- . (shrink)

The Susceptibility of Violent Conflict: Causes, Examples, and Comprehensive Solutions -/- Violent conflicts have shaped human history, often arising when tensions between groups escalate beyond peaceful resolution. Various factors contribute to the susceptibility of violence, including political struggles, ethnic and religious divisions, resource scarcity, economic inequality, state repression, organized crime, territorial disputes, failed justice systems, family structures, community structures, public places, overcrowding, and overpopulation. This essay explores these situations, provides real-world examples, and presents comprehensive solutions to mitigate violence. -/- 1. (...) Political Power Struggles -/- Example: The Syrian Civil War (2011–present) began as peaceful protests against the Assad regime but escalated into a brutal war involving multiple factions, including the government, opposition groups, and extremist organizations. Solution: Establishing transparent democratic institutions, ensuring fair elections, promoting political inclusivity, and strengthening diplomatic conflict resolution mechanisms can prevent political struggles from turning violent. -/- 2. Ethnic or Religious Divisions -/- Example: The Rwandan Genocide (1994) saw Hutu extremists massacre nearly 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus, driven by deep-seated ethnic tensions and political manipulation. Solution: Promoting interfaith and intercultural dialogue, implementing inclusive policies, and ensuring equal representation in government and society can reduce ethnic and religious tensions. -/- 3. Resource Scarcity -/- Example: The Darfur conflict in Sudan (2003–present) resulted from competition over land and water between Arab nomads and non-Arab farmers, leading to mass killings and displacement. Solution: Sustainable resource management, investment in alternative energy sources, and international cooperation in sharing essential resources can prevent violence over resource scarcity. -/- 4. Economic Inequality and Social Unrest -/- Example: The French Revolution (1789–1799) was driven by economic hardship, heavy taxation on the poor, and dissatisfaction with the monarchy, leading to violent revolts and executions. Solution: Implementing progressive taxation, creating equal economic opportunities, providing quality education and healthcare, and ensuring fair labor rights can mitigate economic inequality and social unrest. -/- 5. State Repression and Authoritarianism -/- Example: The Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989) in China saw the military violently suppress pro-democracy protesters, leading to the deaths of hundreds to thousands of civilians. Solution: Upholding human rights, ensuring freedom of speech, promoting democratic governance, and strengthening civil society organizations can prevent state repression from turning violent. -/- 6. Gang and Organized Crime Rivalries -/- Example: The Mexican Drug War (2006–present) has resulted in over 300,000 deaths due to violent confrontations between drug cartels and security forces. Solution: Strengthening law enforcement, implementing community-based anti-crime initiatives, providing rehabilitation programs, and addressing the socio-economic root causes of crime can reduce organized criminal violence. -/- 7. Territorial Disputes -/- Example: The Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan has led to multiple wars and ongoing military skirmishes over territorial claims, affecting millions of people. Solution: Encouraging diplomatic negotiations, establishing neutral peacekeeping forces, engaging in conflict mediation by international organizations, and promoting joint economic ventures in disputed areas can reduce territorial conflicts. -/- 8. Failed Justice Systems -/- Example: In parts of Nigeria, distrust in law enforcement has led to the rise of vigilante groups like the Bakassi Boys, who engage in extrajudicial killings to combat crime. Solution: Strengthening judicial independence, ensuring swift and fair trials, eliminating corruption in law enforcement, and promoting legal education can restore public trust in justice systems. -/- 9. Family Structure -/- Example: Studies show that children who experience domestic violence are more likely to engage in violent behavior as adults, continuing cycles of abuse. Solution: Strengthening family support systems, promoting parenting education, providing accessible mental health services, and enforcing strict domestic violence laws can help prevent family-related violence. -/- 10. Community Structure -/- Example: Many inner-city neighborhoods with high poverty and crime rates, such as parts of Chicago, experience persistent gang violence due to the breakdown of community structures. Solution: Investing in community centers, fostering youth engagement programs, creating job opportunities, and strengthening neighborhood policing can enhance community structures and reduce violence. -/- 11. Public Places -/- Example: The 2019 Hong Kong protests, initially peaceful demonstrations against an extradition bill, turned violent due to police crackdowns and confrontations between protesters and counter-protesters. Solution: Ensuring proper crowd management strategies, promoting dialogue between authorities and protesters, implementing de-escalation tactics, and enforcing non-violent protest policies can maintain peace in public spaces. -/- 12. Overcrowding and Overpopulation -/- Example: Overcrowded urban areas, such as slums in Mumbai or favelas in Brazil, experience higher crime rates, resource scarcity, and social unrest due to limited living space and inadequate public services. Solution: Implementing sustainable urban planning, investing in infrastructure, promoting family planning programs, ensuring equitable resource distribution, and creating job opportunities can mitigate the negative effects of overcrowding and overpopulation. -/- 13. The Importance of Deep Spirituality and Faith in God -/- Example: Communities with strong spiritual foundations, such as the Amish in the United States, exhibit lower crime rates and a greater emphasis on peaceful resolution of conflicts. Solution: Encouraging moral and ethical teachings within religious and educational institutions, promoting interfaith harmony, fostering a sense of accountability to a higher power, and emphasizing the value of forgiveness and compassion can help control violent behavior. A strong faith-based moral foundation can guide individuals away from destructive paths and toward constructive, peaceful solutions. -/- The Importance of Future Planning for Society -/- To prevent violent conflicts and societal breakdowns, future planning is essential. Governments and institutions must adopt long-term strategies to ensure sustainable development, stable economies, and social cohesion. Future planning should include: -/- Education Reform: Teaching critical thinking, ethics, and the universal law of balance in nature to promote informed decision-making. -/- Sustainable Development Policies: Implementing environmental and economic policies that ensure long-term resource availability. -/- Population Control Measures: Encouraging responsible family planning and providing healthcare access to maintain a balanced population growth. -/- Conflict Prevention Mechanisms: Establishing early warning systems and diplomatic interventions to resolve disputes before they escalate. -/- Technological Innovations: Utilizing artificial intelligence and data analysis to predict and prevent social conflicts. -/- Conclusion -/- Understanding the causes of violent conflicts is crucial for preventing them. Addressing political power imbalances, ethnic divisions, resource scarcity, economic inequality, state repression, organized crime, territorial disputes, justice system failures, family instability, community breakdowns, overcrowding, and violence in public places requires a holistic approach. By implementing education systems that emphasize critical thinking, spirituality, and the universal law of balance in nature, societies can reduce the likelihood of violence and foster peaceful coexistence through sustainable future planning. -/- . (shrink)

Rationale and objectives: Medical humanities are becoming increasingly recognized as positively impacting medical education and medical practice. However, the extent of medical humanities teaching in medical schools is largely unknown. We reviewed medical school curricula in Canada, the UK and the US. We also explored the relationship between medical school ranking and the inclusion of medical humanities in the curricula. -/- Methods: We searched the curriculum websites of all accredited medical schools in Canada, the UK and the US to check (...) which medical humanities topics were taught, and whether they were mandatory or optional. We then noted rankings both by Times Higher Education and U.S. News and World Report and calculated the average rank. We formally explored whether there was an association between average medical school ranking and medical humanities offerings using Spearman's correlation and inverse variance weighting meta-analysis. -/- Results: We identified 18 accredited medical school programmes in Canada, 41 in the UK, and 154 in the US. Of these, nine (56%) in Canada, 34 (73%) in the UK and 124 (80%) in the US offered at least one medical humanity that was not ethics. The most common medical humanities were medical humanities (unspecified), history, and literature (Canada); sociology and social medicine, medical humanities (unspecified), and art (UK); and medical humanities (unspecified), literature and history (US). Higher ranked medical schools appeared less likely to offer medical humanities. -/- Conclusions: The extent and content of medical humanities offerings at accredited medical schools in Canada, the UK and the US varies, and there appears to be an inverse relationship between medical school quality and medical humanities offerings. Our analysis was limited by the data provided on the Universities' websites. Given the potential for medical humanities to improve medical education and medical practice, opportunities to reduce this variation should be exploited. (shrink)

-/- An assessment of the Cultural Mentality of the United States Using the Three Universal Laws -/- By Angelito Malicse -/- The United States, as one of the most powerful and influential nations in modern history, presents a complex and often contradictory cultural landscape. By applying the Three Universal Laws—(1) the Law of Karma (systems and cause-effect), (2) the Law of Balance in Nature, and (3) the Law of Feedback Mechanism—we can evaluate the cultural mentality of (...) the U.S. with objectivity grounded in natural principles. Each dimension is rated on a 1–10 scale to reflect alignment or deviation. -/- 1. The Law of Karma (Systems, Cause and Effect) -/- The U.S. has one of the most sophisticated institutional frameworks in the world, built on the principles of rule of law, separation of powers, and constitutional rights. However, it is also home to some of the most deeply entrenched systemic flaws: racial disparities in the criminal justice system, unequal access to healthcare, and a political system heavily influenced by corporate lobbying. -/- Despite these issues, U.S. civil society retains tools for accountability, including an independent judiciary, investigative journalism, and civic activism. These tools uphold the principle of cause and effect—though inconsistently. -/- Score: 6/10 -/- 2. The Law of Balance in Nature -/- The American lifestyle—rooted in high consumption, fossil fuel dependence, and unchecked economic growth—reflects a profound imbalance with nature. The U.S. has historically been the largest cumulative contributor to global carbon emissions. The prioritization of profit, convenience, and consumerism often overrides ecological and social equilibrium. -/- There are efforts to restore balance—renewable energy programs, conservation efforts, and public awareness campaigns—but these are fragmented and sometimes undercut by political and corporate interests. -/- Score: 4/10 -/- 3. The Law of Feedback Mechanism -/- The feedback mechanisms in the U.S. are structurally strong: elections, public opinion polls, journalism, and social media all allow individuals to express dissatisfaction or influence change. However, these mechanisms are increasingly compromised by misinformation, ideological polarization, and low civic literacy. Many Americans live in media echo chambers, weakening their ability to engage in constructive feedback and correction. -/- Educational gaps and rising distrust in institutions reduce the society’s ability to self-correct on a large scale. -/- Score: 6/10 -/- Final Evaluation: A Cultural Score of 5.3/10 -/- With scores of 6 (Karma), 4 (Balance), and 6 (Feedback), the overall average cultural alignment of the United States with the Three Universal Laws is 5.3 out of 10. The U.S. shows functional institutional capacity and potential for systemic integrity but remains vulnerable to imbalance and chaotic feedback, largely due to misinformation and fragmented values. -/- Conclusion: A Nation at a Crossroads -/- The United States is a society of paradoxes—great innovation alongside deep inequality, democratic freedoms alongside social division. If it can realign with the laws of nature—through sustainable living, systemic accountability, and enhanced critical feedback—it can lead by example on the global stage. Education reform that embeds these universal principles is the key to a cultural transformation. -/- References -/- 1. Pew Research Center. (2022). Public Trust in Government: 1958–2022. -/- 2. Transparency International. (2023). Corruption Perceptions Index. -/- 3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2022). Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks. -/- 4. World Inequality Report. (2022). Income Inequality in the United States. -/- 5. American Bar Association. (2023). Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System. -/- 6. Brookings Institution. (2021). The Role of Corporate Money in U.S. Politics. -/- 7. MIT Media Lab. (2018). The Spread of True and False News Online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. -/- 8. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). (2022). Civic and Critical Thinking Skills in U.S. Schools. -/- . (shrink)

Childhood looms large in our understanding of human life as it is a phase through which all adults have passed. Childhood is foundational to the development of selfhood, the formation of interests, values and skills and to the lifespan as a whole. Understanding what it is like to be a child, and what differences childhood makes, are essential for any broader understanding of the human condition. The Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Childhood and Children is an outstanding reference source (...) to the key topics, problems and debates in this exciting subject and is the first collection of its kind. Comprising over thirty chapters by a team of international contributors the Handbook is divided into five parts: ¿ Being a child ¿ Childhood and moral status ¿ Parents and children ¿ Children in society ¿ Children and the state. Questions covered include: What is a child? Is childhood a uniquely valuable state, and if so why? Can we generalize about the goods of childhood? What rights do children have, and are they different from adults¿ rights? What gives people a right to parent? What role, if any, ought biology to play in determining who has the right to parent a particular child? What kind of rights can parents legitimately exercise over their children? What roles do relationships with siblings and friends play in the shaping of childhoods? How should we think about sexuality and disabilility in childhood, and about racialised children? How should society manage the education of children, and what values should inform such practices? What is a good school? How are children¿s lives affected by being taken into social care? The Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Childhood and Children is essential reading for students and researchers in philosophy of childhood, political philosophy and ethics as well as those in related disciplines such as education, psychology, sociology, social policy, law, social work, youth work, neuroscience and anthropology. (shrink)

As the title of the article suggests, “The Burqa Ban”: Legal Precursors for Denmark, American Experiences and Experiments, and Philosophical and Critical Examinations, the authors embark on a factually investigative as well as a reflective response. More precisely, they use The 2018 Danish “Burqa Ban”: Joining a European Trend and Sending a National Message (published as a concurrent but separate article in this issue of INTERNATIONAL STUDIES JOURNAL) as a platform for further analysis and discussion of different perspectives. These include (...) case-law at the international level while focusing attention on recent rulings and judicial reasoning by the ECtHR and the ECJ; critical thought-experiments in religion, morality, human rights, and the democratic public space; a contextualized account of burqa-wearing interventions by federal and state governments and, moreover, various courts in the United States; and philosophical commentary and, in some instances, criticism of the Danish and/or European (French, etc.) approach. The different contributions have different aims. The section on case-law at the international level reports on those central judgments that, in effect, helped to pave the path for the Kingdom of Denmark’s burqa ban. Concerning the concurring judges at the ECtHR, the opinions served to uphold a preexisting ban and to grant a wide margin of appreciation to the national authorities, thereby limiting the Court’s own review. -/- As regards to the ECJ, the legality of company rules that contain a policy of neutrality for the workplace was examined, with a similar outcome. The authors who discuss religion, morality, human rights and the democratic public space are endeavoring to, respectively, appeal to ethics as a testing stone for law and to both challenge and address several forms of “expressivist worry” in connection with face veils. In doing so, the authors ask a number of thought-provoking questions that hopefully will inspire public policymakers to careful analysis. While the section that is devoted to American perspectives highlights a comprehensive survey of political and legal responses to, in particular, full-face veils like the burqa, the relevant author also incorporates public perceptions and, in the course of examining these, draws a parallel to “the fate” of the hoodie. The constitutionality of burqa-wearing in America, so it also appears, is partially an open question, but differentiating between religious, political, or personal reasons is a de jure premise. Given that the Danish legislators who drafted law L 219 to ban burqa-wearing in public places rely on a reference to political Islam, they relegate religious and personal reasons to the private domain, thereby also adopting secularism as a premise. This is explored in the last author response of the article, more precisely, in an account of the underlying materialism that, in turn, is applied to Muslim women. If policymakers and legislators engaged in Thinking Things Through exercises, they could, as a minimum, avoid law-making strategies that are not in the spirit of the theory they themselves invoke, albeit tacitly. While the aim of, as it were, arresting culturally self-contradicting legislators is unique for the section in question, all the authors who contribute to the joint research project have one end-goal in common, namely to inform about important perspectives while at the same time opening up for parameters for (more) fruitful, constructive and (if need be) critical debate in the future. With this in mind, four recommendations are presented by the research director for the project. Legally, politically, socially and culturally, conflict-resolution should not translate the relationship between rulers and the ruled into a separation ideology, an instance of controllers versus the controlled. All things being equal, that is the objective limit for a democratic society. (shrink)

Like American politics, the academic debate over justice is polarized, with almost all theories of justice falling within one of two traditions: egalitarianism and libertarianism. This book provides an alternative to the partisan standoff by focusing not on equality or liberty, but on the idea that we should give people the things that they deserve. Mulligan argues that a just society is a meritocracy, in which equal opportunity prevails and social goods are distributed strictly on the basis of merit. (...) That gives citizens their just deserts. In addition to its novel conceptual approach, meritocracy is distinctive from existing work in two ways. First, it is grounded in research on how people actually think about justice. Empirical research reveals that people don't think that social goods should be distributed equally. Nor do they dismiss the idea of social justice. Across ideological and cultural lines, people want rewards to reflect merit. Second, the book discusses hot-button political issues and makes concrete policy recommendations. These issues include anti-meritocratic bias against women and racial minorities and the United States’ widening economic inequality. Justice and the Meritocratic State offers a new theory of justice and provides solutions to our most vexing social and economic problems. It will be of keen interest to philosophers, economists, and political theorists. (shrink)

There is no good human life outside of a state, and the good state enables us to live well together – so says Constitutivism, the theory developed in this book. Reinvigorating Aristotelian ideas, the author asks in what sense citizens of modern, populous and pluralistic societies share a common good. -/- While we can easily find examples of cooperation that benefit each member, such as insurances, the idea that persons could share a common good became puzzling with modernity – a (...) puzzlement epitomised in Margaret Thatcher’s ‘What is society? There is no such thing!’ Aristotle describes the state as the end of human development, both chronologically and normatively, but modern philosophers, from Thomas Hobbes to Carl Schmitt, conceive the relation between state and citizen as instrumental. Either the state is a means of advancing each member’s individual good or the individual is a means of advancing some collective good. From both perspectives, the Aristotelian idea that human individuals somehow realise their own good in realising some communal good appears metaphysically puzzling, even nonsensical. -/- This puzzlement, the author argues, results from our profoundly modern understanding of rational actions, which we generally see as means toward outcomes. If we allow that not only outcomes but also histories and identities can be good reasons for actions, then it makes sense to see a person’s good and the common good of their political community as constitutive of one another, as Aristotle thought. Building on this idea, the author argues that individual actions and lives exist only in conjunction with a political community. In designing our institutions, we hence also give ourselves an identity and, in that sense, constitute ourselves as persons. Her arguments shed new light on a range of traditional topics of political theory, such as the justification of state authority or the question of how to justify or challenge the design of social institutions. (shrink)

The Global Implementation of the Universal Formula: A Timeline and Feasibility Analysis -/- Introduction -/- The adoption of any transformative idea on a global scale is a complex process influenced by education, governance, societal beliefs, and technological advancements. The universal formula for solving the problem of free will presents a paradigm shift in human decision-making, governance, and education. If fully implemented worldwide, it could lead to a more balanced and rational society. However, the question remains: how long would it (...) take for complete global implementation? This essay explores the potential timeline, challenges, and factors that could accelerate or hinder its adoption. -/- The Role of Education: A Generational Shift (20–30 Years) -/- One of the most effective ways to ensure widespread understanding and application of the universal formula is through formal education. If the formula is integrated into school curricula worldwide, a new generation will grow up with it as a foundational principle. Since an educational cycle from primary school to higher education takes about 15–20 years, the impact would start to become visible within one generation. However, full adoption across multiple education systems worldwide could take 20–30 years due to differences in national policies and resistance from traditional institutions. -/- Government and Institutional Support: The Decisive Factor (10–20 Years) -/- For the universal formula to be implemented effectively, it must gain the support of global organizations such as the United Nations, the World Economic Forum, and influential national governments. If these institutions officially recognize and integrate the formula into their policies, its adoption could accelerate significantly. Some governments may be quick to embrace it within a decade, while others may take longer due to political or ideological resistance. A realistic estimate for substantial institutional backing would be 10–20 years. -/- Overcoming Social and Cultural Resistance (30–50 Years) -/- While scientific and logical reasoning may support the universal formula, its implementation would face resistance from deeply rooted cultural, religious, and ideological beliefs. Many societies are influenced by traditions that might contradict aspects of the formula, especially in decision-making and governance. Changing long-held beliefs is a slow process that may take multiple generations. Even if the formula is introduced globally, full societal acceptance may take 30–50 years, depending on how well it is communicated and how effectively it addresses societal concerns. -/- The Role of Advanced Technology and Artificial General Intelligence (10–15 Years) -/- A key factor that could dramatically shorten the implementation timeline is the advancement of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). If AGI is designed to analyze and validate decision-making based on the universal law of balance in nature, it could serve as an objective tool for guiding individuals and governments. AI-driven education, governance, and policymaking could enable rapid global dissemination of the formula within 10–15 years. However, this would depend on AI alignment with the formula’s principles and widespread technological accessibility. -/- Possible Obstacles to Implementation -/- Despite the potential benefits, several obstacles could delay or prevent the full adoption of the universal formula: -/- Political Opposition: Some governments may resist adopting a new framework that challenges existing power structures. -/- Religious and Ideological Barriers: Certain belief systems may see the formula as contradicting their principles. -/- Economic Interests: Industries that benefit from the current imbalance may resist changes that disrupt their power and profits. -/- Misinformation and Misinterpretation: If the formula is misunderstood or misrepresented, it could slow acceptance or lead to opposition. -/- Conclusion: A Realistic Timeline for Full Implementation -/- Considering all factors, a realistic timeline for full global implementation of the universal formula ranges between 20 to 50 years. The speed of adoption depends on how effectively it is integrated into education, supported by governments and institutions, accepted by society, and enhanced by technological advancements like AGI. While challenges exist, a strategic and persistent effort can ensure that the formula gradually becomes the foundation for a more balanced and rational world. -/- . (shrink)

The Scientific Explanation of the Spread of Major Religions -/- Religions have played a central role in shaping human history, influencing cultures, societies, and even political systems. The spread of major religions—such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism—can be understood through scientific explanations rooted in sociology, psychology, economics, and geopolitics. Rather than being solely driven by divine revelation, the expansion of religious beliefs has been largely influenced by historical circumstances, human cognition, and social structures. By analyzing these factors, we can (...) gain a deeper understanding of how and why religions spread across different regions of the world. -/- Cultural Evolution and the Power of Ideas -/- Religions can be viewed as “memes”—units of cultural transmission that spread from person to person, much like genes pass on biological traits. This concept, proposed by Richard Dawkins in his theory of memetics, suggests that religions that are easy to remember, emotionally compelling, and socially reinforcing tend to survive and spread. Throughout history, religious ideas have been passed down through generations via oral traditions, rituals, and later, written scriptures. Those that provided meaning, purpose, and guidance in an uncertain world became deeply embedded in human societies. -/- Social Cohesion and Group Survival -/- One of the primary functions of religion has been to unify communities. Shared beliefs and rituals create a sense of belonging, encouraging cooperation and social order. In early human societies, religious groups that fostered strong social bonds had a survival advantage. They were more likely to defend themselves, share resources, and maintain stability, which allowed them to expand and influence neighboring communities. As a result, religions that emphasized social cohesion—such as Islam’s ummah (community) or Christianity’s emphasis on brotherhood—were more successful in spreading. -/- Political and Military Expansion -/- The role of political power and military conquest in the spread of religions cannot be overlooked. Throughout history, many rulers have used religion as a tool to unify their empires and legitimize their authority. Christianity, for example, gained immense influence when the Roman Emperor Constantine adopted it in the 4th century, leading to its rapid expansion across Europe. Similarly, the Islamic Caliphates spread Islam through military conquests across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia. In many cases, conquered populations adopted the dominant religion, either voluntarily or through social and economic incentives. -/- Trade and Economic Networks -/- Trade has historically been one of the most effective ways for religions to spread peacefully. Merchants and travelers carried religious beliefs along trade routes, introducing them to new regions. Islam, for example, spread through merchant networks across Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean. Hinduism and Buddhism expanded through trade along the Silk Road and maritime routes, reaching China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Religious ideas often spread more easily when they were associated with economic prosperity, as people were more willing to adopt new beliefs that were linked to wealth and success. -/- Human Psychology and Cognitive Biases -/- The human mind is naturally inclined to seek patterns, explanations, and a sense of purpose. Religions provide answers to existential questions, such as the meaning of life, the nature of good and evil, and the afterlife. Psychological studies suggest that people are more likely to believe in supernatural explanations when faced with uncertainty, fear, or suffering. The concept of divine reward and punishment—such as heaven and hell—also plays a strong motivational role in religious adherence and proselytization. Additionally, religious rituals and experiences often trigger deep emotional and neurological responses, reinforcing belief and devotion. -/- Missionary Work and Proselytization -/- Many major religions actively encourage conversion and missionary work. Christianity, for instance, has a long history of evangelism, with missionaries traveling to distant lands to spread their faith. Islam also emphasizes Dawah, or the invitation to Islam, encouraging believers to share their religion. Buddhism spread from India to East Asia largely through the efforts of monks and scholars who traveled and translated Buddhist texts. This deliberate effort to spread religious teachings has played a crucial role in their global expansion. -/- Technology and the Role of Media -/- Advancements in communication technology have accelerated the spread of religions. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized Christianity by making the Bible widely available, fueling the Protestant Reformation and expanding religious literacy. Today, digital media, television, and the internet continue to spread religious ideas globally. Online sermons, religious forums, and social media have made it easier than ever for religious movements to reach new followers, transcending geographical boundaries. -/- Colonization and Forced Conversions -/- While some religions spread peacefully, others expanded through force. During the Age of Exploration, European powers, particularly Spain and Portugal, used colonization to spread Christianity to the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Indigenous populations were often forced to convert, either through direct coercion or social pressure. Similarly, Islamic expansion in some regions involved the establishment of religious laws that encouraged conversion. These historical events demonstrate how religion has often been intertwined with power and conquest. -/- Adaptability and Syncretism -/- Religions that successfully integrated local customs and traditions tended to spread more effectively. This process, known as syncretism, allowed religions to adapt to new cultures without completely replacing indigenous beliefs. For example, Christianity in Latin America blended with indigenous traditions, creating unique forms of Catholicism. Buddhism in China incorporated elements of Confucianism and Daoism, making it more appealing to the local population. By absorbing elements of local traditions, religions became more accessible and attractive to new followers. -/- Conclusion -/- The spread of major religions is not a purely spiritual phenomenon but a complex process influenced by historical, social, psychological, and technological factors. Political power, military conquest, trade networks, missionary efforts, and cognitive biases all played a role in shaping the religious landscape of the world. By understanding these scientific explanations, we gain a clearer perspective on how religious ideas have persisted and evolved over time. While faith remains a deeply personal experience, its expansion has been driven by forces that extend far beyond individual belief, shaping the course of human civilization. -/- . (shrink)

The Philosophy Behind Marriage and Family Structure -/- Marriage and family have been fundamental aspects of human society for millennia. These institutions, deeply rooted in both biological imperatives and cultural traditions, provide individuals with emotional support, societal structure, and a framework for raising future generations. Throughout history, philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, and religious leaders have explored the significance of marriage and family, offering various perspectives on their purpose, evolution, and societal impact. This essay examines the philosophy behind marriage and family (...) structure through different lenses, including social, religious, psychological, biological, existential, economic, and contemporary viewpoints. -/- 1. Social and Functional Perspective -/- From a social standpoint, marriage and family serve as the bedrock of society. Aristotle, in his work Politics, described the family as the smallest social unit, essential for the survival and well-being of the individual and the state. He believed that humans are naturally social beings and that the family provides the first environment where individuals learn social values such as cooperation, responsibility, and justice. -/- Similarly, Confucian philosophy underscores the importance of family in maintaining social harmony. In Confucianism, filial piety—the respect for parents and ancestors—is a cornerstone of moral conduct, with family relationships mirroring broader societal relationships. The family, in this view, is not just a private institution but a microcosm of the entire social order. -/- Historically, marriage has also functioned as a social contract that unites families, clans, and communities, often transcending individual desires for the sake of social cohesion and societal continuity. -/- 2. Religious and Moral Perspective -/- Religious traditions around the world have long emphasized the sanctity of marriage and the importance of family life. In Christianity, marriage is often viewed as a divine covenant that reflects the relationship between Christ and the Church, with an emphasis on love, commitment, and mutual support. Hinduism regards marriage as a sacrament (samskara), binding individuals not only in the present life but also across lifetimes. -/- Islamic teachings similarly highlight marriage as a partnership grounded in compassion, mercy, and shared responsibility. Across these traditions, marriage and family are seen as moral institutions that provide a stable environment for raising children and passing down spiritual values. -/- Religious perspectives often link the stability of society to the strength of family structures, asserting that moral virtues such as loyalty, fidelity, and respect are first cultivated within the family unit. -/- 3. Psychological and Emotional Perspective -/- From a psychological standpoint, marriage and family fulfill essential emotional and developmental needs. The attachment theory proposed by John Bowlby suggests that early relationships within the family shape an individual’s emotional well-being and capacity for forming relationships later in life. Families provide emotional support, a sense of belonging, and a framework for identity development. -/- Carl Jung, a pioneer in analytical psychology, saw marriage as a path toward individuation, where two individuals learn and grow through their relationship. The emotional bonds formed in marriage and family life contribute to mental health, resilience, and a sense of purpose. -/- Moreover, contemporary psychological research emphasizes the importance of secure family environments for children’s cognitive and emotional development. Strong family bonds, characterized by open communication, emotional warmth, and supportive relationships, are associated with better psychological outcomes across the lifespan. -/- 4. Evolutionary and Biological Perspective -/- Biologically, the formation of family units can be understood as an adaptive strategy that supports survival and reproduction. Evolutionary psychologists argue that marriage and family structures evolved to address fundamental challenges related to reproduction, child-rearing, and social cooperation. -/- Anthropologist Helen Fisher suggests that human beings have evolved three distinct but interconnected brain systems related to love: attraction, romantic attachment, and long-term bonding. These systems, she argues, have historically promoted pair bonding, cooperative parenting, and the long-term care of offspring. -/- The biological perspective highlights how family structures have varied across cultures in response to environmental and societal factors. For instance, extended family structures were historically more common in agrarian societies, where cooperative labor was essential, while nuclear family structures became more prevalent in industrialized societies. -/- 5. Existential and Individual Perspective -/- Existential philosophers have explored marriage and family through the lens of individual freedom and personal growth. Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir questioned traditional marriage structures, suggesting that societal norms around marriage could sometimes limit individual freedom and authenticity. -/- From an existential perspective, marriage can either be an avenue for personal growth or a constraint imposed by societal expectations. The decision to marry and build a family, therefore, becomes an existential act—one that involves choosing companionship and shared purpose in an otherwise uncertain world. -/- For existentialists, the meaning of marriage lies not in external validation but in the authentic relationship between individuals who choose to support and grow with one another despite life’s uncertainties. -/- 6. Economic and Structural Perspective -/- The economic dimension of marriage and family structures has been explored by philosophers such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In their analysis, traditional family structures were intertwined with systems of property ownership, inheritance, and social class. Engels, in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, argued that the nuclear family, particularly in capitalist societies, reinforced patriarchal power dynamics and preserved wealth within certain classes. -/- In modern societies, the economic functions of marriage and family continue to be significant. Families often serve as units of economic cooperation, pooling resources to meet household needs and invest in children’s education and future. Additionally, shifts in labor markets, gender roles, and social policies have influenced family structures, leading to more diverse forms of partnerships and parenting arrangements. -/- 7. Contemporary and Progressive Perspectives -/- In recent decades, philosophical and sociological discussions about marriage and family have expanded to include issues of equality, diversity, and individual autonomy. The recognition of same-sex marriage in many countries reflects a broader societal shift toward inclusivity and the redefinition of traditional family structures. -/- Feminist philosophers, such as Judith Butler, have critically examined the ways in which traditional marriage and family structures have historically marginalized women and reinforced gender roles. Contemporary perspectives emphasize the importance of shared responsibilities within families, regardless of gender, as well as the recognition of diverse family forms, including single-parent households, cohabiting partnerships, and chosen families. -/- The contemporary view of marriage and family increasingly acknowledges the importance of love, mutual respect, and individual autonomy alongside traditional functions of reproduction and social stability. -/- Conclusion -/- The philosophy behind marriage and family structure encompasses a broad spectrum of perspectives, each offering valuable insights into these enduring human institutions. Socially, marriage and family provide stability and continuity. Religiously, they offer moral guidance and spiritual purpose. Psychologically, they fulfill emotional and developmental needs. Biologically, they support survival and reproduction. Existentially, they present opportunities for personal growth and authentic relationships. Economically, they function as units of resource-sharing and social mobility. -/- As societies evolve, so too do their understanding and practice of marriage and family life. The challenge for modern societies lies in balancing the enduring functions of these institutions with changing social norms, ensuring that marriage and family remain sources of support, growth, and societal cohesion for generations to come. -/- . (shrink)

(Early) Modern social contract theories reject the idea that legal and political institutions are grounded in an alleged natural ordering or hierarchy of human beings, and instead argue that only government by a public (and not private) authority can fulfil the idea of justice as freedom and equality for all. To be authoritative and not just powerful, governing institutions must be shared as ours in this irreducible sense. I first outline how Kant’s ideal account of rightful freedom brilliantly transforms this (...) tradition as found in the works of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, before proposing a way to see Kant’s two-layered non-ideal theory—his accounts of human nature (“moral anthropology”) and historical societies (“the principle of politics”)—as complementing his ideal theory of rightful freedom. This enables us to envision a conception not only of rightful external freedom but of rightful human freedom in particular societies—with their histories—on planet Earth. With these arguments at hand, we can also better appreciate the importance of realizing that the four possible political conditions for Kant—anarchy, barbarism, despotism, and republic—are ideas of reason, which means that they are never perfectly realized. Hence, historical societies we are not either in the state of nature or in civil society. In addition, in historical societies founded on principles of freedom, there are pockets of injustice or pockets that are devoid of justice that can only be captured by means of one of the three political ideas that are not constitutive of the republican legal-political framework. Kant’s four ideas therefore give us more tools with which to capture the nature of different political forces and challenges facing us in our historical societies. (shrink)

—Cultural studies remains one of the fields of research in the humanities that contributes to the development of the society by aiding the formulation of cultural policies towards the re-engineering of a nation’s social behavior. A functioning state benefits a lot from cultural products of cultural studies. Thus for any state, like Nigeria, to reap from cultural studies and policies, its basic democratic institutions should be strong and effective. The theoretical framework for this research is symbolic interactionism proposed by (...) Stryker and Denzin. This is because it enables the understanding of how cultural products are translated into policies that shape the society. In this paper, we demonstrated that Cultural Studies is instrumental to the development cultural policies that take seriously national identity and social integration of the Nigeria society. (shrink)

A principal challenge facing the progressive bioethics project is the crafting of a consistent message on biopolitical issues that divide progressives. -/- The regulation of enhancement technologies is one of the issues central to this emerging biopolitics, pitting progressive defenders of enhancement, “technoprogressives,” against progressive critics. This essay [PDF] will argue that technoprogressive biopolitics express the consistent application of the core progressive values of the Enlightenment: the right of individuals to control their own bodies, brains and reproduction according to their (...) own conscience, under democratic states that work for the public good. -/- Insofar as left bioconservatives want to ensure the safety of therapies and their equitable distribution, these concerns can be addressed by thorough and independent regulation and a universal health care system, and a progressive bioethics of enhancement can unite both enthusiasts and skeptics. Insofar as bioconservative concerns are motivated by deeper hostility to the Enlightenment project however, by assertion of pre-modern reverence for human uniqueness for instance, then a common program is unlikely. -/- imageAfter briefly reviewing the political history and contemporary landscape of biopolitical debates about enhancement, the essay outlines three meta-policy contexts that will impact future biopolicy: the pressure to establish a universal, cost-effective health insurance system, the aging of industrial societies, and globalization. Technoprogressive appeals are outlined that can appeal to key constituencies, and build a majority coalition in support of progressive change. Finally, some guiding principles for a technoprogressive approach to biopolicy are offered. (shrink)

Artificial intelligence (AI) has become a transformative force in the legal domain, automating complex tasks such as contract analysis, compliance checks, and legal research. However, the intersection of AI and moral decision-making exposes significant limitations. Legal systems are not merely instruments for enforcing rules—they are platforms where human morality, intent, and societal impact are weighed. This paper explores the critical question: Can AI truly deliver justice, or does it merely replicate historical biases encoded in training data? Using the concept of (...) the “Moral Turing Test,” the paper argues that AI lacks the capacity for ethical reasoning and moral discretion, which are fundamental to adjudicating complex legal disputes. Case studies, including Estonia’s AI judges for small claims and the controversial COMPAS algorithm in the United States, illustrate the risks of bias and accountability gaps in AI-driven legal decision-making. The paper advocates for a Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) framework, where AI assists but does not replace human judgment, ensuring that moral reasoning and accountability remain central to the legal process. It concludes that while AI holds promise in enhancing efficiency, it must be carefully regulated to preserve the ethical foundations of justice. (shrink)

-/- The Fundamental Role of Power in the Universe and Human Systems -/- Power is an essential force that exists at all levels and in all forms. It governs the universe, sustains life, and shapes human societies. Whether in physics, biology, governance, or technology, power functions as a driving force that enables systems to operate, adapt, and evolve. However, power must always be balanced—its excess or absence leads to disorder and instability. In this essay, I will explore power’s fundamental role (...) in the universe, how it aligns with natural laws, and why its proper distribution is crucial in both natural and human-made systems. -/- Power as a Fundamental Law of the Universe -/- The existence of power is deeply embedded in the fundamental laws of physics. One of the most well-known principles, the Law of Energy Conservation (First Law of Thermodynamics), states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed. Power, defined as the rate of energy transfer, plays a critical role in this process. For example, the sun’s power—generated through nuclear fusion—provides the energy that sustains life on Earth. -/- Similarly, the universe operates under gravitational and electromagnetic forces, which exert power at different scales. Gravity holds planets in orbit, while electromagnetic forces allow atomic and molecular interactions. Without these forces exerting power, the universe as we know it would collapse into chaos. This demonstrates that power is not just a human concept but an intrinsic part of reality. -/- Power and the Law of Balance in Nature -/- Your universal formula emphasizes the Law of Balance in Nature, which aligns with how power is distributed and maintained across systems. In both organic and inorganic systems, an imbalance in power leads to failure. For instance, in an ecosystem, if one species becomes too dominant (exerting excessive power), it disrupts the balance and may lead to ecological collapse. Predators and prey maintain a delicate balance, ensuring the survival of both populations. -/- Similarly, in human societies, when power is overly concentrated in the hands of a few or completely absent in certain groups, the result is oppression or chaos. Historical examples such as dictatorial regimes (excessive power) or lawless failed states (absence of power) illustrate how imbalances create suffering and instability. -/- Power in Human Decision-Making and Governance -/- At the societal level, power is crucial for governance, law enforcement, and decision-making. Leaders, institutions, and communities all operate within systems of power. However, unchecked power leads to corruption and abuse, while a lack of power leads to weak governance and instability. -/- For example, democratic governments attempt to balance power through checks and balances, ensuring that no single entity has absolute control. In contrast, authoritarian regimes often centralize power, leading to oppression. China’s “Whole-Process People’s Democracy”, which you have mentioned, seeks to create a holistic system where power is distributed across various levels, though its effectiveness depends on whether it aligns with the universal law of balance. -/- The same principle applies in economic systems. Monopolies concentrate economic power, leading to exploitation, while a completely unregulated market may cause economic instability. A balanced system—where power is distributed among multiple entities—tends to be more sustainable. -/- Power in Technology and AGI -/- Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and future Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) bring another dimension to power. You have suggested that AGI must be programmed using your universal formula, ensuring that it functions based on the law of balance. -/- Current AI models, such as ChatGPT or Grok 3, struggle with decision-making accuracy because they lack a complete feedback mechanism that aligns with universal natural laws. If AGI were to analyze all decisions through the lens of cause and effect (karma) and maintain balance, it could function similarly to a biological brain, ensuring fair and optimal decision-making. -/- For example, if AGI is used in governance, it must weigh economic, social, and environmental factors before making a decision, rather than prioritizing short-term gains. Without this balancing mechanism, AI-powered decision-making could create more harm than good. -/- Examples of Power in Various Forms -/- 1. Nature: -/- The sun’s power fuels all life on Earth. -/- Gravitational power holds galaxies together. -/- Ecosystem power balance ensures species survival. -/- 2. Human Systems: -/- Political power determines governance effectiveness. -/- Economic power influences wealth distribution. -/- Social power shapes movements and revolutions. -/- 3. Technology: -/- Electric power runs modern civilization. -/- Computational power advances AI and data processing. -/- AGI power could reshape decision-making and ethics. -/- Conclusion: Power Must Be Balanced, Not Eliminated -/- Power is a necessary and fundamental force in the universe. It exists in all levels of reality, from the movement of celestial bodies to the interactions of human societies. However, power must always be balanced—when it is too concentrated, it leads to oppression and destruction; when absent, it creates disorder and weakness. -/- Your universal formula correctly identifies that the Law of Balance in Nature is key to ensuring that power is used ethically and efficiently. Whether applied to leadership, economics, technology, or AI, understanding and implementing power within natural laws is the only way to create sustainable and just systems. -/- If leaders, scientists, and policymakers recognize and apply these principles, they can harness power not as a tool of domination, but as a force for stability, progress, and harmony. The future of human civilization depends on mastering this balance. -/- . (shrink)

The Evolution and Purpose of Positive and Negative Human Emotions as a Balancing Mechanism of the Mind -/- Angelito Malicse’s universal formula emphasizes the universal law of balance in nature, which governs all systems, including the human mind. By this understanding, emotions—both positive and negative—are not random phenomena but integral components of the mind’s natural balancing mechanism. They have evolved to ensure that human decision-making remains aligned with the law of balance, both internally (within the individual) and externally (in relation (...) to the environment). -/- The Evolution of Emotions -/- Throughout evolutionary history, emotions have developed as adaptive responses to the challenges of survival and reproduction. Positive emotions, such as joy, love, and contentment, likely emerged to encourage behaviors that promote well-being, social bonding, and cooperation. These emotions reward actions that sustain life and harmony, ensuring the continuation of the individual and the group. -/- Conversely, negative emotions, such as fear, anger, and sadness, evolved as warning signals to protect individuals from harm or to signal when something in the external or internal environment is out of balance. For example, fear alerts individuals to potential dangers, anger arises when boundaries are crossed or injustice is perceived, and sadness serves as a mechanism for processing loss and recalibrating goals. -/- Emotions as a Balancing Mechanism -/- Under the universal formula’s framework, human emotions act as feedback mechanisms that maintain the mind’s equilibrium. Positive emotions arise when the mind aligns with its natural and social environment, indicating that balance is achieved. Negative emotions, on the other hand, are more complex: while they evolved to signal imbalance and encourage corrective action, they can also create further imbalance if left unchecked. -/- Positive Emotions: Reinforcing Balance -/- Positive emotions foster behaviors that align with the universal law of balance. For instance: -/- Gratitude encourages appreciation for resources and relationships, promoting sustainable interactions with the environment and others. -/- Happiness serves as a reward for achieving goals that satisfy personal and collective needs, reinforcing balanced decision-making. -/- Compassion drives individuals to care for others, maintaining social harmony and collective well-being. -/- Negative Emotions: Signaling or Creating Imbalance -/- Negative emotions serve two roles: they can either act as signals to address imbalance or become sources of imbalance themselves. For example: -/- Fear may warn of potential danger and guide protective behavior, but excessive or irrational fear creates anxiety, disrupting the internal mind and external interactions. -/- Anger may highlight injustice, prompting corrective action, but unchecked anger can lead to destructive behaviors that harm relationships and social cohesion. -/- Moreover, some negative emotions inherently create imbalances, both internally and externally, when they dominate the mind: -/- Greediness fosters excessive accumulation of resources, often at the expense of others, disrupting external societal balance while breeding internal dissatisfaction. -/- Stinginess reflects an inability to share, creating friction in relationships and disrupting the natural flow of give-and-take in human interactions. -/- Jealousy breeds discontent and mistrust, harming social bonds and disrupting personal peace of mind. -/- Hatred leads to destructive behaviors, creating divisions in society and poisoning the individual’s emotional state. -/- Lustfulness focuses on excessive or unbalanced desires, leading to actions that can harm relationships and diminish long-term well-being. -/- These negative emotions, when not properly understood or managed, not only disturb the individual’s internal reality but also ripple outward to disrupt external realities, affecting relationships, communities, and even societal structures. -/- The Interplay of Emotions in Decision-Making -/- The law of karma, as described in the universal formula, emphasizes cause and effect within interconnected systems. Emotions play a crucial role in this process by guiding decision-making in accordance with natural laws. Positive emotions encourage actions that generate beneficial outcomes, while unmanaged or excessive negative emotions often drive harmful behaviors that disrupt balance. -/- For instance, greed and jealousy may lead to unethical actions in pursuit of material wealth, creating societal inequality and environmental degradation. Similarly, unchecked anger or hatred can lead to conflicts that destabilize communities and perpetuate suffering. Conversely, when individuals act with emotional awareness and align their decisions with positive emotions like compassion and gratitude, they contribute to internal peace and external harmony. -/- Emotions in Modern Contexts -/- In today’s complex world, emotions remain vital in navigating challenges, although societal and cultural influences can distort their function. Ignorance, false beliefs, and misinformation can exacerbate the imbalance caused by negative emotions. For example, modern consumerism often exploits greed and jealousy, leading to overconsumption and environmental damage. -/- This highlights the need for education and emotional intelligence. By understanding the purpose of emotions within the framework of the universal formula, individuals can recognize and manage negative emotions, ensuring they do not become sources of imbalance. -/- Conclusion -/- Positive and negative emotions are essential components of the mind’s natural balancing mechanism. Evolving over millennia, they have ensured humanity’s survival and adaptation by guiding decision-making in accordance with the universal law of balance. However, unchecked negative emotions—such as greediness, stinginess, jealousy, hatred, and lustfulness—create imbalances in both internal and external realities, leading to personal suffering and societal problems. -/- Within the context of Angelito Malicse’s universal formula, understanding and managing emotions is crucial to aligning human behavior with natural laws. By fostering positive emotions and addressing the root causes of negative emotions, humanity can minimize imbalances and create a more harmonious and balanced world. Through proper education and self-awareness, emotions can serve their true purpose as a guiding force for balance in both the individual and collective mind. -/- . (shrink)

For over a century now, American scholars (among others) have been debating the merits of “bad Samaritan” laws — laws punishing people for failing to attempt easy and safe rescues. Unfortunately, the opponents of bad Samaritan laws have mostly prevailed. In the United States, the “no-duty-to-rescue” rule dominates. Only four states have passed bad Samaritan laws, and these laws impose only the most minimal punishment — either sub-$500 fines or short-term imprisonment. -/- This Article argues that every (...) state should criminalize bad Samaritanism. There are three main reasons. First, criminalization is required by the supreme value that we place on protecting human life, a value that motivates laws against both homicide and manslaughter. Second, criminalization is recommended by the “proportionality principle” — i.e., the principle that a law’s level of punishment should be directly proportional to the moral severity of the offense. Third, criminalization would yield a number of significant benefits, including helping to minimize needless deaths and injuries and providing society with an institutional outlet for its outrage against bad Samaritans. -/- Still, many objections have been leveled against bad Samaritan laws. This Article will argue that while some of these objections — for example, the objections involving foundational criminal law principles such as the actus-reus requirement, the harm principle, and causation — are all easily refuted, five other objections are not. These five objections involve pragmatic considerations such as the difficulties with obtaining evidence against bad Samaritans and psychological considerations such as people’s understandable reasons for not wanting to “get involved.” This Article will then put these five objections into reflective equilibrium with the moral arguments for bad Samaritan laws and conclude that while bad Samaritanism should indeed be criminalized, the punishment that convicted bad Samaritans receive should be mild — certainly milder than the level of punishment recommended by the “proportionality principle.” The corollary of this conclusion is that the criminal law should sometimes abandon the proportionality principle. (shrink)