Many philosophers subscribe to the view that philosophy is a priori and in the business of discovering necessary truths from the armchair. This paper sets out to empirically test this picture. If this were the case, we would expect to see this reflected in philosophical practice. In particular, we would expect philosophers to advance mostly deductive, rather than inductive, arguments. The paper shows that the percentage of philosophy articles advancing deductive arguments is higher than those advancing inductive arguments, which is (...) what we would expect from the vantage point of the armchair philosophy picture. The results also show, however, that the percentages of articles advancing deductive arguments and those advancing inductive arguments are converging over time and that the difference between inductive and deductive ratios is declining over time. This trend suggests that deductive arguments are gradually losing their status as the dominant form of argumentation in philosophy. (shrink)

Feminist epistemologies hold that differences in the social locations of inquirers make for epistemic differences, for instance, in the sorts of things that inquirers are justified in believing. In this paper we situate this core idea in feminist epistemologies with respect to debates about social constructivism. We address three questions. First, are feminist epistemologies committed to a form of social constructivism about knowledge? Second, to what extent are they incompatible with traditional epistemological thinking? Third, do the answers to these questions (...) raise serious problems for feminist epistemologies? We argue that some versions of two of the main strands in feminist epistemology – feminist standpoint theory and feminist empiricism – are committed to a form of social constructivism, which requires certain departures from traditional epistemological thinking. But we argue that these departures are less problematic than one might think. Thus, (some) feminist epistemologies provide a plausible way of understanding how (some) knowledge might be socially constructed. (shrink)

The “received wisdom” in contemporary analytic philosophy is that intuition talk is a fairly recent phenomenon, dating back to the 1960s. In this paper, we set out to test two interpretations of this “received wisdom.” The first is that intuition talk is just talk, without any methodological significance. The second is that intuition talk is methodologically significant; it shows that analytic philosophers appeal to intuition. We present empirical and contextual evidence, systematically mined from the JSTOR corpus and HathiTrust’s Digital Library, (...) which provide some empirical support for the second rather than the first hypothesis. Our data also suggest that appealing to intuition is a much older philosophical methodology than the “received wisdom” alleges. We then discuss the implications of our findings for the contemporary debate over philosophical methodology. (shrink)

In this paper I make the case for a feminist hinge epistemology in three steps. My first step is to explain hinge epistemologies as contemporary epistemologies that take Wittgenstein’s work in On Certainty as their starting point. My second step is to make three criticisms of this literature as it currently stands. My third step is to introduce feminist epistemologies, which argue that social factors like race and gender affect what different people and groups justifiably believe, and argue that developing (...) a feminist hinge epistemology is both plausible and desirable. (shrink)

There are strong moral reasons to acknowledge that third parties can have the standing to forgive. Third-party refusals to forgive can reinforce the moral agency and value of women and disrupt the gendering of forgiveness. Third-party forgiveness can also be crucial for restorative justice aims, like recognizing the value of wrongdoers. Lastly, many victim-only accounts of forgiveness are problematic and utilize an individualistic conception of the self that reinforces the logic of misogyny. Victim-only accounts of forgiveness can also restrict focus (...) to the victim's suffering, thereby neglecting the importance of healing and the relevance of third-party forgiveness for facilitating healing. (shrink)

According to Duncan Pritchard, there are two kinds of radical sceptical problem; the closure-based problem, and the underdetermination-based problem. He argues that distinguishing these two problems leads to a set of desiderata for an anti-sceptical response, and that the way to meet all of these desiderata is by supplementing a form of Wittgensteinian contextualism with disjunctivist views about factivity. I agree that an adequate response should meet most of the initial desiderata Pritchard puts forward, and that some version of Wittgensteinian (...) contextualism shows the most promise as a starting point for this, but I argue, contra Pritchard, that the addition of disjunctivism is unnecessary and potentially counter-productive. If we draw on lessons from Michael Williams's inferential contextualism then it is both possible, and preferable, to meet the most important of Pritchard's desiderata, undercutting both closure-based and underdetermination-based sceptical problems in a unified way, without the need to resort to disjunctivism. (shrink)

In this paper I explore the relationship between social epistemology and relativism in the context of feminist epistemology. I do this by focusing on one particular branch of feminist epistemology - a branch known as standpoint theory - and investigating the connection between this view and epistemic relativism. I begin by defining both epistemic relativism and standpoint theory, and by briefly recounting the standard way that the connection between these two views is understood. The literature at the moment focuses on (...) an aspect of standpoint theory called the epistemic advantage thesis, and on an aspect of relativism which has been called equality. I then show that the connection between relativism and standpoint theory actually turns on a different aspect of standpoint theory, known as the standpoint thesis, and on an aspect of relativism which has been called non-neutrality. I argue that shifting our attention to these other aspects reveals that standpoint theory is clearly and unavoidably relativist, but that this isn’t a problem - standpoint theory can capture everything that it set out to, even on a relativist understanding of the view. (shrink)

It is widely accepted that public discourse as we know it is less than ideal from an epistemological point of view. In this paper, we develop an underappreciated aspect of the trouble with public discourse: what we call the Listening Problem. The listening problem is the problem that public discourse has in giving appropriate uptake and reception to ideas and concepts from oppressed groups. Drawing on the work of Jürgen Habermas and Nancy Fraser, we develop an institutional response to the (...) listening problem: the establishment of what we call Receptive Publics, discursive spaces designed to improve listening skills and to give space for counterhegemonic ideas. (shrink)

Defences of perspectival realism are motivated, in part, by an attempt to find a middle ground between the realist intuition that science seems to tell us a true story about the world, and the Kuhnian intuition that scientific knowledge is historically and culturally situated. The first intuition pulls us towards a traditional, absolutist scientific picture, and the second towards a relativist one. Thus, perspectival realism can be seen as an attempt to secure situated knowledge without entailing epistemic relativism. A very (...) similar motivation is behind feminist standpoint theory, a view which aims to capture the idea that knowledge is socially situated, whilst retaining some kind of absolutism. Elsewhere I argue that the feminist project fails to achieve this balance; its commitment to situated knowledge unavoidably entails epistemic relativism (though of an unproblematic kind), which allows them to achieve all of their feminist goals. In this paper I will explore whether the same arguments apply to perspectival realism. And so I will be asking whether perspectival realism too is committed to an unproblematic kind of relativism, capable of achieving scientific goals; or, whether it succeeds in carving out a third view, between or beyond the relativism/absolutism dichotomy. (shrink)

‘Relativism’ is often treated as a dirty word in philosophy. Showing that a view entails relativism is almost always considered tantamount to showing that it is nonsensical. However, relativistic theories are not entirely unappealing – they have features which might be tempting if they weren’t thought to be outweighed by problematic consequences. In this paper I argue that it’s possible to secure the intuitively appealing features of at least one kind of relativism – epistemic relativism – without having to accept (...) any problematic consequences. I do this by defending what I call 'stratified relativism'. (shrink)

Background If trials of therapeutic interventions are to serve society's interests, they must be of high methodological quality and must satisfy moral commitments to human subjects. The authors set out to develop a clinical - trials compendium in which standards for the ethical treatment of human subjects are integrated with standards for research methods. Methods The authors rank-ordered the world's nations and chose the 31 with >700 active trials as of 24 July 2008. Governmental and other authoritative entities of the (...) 31 countries were searched, and 1004 English-language documents containing ethical and/or methodological standards for clinical trials were identified. The authors extracted standards from 144 of those: 50 designated as ‘core’, 39 addressing trials of invasive procedures and a 5% sample of the remainder. As the integrating framework for the standards we developed a coherent taxonomy encompassing all elements of a trial's stages. Findings Review of the 144 documents yielded nearly 15 000 discrete standards. After duplicates were removed, 5903 substantive standards remained, distributed in the taxonomy as follows: initiation, 1401 standards, 8 divisions; design, 1869 standards, 16 divisions; conduct, 1473 standards, 8 divisions; analysing and reporting results, 997 standards, four divisions; and post-trial standards, 168 standards, 5 divisions. Conclusions The overwhelming number of source documents and standards uncovered in this study was not anticipated beforehand and confirms the extraordinary complexity of the clinical trials enterprise. This taxonomy of multinational ethical and methodological standards may help trialists and overseers improve the quality of clinical trials, particularly given the globalisation of clinical research. (shrink)

Mainstream epistemologists don’t tend to discuss feminist epistemologies. They often don’t mention them in introductory courses or textbooks, and they almost invariably don’t take themselves to work on them. This is probably due to a suspicion that ‘feminist’ epistemologies are clouded by political motivations. In this paper I will argue two things. First, that this suspicion is misguided – a number of ‘mainstream’ epistemologists (specifically, hinge epistemologists), are in fact doing work which is entirely compatible with feminist epistemologies, and the (...) ‘extra ingredient’ required to turn a hinge epistemology into a feminist epistemology needn’t involve political motivations. And second, that bringing feminist epistemologies into the mainstream can benefit hinge epistemologies – by adding the extra ingredient which turns a hinge epistemology into a feminist epistemology, hinge epistemologists increase the motivations they can appeal to in support of their responses to scepticism. (shrink)

This paper focuses on invasive therapeutic procedures, defined as procedures requiring the introduction of hands, instruments, or devices into the body via incisions or punctures of the skin or mucous membranes performed with the intent of changing the natural history of a human disease or condition for the better. Ethical and methodological concerns have been expressed about studies designed to evaluate the effects of invasive therapeutic procedures. Can such studies meet the same standards demanded of those, for example, evaluating pharmaceutical (...) agents? This paper describes a research project aimed at examining the interplay and sometimes apparent conflict between ethical standards for human research and standards for methodological rigor in trials of invasive procedures. The paper discusses how the authors plan to develop a set of consensus standards that, if met, would result in substantial and much-needed improvements in the methodological and ethical quality of such trials. (shrink)

The term ‘identity politics’ is used to refer to a wide range of political movements. In this paper, we look at the theoretical ideas underpinning two strongly, mutually opposed forms of identity politics, and identify some crucial differences between them. We critically compare the identitarian ideology of the New Right with feminist standpoint theory, focusing on two issues: relativism and essentialism. In carrying out this critical comparison we illuminate under-theorized aspects of both new right identitarianism and standpoint theory; demonstrate how (...) the two are distinct; reveal the depth and pervasiveness of the new right ideology’s flaws; and show what a coherent left-wing identity politics could look like. (shrink)

In her book Extended Rationality: A Hinge Epistemology (2015), Annalisa Coliva puts forward an anti-sceptical proposal based on the idea that the notion of rationality extends to the unwarrantable presuppositions “that make the acquisition of perceptual warrants possible” (2015: 150). These presuppositions are commonly the target of sceptical arguments, and by showing that they are on the one hand unwarrantable, but on the other are constitutive components of rationality itself, she reveals that they are beyond rational doubt and thus avoids (...) scepticism. Part of Coliva’s defence of using extended rationality in this way involves distancing it from relativist interpretations, which she describes as “devastating” (2015: 120). She proposes two ways that someone might attempt to formulate epistemic relativism from her extended rationality view, and argues that both would be unsuccessful because they require describing alternative conceptions of rationality which are “unintelligible” (in the first case), or “inconceivable” (in the second). The superficial claim of this chapter is that Coliva’s arguments, as they stand, are insufficient to dismiss relativism. She fails to show that the conception of rationality needed for the first formulation of relativism is unintelligible, and overestimates the significance of the second formulation’s conception turning out to be inconceivable. But I also highlight a deeper problem: neither formulation follows a realistic blueprint for relativism, and so these were the wrong possibilities to consider in the first place. To address this issue, I propose a third, more plausible, way in which someone might attempt to formulate relativism on the basis of Coliva’s account. I leave open whether this strategy is successful, or whether a version of Coliva’s criticisms apply to it too. (shrink)

Different views on the connection between relativism and feminist epistemologies are often asserted but rarely are these views clearly argued for. This has resulted in a confusingly polarised debate, with some people convinced that feminist epistemologies are committed to relativism (and that this is a reason so be suspicious of them) whilst others make similar criticisms of anti-feminist views and argue that relativism has no place in feminist epistemologies. This chapter is an attempt to clarify this debate. I begin by (...) asking the question “are feminist projects and goals best served by relativism, or by absolutism?” I then sketch out four broad positions one could take on the answer to this question, and evaluate arguments for each one. In the end I conclude that feminist projects can, at least sometimes, be served by relativism, and that the claim they can be served by anti-relativism is under-supported. (shrink)

ABSTRACT In this paper I defend a version of Wittgensteininan contextualism. This is a view about justification on which some beliefs are epistemically appropriate because evidence cannot be adduced in their favour. I trace the history of the view from Wittgenstein and Ortega to the present day, defend one version from the charge of relativism, and suggest some applications of the view both within and without philosophy.

Following the publication of his magnum opus L’être et l’événement (Being and Event) in 1988, Alain Badiou has been acclaimed as one of France’s greatest living philosophers. Since then, he has released a dozen books, including Manifesto for Philosophy, Conditions, Metapolitics and Logiques des mondes (Logics of Worlds), many of which are now available in English translation. Badiou writes on an extraordinary array of topics, and his work has already had an impact upon studies in the history of philosophy, the (...) history and philosophy of science, political philosophy, aesthetics, psychoanalysis, and ontology. This volume takes up the challenge of explicating, extending and, in many places, criticising Badiou’s stunningly original theses. Above all, the essays collected here put Badiou’s concepts to the test in a confrontation with the four great headings that he himself has identified as essential to our humanity: science, love, art and politics. Many of the contributors have already been recognised as outstanding translators of and commentators on Badiou’s work; they appear here with fresh voices also destined to make a mark. (shrink)

This article critically evaluates what we call the ‘popular narrative’ about the state of the public sphere. We identify three elements of this popular narrative (the post-truth element, the polarisation element and the new technology element), and draw on philosophical work on hinge epistemology and social roles to challenge each one. We propose, instead, that public debate has always depended on non-evidential commitments, that it has always been home to significant, deep division, and that social media, rather than causing these (...) phenomena, has just made them more visible. Finally, we recommend some changes to traditional and social media which we believe would help foster a healthier, more inclusive, public sphere. (shrink)

This is the editorial to the first edition of the journal Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy.

There has been a growing concern over establishing norms that ensure the ethically acceptable and scientifically sound conduct of clinical trials. Among the leading norms internationally are the World Medical Association's Declaration of Helsinki, guidelines by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences, the International Conference on Harmonization's standards for industry, and the CONSORT group's reporting norms, in addition to the influential U.S. Federal Common Rule, Food and Drug Administration's body of regulations, and information sheets by the Department of (...) Health and Human Services. There are also many norms published at more local levels by official agencies and professional groups.Any account of international standards should cover both scientific and ethical norms at once – the two are conceptually intertwined. Recent sources recognize that “[s]cientifically unsound research on human subjects is unethical in that it exposes research subjects to risks without possible benefit.”. (shrink)

The book that we put in the hands of the reader is a series of daily lectures, which were collected in a book entitled Translation Week: Part One, in celebration of the International Day of Translation. These lectures were given by translation experts in the Arab world via the Zoom application from September 24 to September 29. The events of this occasion ended with the establishment of an international scientific conference on the 30th of the same month.

On the 2001 theme, a very perfect computer would act like a god does.

Sztuczna inteligencja pojawiła się jako dziedzina badawcza ponad 60 lat temu. Po spektakularnych sukcesach na początku jej istnienia oczekiwano pojawienia się maszyn myślących w ciągu kilku lat. Prognoza ta zupełnie się nie sprawdziła. Nie dość, że maszyny myślącej dotąd nie zbudowano, to nie ma zgodności wśród naukowców czym taka maszyna miałaby się charakteryzować ani nawet czy warto ją w ogóle budować. W artykule tym postaramy się prześledzić dyskusję metodologiczną towarzyszącą sztucznej inteligencji od początku jej istnienia i określić relację między sztuczną (...) inteligencją a kognitywistyką. (shrink)

Dalam hal paparan terhadap alam, terutama dalam perencanaan kota, ruang hijau sering kali mendapat banyak perhatian. Vegetasi bermanfaat bagi kesejahteraan manusia, dan hijau adalah warna dominan biosfer bumi. Tapi bagaimana dengan warna khas planet kita yang lain? Ruang biru adalah istilah yang menunjukkan permukaan luar ruangan yang alami (atau terkadang semi alami). perairan secara umum, termasuk lautan, sungai, danau, kanal, dll. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa, seperti ruang hijau, ruang biru juga bermanfaat bagi kesehatan mental dan kesejahteraan psiko-sosial manusia [1]. Aspek ini (...) telah mendapatkan perhatian lebih dalam pada beberapa dekade terakhir, khususnya dalam konteks manajemen kesehatan masyarakat. Sebuah penelitian di Inggris mengungkapkan bahwa kunjungan ke ruang biru di perkotaan meningkat jumlahnya, hampir sama dengan yang ditemukan di pedesaan [2]. Penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa masyarakat yang tinggal di daerah pedesaan tersebut lebih sering mengunjungi ruang biru, mungkin karena pilihan manusia jatuh pada ruang biru yang “terlihat alami”. (shrink)

This is the introduction to Moretti, Luca and Nikolaj Pedersen (eds), Non-Evidentialist Epistemology. Brill. Contributors: N. Ashton, A. Coliva, J. Kim, K. McCain, A. Meylan, L. Moretti, S. Moruzzi, J. Ohlorst, N. Pedersen, T. Piazza, L. Zanetti.

Hal pertama yang harus kita ingat adalah bahwa ketika mengatakan bahwa Cina mengatakan ini atau Cina melakukan itu, kita tidak berbicara tentang orang-orang Cina, tetapi dari Sosiopat yang mengendalikan PKT - Partai Komunis Cina, yaitu, Tujuh Pikun Sosiopat Pembunuh Berantai (SSSSK) dari Komite Tetap PKT atau 25 anggota Politbiro dll. Rencana PKT untuk WW3 dan dominasi total ditata cukup jelas dalam publikasi dan pidato pemerintah Cina dan ini adalah "China Dream" Xi Jinping. Ini adalah mimpi hanya untuk minoritas kecil (mungkin (...) beberapa lusin sampai beberapa ratus) yang memerintah Cina dan mimpi buruk bagi orang lain (termasuk 1,4 miliar Cina). 10 miliar dolar per tahun memungkinkan mereka atau boneka mereka untuk memiliki atau mengontrol surat kabar, majalah, saluran TV dan radio dan menempatkan berita palsu di sebagian besar media utama di mana-mana setiap hari. Selain itu, mereka memiliki tentara (mungkin jutaan orang) yang troll semua media menempatkan lebih banyak propaganda dan menenggelamkan komentar yang sah (tentara 50 sen). Selain melucuti sumber daya dunia ke-3, dorongan utama Belt and Road Initiative multi-triliun dolar adalah membangun pangkalan militer di seluruh dunia. Mereka memaksa dunia bebas menjadi perlombaan senjata berteknologi tinggi besar-besaran yang membuat perang dingin dengan Uni Soviet tampak seperti piknik. Meskipun SSSSK, dan seluruh militer dunia, menghabiskan jumlah besar pada perangkat keras canggih, sangat mungkin bahwa WW3 (atau keterlibatan yang lebih kecil menjelang itu) akan didominasi perangkat lunak. Hal ini tidak keluar dari pertanyaan bahwa SSSSK, dengan mungkin lebih hacker (coders) bekerja untuk mereka maka seluruh dunia digabungkan, akan memenangkan perang masa depan dengan konflik fisik minimal, hanya dengan melumpuhkan musuh mereka melalui internet. Tidak ada satelit, tidak ada telepon, tidak ada komunikasi, tidak ada transaksi keuangan, tidak ada jaringan listrik, tidak ada internet, tidak ada senjata canggih, tidak ada kendaraan, kereta api, kapal atau pesawat. Hanya ada dua jalan utama untuk menghapus PKT, membebaskan 1,4 miliar tahanan Cina, dan mengakhiri pawai gila ke WW3. Yang damai adalah untuk meluncurkan perang dagang habis-habisan untuk menghancurkan ekonomi Cina sampai militer muak dan sepatu bot keluar PKT. Alternatif untuk mematikan ekonomi Cina adalah perang terbatas, seperti pemogokan yang ditargetkan dengan mengatakan 50 drone termobarik pada Kongres KE-20th PKT, ketika semua anggota top berada di satu tempat, tetapi itu tidak akan terjadi sampai 2022 sehingga seseorang bisa mencapai rapat pleno tahunan. Cina akan diberitahu, sebagai serangan terjadi, bahwa mereka harus meletakkan lengan mereka dan mempersiapkan diri untuk mengadakan pemilihan demokratis atau nuked ke zaman batu. Alternatif lainnya adalah serangan nuklir habis-habisan. Konfrontasi militer tidak dapat dihindari mengingat kursus PKT saat ini. Ini kemungkinan akan terjadi di atas pulau-pulau di Laut Cina Selatan atau Taiwan dalam beberapa dekade, tetapi ketika mereka mendirikan pangkalan militer di seluruh dunia itu bisa terjadi di mana saja (lihat Crouching Tiger dll).). Konflik di masa depan akan memiliki aspek hardkill dan softkill dengan tujuan yang dinyatakan dari PKT untuk menekankan perang siber dengan meretas dan melumpuhkan sistem kontrol dari semua komunikasi militer dan industri, peralatan, pembangkit listrik, satelit, internet, bank, dan perangkat atau kendaraan apa pun yang terhubung ke internet. SS perlahan-lahan fielding array di seluruh dunia berawak dan otonom permukaan dan bawah air kapal selam atau drone mampu meluncurkan senjata konvensional atau nuklir yang mungkin tertidur menunggu sinyal dari Cina atau bahkan mencari tanda tangan kapal ATAU pesawat AS. Sementara menghancurkan satelit kami, sehingga menghilangkan komunikasi antara Amerika Serikat dan pasukan kami di seluruh dunia, mereka akan menggunakan mereka, dalam hubungannya dengan drone untuk menargetkan dan menghancurkan angkatan laut kita saat ini unggul. Tentu saja, semua ini semakin dilakukan secara otomatis oleh AI. Sejauh ini sekutu terbesar PKT adalah partai Demokrat amerika serikat. Pilihannya adalah untuk menghentikan PKT sekarang atau menonton saat mereka memperpanjang penjara Cina di seluruh dunia. Tentu saja, pengawasan universal dan digitalisasi kehidupan kita tidak dapat dihindari di mana-mana. Siapa pun yang tidak berpikir begitu sangat tidak berhubungan. Tentu saja itu adalah optimists yang mengharapkan sosiopat Cina untuk memerintah dunia sementara pesimis (yang melihat diri mereka sebagai realis) mengharapkan sosiopati AI (atau AS seperti yang saya sebut - yaitu, Artificial Stupidity atau Artificial Sociopathy) untuk mengambil alih, mungkin pada tahun 2030 Mereka yang tertarik pada rincian lebih lanjut tentang jalan gila masyarakat modern dapat berkonsultasi dengan karya-karya saya yang lain seperti Suicide by Democracy-an Obituary for America and the World 3rd Edition 2019 and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization 5th ed (2019). (shrink)

Hal ini sering berpikir bahwa kemustahilan, ketidaklengkapan, Paraconsistency, Undecidability, Randomness, komputasi, Paradox, ketidakpastian dan batas alasan yang berbeda ilmiah fisik atau matematika masalah memiliki sedikit atau tidak ada dalam Umum. Saya menyarankan bahwa mereka sebagian besar masalah filosofis standar (yaitu, Permainan bahasa) yang sebagian besar diselesaikan oleh Wittgenstein lebih dari 80years yang lalu. -/- "Apa yang kita ' tergoda untuk mengatakan ' dalam kasus seperti ini, tentu saja, bukan filsafat, tetapi bahan baku. Jadi, misalnya, apa yang seorang matematikawan cenderung mengatakan (...) tentang objektivitas dan realitas fakta matematika, bukan filsafat matematika, tetapi sesuatu untuk pengobatan filosofis. " Wittgenstein PI 234 -/- "Filsuf terus melihat metode ilmu di depan mata mereka dan tak tertahankan tergoda untuk bertanya dan menjawab pertanyaan dalam cara ilmu tidak. Kecenderungan ini adalah sumber nyata metafisika dan memimpin filsuf menjadi gelap gulita. " Wittgenstein -/- Aku memberikan ringkasan singkat dari beberapa temuan utama dari dua siswa yang paling terkemuka perilaku zaman modern, Ludwig Wittgenstein dan John Searle, pada struktur Logis intensionality (pikiran, bahasa, perilaku), mengambil sebagai titik awal Penemuan fundamental Wittgenstein – bahwa semua masalah ' filosofis ' adalah sama — kebingungan tentang bagaimana menggunakan bahasa dalam konteks tertentu, sehingga semua solusi sama — melihat bagaimana bahasa dapat digunakan dalam konteks yang menjadi masalah sehingga kebenaranNya kondisi (kondisi kepuasan atau COS) jelas. Masalah dasar adalah bahwa seseorang dapat mengatakan apa-apa, tetapi orang tidak dapat berarti (negara yang jelas cos untuk) sembarang ucapan dan makna hanya mungkin dalam konteks yang sangat spesifik. -/- Saya membedah beberapa tulisan dari beberapa komentator utama pada isu ini dari sudut pandang Wittgensteinian dalam kerangka perspektif modern dari dua sistem pemikiran (Dipopulerkan sebagai ' berpikir cepat, berpikir lambat '), mempekerjakan meja baru intensionality dan baru sistem ganda nomenklatur. Saya menunjukkan bahwa ini adalah heuristik yang kuat untuk menggambarkan sifat sebenarnya dari hal ini ilmiah, fisik atau matematika masalah yang benar-benar terbaik didekati sebagai masalah filosofis standar bagaimana bahasa yang akan digunakan (permainan bahasa di Wittgenstein's terminologi). -/- Ini adalah pendapat saya bahwa tabel intensionality (rasionalitas, pikiran, pikiran, bahasa, kepribadian dll) yang fitur mencolok di sini menggambarkan lebih atau kurang akurat, atau setidaknya berfungsi sebagai heuristic untuk, bagaimana kita berpikir dan berperilaku, dan sehingga mencakup tidak hanya filsafat dan psikologi, tetapi segala sesuatu yang lain (sejarah, sastra, matematika, politik dll). Perhatikan terutama bahwa intensionalitas dan rasionalitas sebagai I (bersama dengan Searle, Wittgenstein dan lain-lain) melihatnya, mencakup baik sistem linguistik pertimbangan sadar 2 dan tidak disadari otomatis sistem prelinguistik 1 tindakan atau refleks. (shrink)

This paper sought to state in a concise and comparatively informal, unsystematic, and more accessible form the more technical approach the author developed during a research fellowship in 1974-75 at the Max-Planck-Institut in Starnberg, Germany. ●●●●● The ideas presented in this paper are more fully developed in later publications by the author which are listed in the two-page addendum to this paper. ●●●●● UPDATED NOTE TO THE READER - December, 2021 ●●●●● Readers will find a more fully developed position than (...) was formulated in this 1976 paper in the author's book-length study, CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON: Horizons of Possibility and Meaning. ●●●●● The book is available in a printed edition, ISBN 978-0-578-88646-6, from online booksellers such as Barnes & Noble, Amazon, and through independent bookstores. The book is also available as a freely downloadable _corrected second edition_ eBook, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5458352, through PhilSci, PhilPapers, HAL, and other online archives. ●●●●● In addition to the above-mentioned book, readers may find "A Primer on Bartlett's CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON" (DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5789848) to be useful as a guide to the nearly 900-page CRITIQUE. The primer is available as a free download through PhilPapers. ●●●●●. (shrink)

NOTE TO THE READER - December, 2021 ●●●●● -/- After a long period of time devoted to research in other areas, the author returned to the subject of this paper in a book-length study, CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON: Horizons of Possibility and Meaning. In this book (Chapter 11, “The Metalogic of Meaning”), the position developed in the 1982 paper, "Referential Consistency as a Criterion of Meaning", has been substantively revised and several important corrections made. It is recommended that readers read (...) the revised and corrected version that appears in the book, CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON. ●●●●● -/- The book is available in a printed edition, ISBN 978-0-578-88646-6, from online booksellers such as Barnes & Noble, Amazon, and through independent bookstores. The book is also available as a freely downloadable _corrected second edition_ eBook, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5458352, through PhilSci, PhilPapers, HAL, and other online archives. ●●●●● -/- In addition to the above-mentioned book, readers may find "A Primer on Bartlett's CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON" to be useful as a guide to the nearly 900-page CRITIQUE. The primer is available as a free download through PhilPapers. ●●●●● -/- "Referential Consistency as a Criterion of Meaning" describes a logically compelling criterion of meaning — that is, a necessary condition of meaning, one which is non-arbitrary and compelling. One cannot _not_ accept the proposed criterion without self-referential inconsistency. This “metalogical” variety of self-referential inconsistency is new, opening a third category beyond semantical and pragmatical forms of self-referential inconsistency. ●●●●● -/- It is argued that such a criterion of meaning can serve as an instrument of internal criticism for any theoretical framework that permits reference to a class of objects. The paper combines the concern of the logical empiricists to formulate a rigorous meaning criterion, with the analytical interest in identifying and eliminating self-defeating statements through an analysis of the referential structure of theories. ●●●●● -/- The paper is followed by a list of other publications by the author that further develop and extend the ideas presented here. (shrink)

This is a primer on Steven James Bartlett's book CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON: HORIZONS OF POSSIBILITY AND MEANING. ●●●●● -/- Some books are long and complex. The Critique of Impure Reason is such a book. It is long enough and complex enough so that it may be a service to some readers to offer a primer to introduce and partially summarize the book’s objectives and method. Here, the author of Critique of Impure Reason: Horizons of Possibility and Meaning provides such (...) a guide, a vade mecum to accompany a reader should he or she embark on a study of the long and complex work. ●●●●● -/- The book is available in a printed edition, ISBN 978-0-578-88646-6, from online booksellers such as Barnes & Noble, Amazon, and through independent bookstores. The book is also available as an eBook, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5458352, through Zenodo, PhilSci, PhilPapers, HAL, and other online archives. (shrink)

Tumpek Wariga, yang juga disebut Tumpek Bubuh, Tumpek Uduh, atau Tumpek Pengatag adalah salah satu kearifan lokal berwujud perayaan keagamaan masyarakat Hindu Bali. Upacara ini dilakukan dalam rangka pemujaan Tuhan dalam manifestasinya sebagai Dewa Sangkara sebagai dewa tumbuh-tumbuhan dalam kepercayaan Hindu Bali. Walaupun dalam kebudayaan Bali perempuan dan laki-laki dianggap setara dalam upaya pelestarian alam, perempuan tetap mendapatkan tugas untuk mempersiapkan prosesi upacara agama, seperti Tumpek Wariga ini. Hal ini terjadi sebab perempuan dianggap memiliki karakteristik seperti alam, mereka memiliki kedekatan (...) dan kepekaan terhadap alam. Hal ini tentu sejalan dengan karateristik dan nilai-nilai dalam ekofeminisme yang menekankan peran perempuan dalam menjaga alam. Fokus penelitian ini menjawab persoalan tentang unsur-unsur kebudayaan dalam Tumpek Wariga, nilai-nilai ekofeminisme yang terkandung di dalamnya, serta bagaimana masyarakat Bali mempertahankannya sebagai kearifan lokal. Penelitian “Nilai-nilai Ekofeminisme dalam Perayaan Tumpek Wariga di Bali”, merupakan kajian kepustakaan. Tumpek Wariga memenuhi enam unsur kebudayaan. Di dalamnya, terdapat nilai-nilai ekofeminisme sebab perempuan diberikan keleluasaan untuk berperan sentral dalam pelaksanaan Tumpek Wariga yang bertujuan untuk menjaga kelestarian ibu bumi. Tumpek Wariga tetap dilaksanakan hingga saat ini, sebab adanya kebutuhan spiritual dan juga fisik terkait Tuhan dan alam. (shrink)

Sebagai pedoman al-Qur’an harus dipahami secara tepat dan benar. Upaya untuk memhami al-Qur’an telah dilakukan oleh umat manusia pada setiap zaman, terutama oleh para mufassir. Hal ini kemudian melahirkan metodologi tafsir al-Qur’an yang terdiri dari beragam jenis metode tafsir. Artikel ini membahas tentang empat jenis metode tafsir al-Aqur’an. Keempat metode itu adalah metode tafsir ijmali (global), metode tafsir tahlili (analitik), metode tafsir maudhu’i (tematik), dan metode tafsir muqaran (komparatif). Metode-metode ini dijelaskan satu persatu meliputi difinisi, kelebihan dan kekurangan, serta contoh (...) hasil penafsirannya. Untuk itu artikel ini menggunakan metode penelitian studi pustaka dengan pendekatan filsafat. (shrink)

Konsep sekolah yang memerdekakan bukan lagi impian. Toto Raharjo mewujudkannya lewat SALAM, Sanggar Anak Alam. Sejak awal, SALAM berani menggunakan ideologi pendidikan dan kurikulum yang berbeda dari yang disahkan pemerintah. Itu sebabnya SALAM menjadi laboratorium pendidikan yang kerap dikunjungi para pemerhati pendidikan di Indonesia. -/- Hampir tiga dekade ia bergiat di ranah pemberdayaan masyarakat, yang mau tak mau melibatkan anak muda di dalamnya. Banyak hal yang dia geluti, dari pendidikan, budaya hingga masyarakat pedesaan. Pemikiran-pemikirannya membawa banyak kemajuan di berbagai bidang (...) yang ia sentuh. -/- Lugas dalam menggagas, dan tulus tanpa keluh, sosok Toto Raharjo terbilang langka di zaman yang pragmatis ini. Dalam Manusia Tanpa Sekolah, Rony K. Pratama memaparkan jejak-jejak genealogis pemikiran Toto Raharjo hingga mewujud dalam karya-karya kemasyarakatan tanpa pamrih. (shrink)

Altruisme pada makhluk sosial, selain manusia, selalu menjadi topik yang menarik. Satu dari contoh tipikalnya adalah semut pekerja – semut mandul yang bekerja tanpa kenal lelah demi ratu mereka. Bisa dibilang, evaluasi menurut asas biaya-manfaat dalam sistem koloni semut sedang berlangsung di tingkat kolektif dan bukan tingkat individu. Perlu dicatat bahwa hal ini secara biologis lebih merupakan batasan yang “keras” daripada pilihan yang bersifat “pribadi”. Perilaku altruistik yang dipilih secara alami pada hewan bermanfaat bagi kelangsungan hidup dan reproduksi spesies yang (...) membawa biaya individu (pengorbanan). Secara keseluruhan, perilaku seperti ini disebut altruisme biologis [1]. Niat dan perilaku manusia sering kali merupakan gabungan yang jauh lebih rumit dari naluri biologis dan kognisi tingkat lanjut. Perilaku altruistik pada manusia yang banyak ditemukan telah dikaitkan secara positif dengan kebahagiaan, kesehatan mental yang lebih baik, dan kesehatan fisik yang lebih baik, yang disarankan selaras dengan prinsip biologis dan evolusioner alam [2]. Dalam sebuah studi di tahun 2019 yang diterbitkan dalam Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), peneliti menemukan bahwa perilaku altruistik dapat menghilangkan rasa sakit fisik dengan mengurangi aktivitas otak di dorsal anterior cingulate cortex dan bilateral insula dalam merespon rangsangan yang menyakitkan [3]. (shrink)

Kemampuan memilih adalah ekspresi langsung dari kebebasan berkehendak. Namun, sebagai makhluk sosial yang bermartabat, secara teoritis manusia menerapkan banyak pembatasan perilaku pada dirinya untuk melindungi anak-anak dan mempertahankan lingkungan yang stabil agar dapat hidup bersama. Pembatasan ini diperkuat dengan hukum atau norma sosial yang dianut. Sebagai contoh, pembunuhan, pembakaran, dan perampokan termasuk kejahatan dengan konsekuensi hukuman yang berat secara hukum, sedangkan bentuk yang lebih ringan seperti kebohongan, kekerasan verbal, dan tidak menghargai/menghormati tidak dianggap penting secara kolektif. Singkatnya, banyak perilaku yang (...) secara teknis mungkin dilakukan namun tidak diterima secara sosial dalam berbagai tingkatan. Pada aspek ini, bunuh diri ada di area abu-abu. Kebanyakan negara di dunia tidak mencegah tindakan bunuh diri pada tingkat hukum. Bagaimanapun, bunuh diri sangat tidak dianggap dan dicegah secara aktif di hampir semua masyarakat. Persepsi kolektif terhadap bunuh diri di berbagai budaya relatif konsisten. Sebagai contoh, semua agama besar di dunia telah mengutuk bunuh diri melalui ajarannya [1]. Namun niatan bunuh diri juga sangat jelas individualis, dan perilaku terkait hal itu tergantung pada individu untuk memutuskan [2]. Oleh karena itu, salah satu masalah terbesar terkait euthanasia adalah aspek kebebasan memilih, di samping implikasi etik, komplikasi hukum, dan risiko eksploitasi. (shrink)

Kedekatan dengan alam pada umumnya dianggap bermanfaat bagi kesejahteraan seseorang. Bukti dari pengamatan ilmiah, serta penilaian diri sendiri berdasarkan pengalaman, menunjukkan efek “kegembiraan” dari paparan terhadap alam. Berjalan-jalan di hutan dikatakan bisa menenangkan pikiran. Tapi, bagaimana itu bisa terjadi? Penelitian terbaru di bidang ilmu saraf membantu menjelaskan hal ini. Tinggal di daerah perkotaan dapat menimbulkan stres akibat kebisingan, polusi, dan persaingan. Amigdala memainkan peran penting dalam pemrosesan stres dan mengelola respon terhadap ancaman emosional di otak manusia. Mereka yang tinggal di (...) kota mengalami peningkatan aktivitas amigdala dibandingkan dengan mereka yang tinggal di daerah pedesaan, seperti hasil penelitian di tahun 2011 yang diterbitkan di Nature [1]. (shrink)

Hedonisme merupakan permasalahan yang cukup mendasar di dalam masyarakat, khususnya di Indonesia. Terdapat beberapa dampak buruk yang dihasilkan oleh hedonisme seperti kemiskinan, permasalahan hutang-piutang, dan konflik sosial. Dengan tingkat pendapatan yang tidak sesuai dengan tingkat pengeluaran seseorang, hal ini dapat menyebabkan ketidakseimbangan kondisi finansial seseorang. Teori ekonomi marxisme—yang dipelopori oleh Karl Marx melalui salah satu bukunya yang berjudul Das Kapital—membantu kita untuk memahami lebih lanjut tentang pertimbangan logis ketika melakukan konsumsi dan memaksimalkan utilitas untuk memenuhi kepentingan kolektif. Kapitalisme menciptakan dorongan (...) yang cukup radikal di dalam aktivitas konsumsi seseorang, di mana dengan adanya analisa Law Diminishing Marginal Utility, para kapitalis akan dengan mudah untuk membuat inovasi baru sehingga dapat menghasilkan komoditas baru yang dengan sengaja diposisikan sebagai komoditas yang dibutuhkan oleh masyarakat. Debt to Income Ratio yang menjadi salah satu rasio untuk mengukur kewajiban dan pendapatan entitas dapat digunakan sebagai langkah untuk mencegah atau memperlambat perkembangan budaya hedonisme dan menimbulkan kesadaran kolektif di tengah-tengah sistem kapitalisme yang cukup kacau. (shrink)

I defend the thesis that psychological states can be literally ascribed only to living creatures and not to nonliving machines, such as sophisticated robots. Defenders of machine consciousness do not sufficiently appreciate the importance of the biological nature of a subject for the psychological significance of its behavior. Simulations of a computer-controlled, nonliving autonomous robot cannot carry the same psychological meaning as animate behavior. Being a living creature is an essential link between genuinely expressive behavior and justified psychological ascriptions.

Literasi digital adalah sebuah keniscaayaan dalam proses komunikasi di era disrupsi, khususnya bagi kalangan pelajar atau santri di sekolah dan madrasah. Sebagai salah satu pemgguna sosial media yang paling aktif, santri di madrasah dan dayah perlu memahami mana berita yang benar dan bohong (hoax) yang sudah bercampur di dunia maya, terlebih berita sensitif yang berpotensi ke ranah hukum dan radikalisme dalam beragama. Pendampingan literasi digital ini ditujukan kepada santri aliyah di empat Pondok Pesantren favorit di Kota Banda Aceh dan Kabupaten (...) Aceh Besar dengan fokus penangkalan berita bohong (hoax). Adapun metodologi yang digunakan dalam tulisan ini adalah dengan menggunakan participatory learning and action (PLA) sebagai metode dalam pendampingan anak usia sekolah. Dalam pelaksanaannya, ditemukan bahwa santri aliyah masih minim sekali kesadaran literasi digital khususnya terkait beberapa hal yang berkontribusi kepada penangkalan berita bohong. Hasil dari pendampingan ini diharapkan bisa memberikan kontribusi penting bagi upaya sosialisasi dan kampanye yang lebih terarah terhadap upaya peningkatan kesadaran literasi digital bagi anak usia sekolah, baik dasar maupun menengah, termasuk integrasinya kedalam kurikulum. (shrink)

Penulisan artikel ini sepenuhnya didasarkan pada perdebatan moral dalam diskursus etika yang cender- ung melihat nilai secara “an sich”, sehingga atas nilai tersebut digantungkan suatu bentuk kehidupan yang lebih ideal. Dalam hal ini, penghadiran Nietzsche dimaksudkan untuk memberi kritik tajam dengan membongkar semua kekeliruan dalam seluruh prasangka moral yang ada. Melalui genealogi yang diartigunakan sebagai penelusuran asal-usul dengan pendekatan fisio-psikologis, Nietzsche secara tidak langsung telah mewartakan bahwa moralitas telah berakhir dalam ketidakbermaknaannya bagi kehidupan.

The common 4th century B.C. view according to which Homer was regarded as a poet and a wise man, the leading and most honorable, to the point of being considered “the educator of Greece” (Pl. Resp. 606e-607a), is strongly supported by the Platonic dialogues. The works of Plato are the main available source to get to know not only the great pedagogical esteem for Homer, but also the several educational traditions that used or relied on Homeric poetry in Classical Athens. (...) We are certainly used to thinking of Socrates as standing out for contesting or blaming such customs and methods provided by rhapsodes, sophists and common people (Pl. Resp.; Ion; Hp. mi.). But conversely, he is also often depicted quoting, alluding to or remaking on Homeric passages when presenting his own views. Socrates even claims to feel a certain friendship or reverence for the poet and declares to be charmed by contemplating things through him, whom he considers to be amongst the few deserving to be called “philosophers” (Pl. Resp. 595b; 607c-d; Phdr. 278b-279b). The puzzling twofold nature of the Socratic attitude towards Homer, coupled with the fact that Plato would become a figure as honored as the poet was, led ancient literary criticism to focus on the Platonic use and sharing of material and techniques proper to Homeric poetry. Works like those of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Maximus of Tyre, Longinus and above all Proclus, not only pointed out the philosopher’s debt to the poet, but even considered him to be an admirer of the Homeric genius unlike anyone else, and whose emulation basically attempted to reach and outperform the pedagogical power that the legendary poet had (Dion. Hal. Pomp. I, 13; Max. Tyr. Or. 26; [Longinus]; Subl. XIII, 2-3; Procl., In R. VI, 163.13-164.7; 202.7-205.23). With an analogous spirit, studies of contemporary Platonists suggest that the dialogues were shaped using the Homeric text, especially the Odyssey, as a template, and making Socrates appear as going through equivalent experiences to those of Odysseus’ “νόστος”. With respect to Protagoras, previous attempts focused on explicit references to books X and XI, placing the dispute with the sophist and the events at Callias’ house in the symbolic context of Odysseus’ encounter with Circe and the following journey into the underworld. I attempt to bring that reading one step further, paying special attention to the narrated character and the dramatic context for the singing of those episodes and the parallel ones in Protagoras. In first place, I consider the whole dialogue refiguring the episode in the Odyssey that works as a dramatic frame for the singing of Odysseus’ past adventures, the arrival at Phaeacia and the reception at Alcinous’ court. I regard Odysseus’ need to sing the Apologue as a call for hospitality to secure a safe passage home, working as a pattern for Socrates’ need of a tale at his own appearance in Athens to fulfill and secure a philosophical education in the city. In second place, I take into consideration the metanarrative dimension of such remaking. Since Socrates’ narration comes in response to a certain “Ὁμήρου ἐπαινέτης”, a “praiser of Homer” (Pl. Prt. 309b1), as Odysseus’ Apologue is to Demodocus the “ἀοιδὸς”, I examine how the dialogue could evince a dispute for pedagogical primacy amongst the different narratives and uses of poetry in Athens, a dispute that the Platonic narrative would attempt to surpass precisely by imitating Homer. (shrink)

Psychoanalysis, particularly as articulated by figures like Freud and Lacan, highlights the inherent division within the human subject—a schism between the conscious and unconscious mind. It could be said that this suggests that such an internal division becomes amplified in the context of generative art, where technology and algorithms are used to generate artistic expressions that are meant to emerge from the depths of the unconscious. Here, we encounter the tension between the conscious artist and the generative process itself, which (...) may yield unexpected, even uncontrollable results. -/- This paper, therefore, seeks to address this division within the modern subject and its relationship to technology, wherein the division within the living body is revealed through the presence of prosthetic elements, which mirrors the division brought about by the incorporation of language as a signifier. I argue that the amplification of this internal schism does not necessarily lead to a more fractured subject. Instead, generative art, bolstered by advancements in AI and machine learning, offers a unique opportunity for individuals to externalize and explore their minds in novel ways. -/- By examining contemporary works such as Hal Foster’s Prosthetic Gods, which stands as a pivotal exploration of the convergence between modernist art and psychoanalytic theory and Isabel Millar’s Psychoanalysis of Artificial Intelligence, this paper elucidates the profound implications of Freud’s vision of modern -/- subjectivity as Prothesengott (Prosthetic God) and address the questions concerning this technological imbrication of the human mind and body through the Lacanian framework. Although for Freud, Man does not become a real God, rather, the potential to transcend one’s limitations ascribes us to God-like qualities by seeking to generate new forms of life that go beyond merely reproducing nature — a transcention of the natural. Millar emphasizes that Freud observes that this is evidenced by the fact that these additional organs remain distinct from the organism and can never assimilate into it. One continually falls short of realizing the fantasy he envisions, opting instead to use his supplementary artificial organs to endlessly revolve around the objects of the drive. -/- This evolving relationship that the drive has with its technological objects, resounds in Lacan’s conception of “lathouse” which allows extimate objects to convert interiority (unconscious) into exteriority (conscious) and exteriority into interiority. The thesis of this paper seeks to employ this underutilized concept to understand the nature of human subjectivity and its bodily and structural relationship to generative art. Therefore, this paper emphasizes what really happens when we enter into this relationship with the lathouse, whereby this artificial object has effects in the "real of jouissance", where these Lathouses create a network, namely the Alethosphere. My goal is to argue that generative art as a technological development, can be seen as an extension to the development of the drive. Conclusively, I make the claim for generative art's potential to externalize the human creative drive by emphasizing the interplay between randomness and structure, and how it offers a means to surpass our inherent limitations by presenting an avenue for self-expression that transcends traditional modes of art. (shrink)

Artikel ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan asumsi dasar dari filsafat Graham Harman (1968– ) yang disebut dengan Object-Oriented Philosophy. Latar belakang pemikiran Harman adalah kritiknya terhadap tendensi filsafat barat yang cenderung menjelaskan realitas secara problematis dengan dua cara, yakni mereduksi objek ke unit terkecil (undermining) atau menolak unifikasi objek dalam satu hal (overmining). Masalah dari kecenderungan pertama adalah ketidakmampuan menjelaskan kemunculan dan ketahanan objek, sedangkan masalah kecenderungan kedua adalah ketidamampuan menjelaskan perubahan objek. Untuk mengatasi dua kecenderungan tersebut, Harman mengembangkan pemikiran tentang (...) objek yang didapat dengan pembacaan kritis atas gagasan intensionalitas Husserl, peranti Heidegger, dan monadologi Leibniz. Dua kesimpulan penting Harman untuk mengatasi problem tersebut adalah: pertama, membagi objek dan kualitas menjadi masing-masing dua bagian, sehingga terdapat empat hal dalam objek, yakni objek real, kualitas real, objek sensual, dan kualitas sensual. Kedua, memperluas relasi yang tidak hanya terjadi antar objek dan kualitas, tetapi juga antar objek dengan objek, dan kualitas dengan kualitas, sehingga terdapat sepuluh model hubungan dalam objek. Kedua jawaban Harman tersebut membuatnya dapat menjawab problem perubahan dengan penempatan kausalitas pada ranah sensual, dan problem kemunculan dan ketahanan objek dengan gagasan Fisi–Fusi. Konsekuensi dari filsafat yang dikembangkan Harman adalah hilangnya posisi sentral manusia dalam filsafat serta pembatasan keseluruhan hubungan dalam realitas. (shrink)

My philosophical case study concerns textbook presentations of the theory of demand. Does this theory contain anything more than just a collection of tautologies? In order to determine its empirical content, it must be viewed holistically. But then, the theory implies false factual claims. We can avoid this result by embracing the theory’s normative character. The resulting consequences will be illuminated with the new autodetermination thesis recently proposed in the philosophy of physics by Oliver Timmer. Applying his ideas to the (...) theory of demand reveals that the statements of this discipline simultaneously concern both values and facts. (shrink)

Job enrichment atau pengayaan pekerjaan, merupakan salah satu prinsip dalam manajemen, khususnya di bidang manajemen sumber daya manusia, yang hadir dengan sebuah klaim : bahwa hal ini dilakukan dengan tujuan agar pekerja merasa pekerjaannya lebih bermanfaat, lebih menarik, dan lebih menantang serta menyenangkan. Pertanyaan yang muncul dalam situasi yang sensitif terhadap kelas sosial adalah; apakah job enrichment benar-benar memberikan kesempatan bagi manusia untuk berkembang (dan oleh karenanya menjadi terbebaskan), atau hanya sekadar istilah pengganti untuk “eksploitasi”? Dengan pendekatan filsafat Neo-Marxist, makalah (...) ini akan mencoba untuk menjawab; 1) Realitas eksploitasi yang dilakukan korporasi; 2) Akar “kekerasan” Manajemen dalam relasi borjuis – proletar, dan legitimasi ilmu pengetahuan; dan 3) Hubungan prinsip job enrichment dan Marxisme sebagai ideologi pembebasan. Dengan metode filsafat tulisan ini menghasilkan argumen bahwa; pertama, manajemen sebagai keahlian memiliki akar historis yang lekat dengan hegemoni kelas borjuis terhadap kelas pekerja. Kedua, manajemen sebagai ilmu pengetahuan diinspirasi oleh dorongan akan efektiftas perbudakan. Jejak-jejak watak represif ini ditunjukkan oleh beragam ekploitasi yang dilakukan oleh jejaring borjuasi - perusahaan, korporat, dan bentuk perkongsian kapitalistik lainnya – sebagai sebuah bentuk “the dark side of management”. Meski masih berada di bawah bayang-bayang produksi kapitalisme – job enrichment – merupakan moda kerja yang paling tidak, cukup mendekati emansipasi sebagaimana yang dimaksud oleh Marx. (shrink)

The Louvre Museum is the largest of the world's art museums by its exhibition surface. These represent the Western art of the Middle Ages in 1848, those of the ancient civilizations that preceded and influenced it (Oriental, Egyptian, Greek, Etruscan and Roman), and the arts of early Christians and Islam. At the origin of the Louvre existed a castle, built by King Philip Augustus in 1190, and occupying the southwest quarter of the current Cour Carrée. In 1594, Henri IV decided (...) to unite the palace of the Louvre with the palace of the Tuileries built by Catherine de Medicis. The Cour Carrée was built by the architects Lemercier and then Le Vau, under the reign of Louis XIII and Louis XIV. The Department of Paintings currently has about 7,500 paintings (of which 3,400 are exposed), covering a period that goes from the Middle Ages to 1848 (date of the beginning of the Second Republic). By including the deposits, the collection is, with 12,660 works, the largest collection of ancient paintings in the world. With rare exceptions, the works after 1848 were transferred to the Musée d'Orsay when it was created in 1986. CONTENTS: Louvre Museum - Variety of exhibited works - The Royal Palace - The collections - - Eastern antiquities - - Arts of Islam - - Egyptian Antiquities - - Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities - - Paintings - - - French school - - - Northern Schools (Flanders, Netherlands, Germany) - - - Italian School - - - Other schools Painting - Definitions - Painting genres - - The landscape - - Still life Paintings - FRANCOIS BOUCHER - - Vulcan presenting arms to Venus for Aeneas - RAPHAEL - - Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione - RUBENS - - Helena Fourment with children - LOUIS DAVID - - Madame Récamier - REMBRANDT - - Portrait of Heindrickje Stoffels - VELAZQUEZ - - Portrait of the Infanta Margarita - SIMONE MEMMI - - Jesus Christ walking on Calvary - JAN STEEN - - The Bad Company - HANS HOLBEIN - - Erasmus - CORREGGIO - - Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine - LANCRET - - Conversation - JAN VAN DER MEER (VERMEER) - - The Lacemaker - VAN DYCK - - Charles I at the Hunt - FRANÇOIS CLOUET - - Elisabeth of Austria (1554-1592), Wife of Charles IX and Queen of France (1570 - 1574) - DELACROIX - - The Barque of Dante - EL GRECO - - Saint Louis, King of France, and a page - REMBRANDT - - Pilgrims at Emmaus (The Supper at Emmaus) - GERARD DAVID - - Marriage at Cana - RAPHAEL - - Portrait of Dona Isabel de Requesens, Vice-Queen of Naples - RUBENS - - La Kermesse (The Village Fête, or Noce de village) - FRANS HALS - - The Gypsy Girl - DECAMPS - - The Sonneurs - HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER - - Anne of Cleves - P. PRUD’HON - - Psyche transported to Heaven - PHILIPPE DE CHAMPAIGNE - - Portrait of Richelieu - LANCRET - - The Autumn - L. DAVID - - Madame Seriziat - COROT - - Recollection of Mortefontaine - LEONARDO DA VINCI - - La belle ferronnière - CORREGGIO - - Venus and Cupid with a Satyr - WATTEAU - - Pilgrimage to Cythera (The Embarkation for Cythera) - NICOLAS POUSSIN - - The Inspiration of the Poet - PRUD’HON - - The Empress Josephine (1763-1814) - FRAGONARD - - The Bathers - H. RIGAUD - - Louis XIV (1638–1715) - TERBURG - - The Concert - LEOPOLD ROBERT - - The Pilgrimage to the Madonna of the Arch - LARGILLIERE - - Family Portrait - MANTEGNA - - Parnassus - MEMLING - - The Virgin and Child between St James and St Dominic - FRAGONARD - - The Music Lesson - JEAN VAN EYCK - - The Virgin of chancellor Rolin - PAOLO VERONESE - - Susannah and the Elders - FRANÇOIS BOUCHER - - Diana leaving her bath - GÉRICAULT - - The Raft of the Medusa - MURILLO - - Assumption of the Virgin - CLAUDE GELLEE (LORRAIN) - - Ulysses returning Chryseis to her father (Marine, setting sun) - INGRES - - Madame Riviere - E. MURILLO - - The Young Beggar - GREUZE - - The Broken Pitcher - PIETER DE HOOCH - - Card players in an opulent interior - POUSSIN - - Et in Arcadia ego - QUENTIN MATSYS - - The moneylender and his wife - ANDREA SOLARIO - - Madonna with the Green Cushion - TITIEN - - Woman with a Mirror - DAVID TENIERS (the Younger) - - The Works of Mercy - LEONARDO DA VINCI - - Mona Lisa (La Gioconda) - Armand Dayot . (shrink)

Materialisme dan mekanisme memandang yang hidup tidak lebih dari benda. Penganut materialisme, melihat organisme hidup dipandang seperti mesin yang rumit. Bagian-bagiannya saling tergantung dan mempengaruhi. Sedangkan mekanisme melihat organisme hidup hanya berdasarkan hukum kimia-fisika. Segala sesuatunya cukup diterangkan melalui rumus-rumus yang rumit. Lawan dari dua paham itu adalah vitalisme. Menurut kaum vitalisme organisme hidup secara fundamental berbeda dari entitas non-hidup. Pada dasarnya diatur oleh prinsip-prinsip yang berbeda dari hal-hal yang mati. Ada dua kutub vitalisme: biologis dan spiritual. Artikel ini akan (...) mengungkap pemikiran filsuf Perancis Henri Bergson (1874–1948) tentang Elan vital untuk mengatasi hambatan materi dalam pembentukan tubuh makhluk hidup. Terutama ditekankannya vitalitas spiritual, yaitu kebebasan dan spontanitas, yang tidak dapat dikembalikan ke keadaan sebelumnya; mendobrak segala hukum kausalitas. Dinamika itu membawa manusia menuju penghayatan yang makin tinggi. (shrink)