In this paper I address the question whether self-knowledge is compatible with an externalist individuation of mental content. Against some approaches, I consider self-knowledge as a genuine cognitive achievement. Though it is neither incorrigible nor infallible, self-knowledge is direct, a priori (no based on empirical investigation), presumptively true and authoritative. The problem is whether self-knowledge, so understood, is compatible with externalism. My answer will be affirmative. I will defend this species of compatibilism against several objections, in particular those based (...) on the possibility of an individual’s being unwittingly switched between worlds. (shrink)

The guiding premise of this chapter is that we, as teachers in higher education, must consider how the content and form of our teaching can foster inclusivity through a responsiveness to neurodiverse learning styles. A narrow pedagogical focus on lectures, textual engagement, and essay-writing threatens to exclude neurodivergent students whose ways of learning and making sense of the world may not be best supported through these traditional forms of pedagogy. As we discuss in this chapter, we, as engineering ethics (...) educators, designed and implemented a new engineering ethics exercise with which we aimed to promote inclusivity at the levels of form and content. At the content level, students were invited to critically engage with inclusivity-undermining ableist assumptions in technology development. This took shape, at the formal level, through a hands-on ‘material tinkering’ workshop in which students collaboratively and creatively altered (or ‘hacked’) artifacts used in contexts of disability and healthcare, so as to operationalize values of inclusivity and accessibility. Our hunch was that this hands-on tinkering workshop would simultaneously encourage a meaningful way of engagement with these ethical issues and values, while also enacting a more inclusive learning environment by enriching the range of pedagogical activities and learning formats available to our students. As we aim to show in this chapter, we believe this hunch largely panned out - though there are clear areas for future improvement pertaining to the pilot exercise itself and the research we conducted on the exercise. We begin by offering a description of our tinkering exercise. We discuss the exercise’s source of inspiration (2.1) and its implementation (2.2), which is visually captured via photographic documentation. We then discuss (3) how we utilized a triangulated research method to assess the pedagogical value of the exercise. After we discuss our findings, we conclude by identifying areas for future improvement (4). (shrink)

Literature frequently describes how ineffective implementation of instructional policy frameworks can make distance learning a lonely and unrewarding academic pursuit, characterized by high student drop-out rates, high failure rates and academic exclusion. In trying to mitigate this catastrophe, academic departments in distance learning institutions utilize learning management systems (LMSs) to stimulate students’ learning experiences. In keeping with techno-progressivism, the researchers (and authors of this paper) turned to extant documentary policy and literature to review – qualitatively – how the University of (...) South Africa’s (Unisa’s) Open Distance Learning Policy (ODLP) promotes academic inclusion and learning agency as cornerstones of student success and social justice, especially in an unequal society like South Africa. The findings revealed the following: 1) Unisa’s ODLP position has the impetus to influence the deployment of the LMS to promote academic inclusion; 2) Practical means of promoting inclusion were mirrored in the provision of manual or electronic learning material, computer laboratories and free internet connectivity in regional centres across all nine provinces of South Africa, as well as in the provision of laptops for National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS)-funded students, 30 gigabytes of free monthly mobile data to all students, and assistive technologies for students with disabilities; 3) Practical utilization of an LMS to foster self-regulated learning occurred through problem-based individual activities supplemented by asynchronous demonstrative learning material (e.g. audio, video), while collaborative learning agency was enabled through e-tutoring, which afforded students the opportunity to interact with e-tutors and their peers about the learning content; 4) Drawbacks in the use of the LMS stemmed from the insufficiency of assistive learning technologies that are required for students with disabilities to participate fully in online learning, and a corpus of students’ irregular attendance at and participation in e-tutoring discussions and their projection of a negative attitude towards the e-tutors. -/- . (shrink)

This study focuses on the engagement of children and youth in their communities and the ways they are included in and excluded from community life. Using a content analysis of a small town United States newspaper over a one-year period, examples of engagement were identified and classified into 12 categories: programs, clubs and special events; fundraising and community ser- vice; business and community support; participation in community events; school events; athle- tic and other performances; employment; involvement in local planning (...) and decision making; serving as a community representative; visibility and recognition; criminal activity and accidents; and use of public space. Examples of community exclusion were identified as well. Young peo- ple were engaged primarily through activities that were adult-directed or supervised, or organi- zed through schools, churches, and youth clubs. There was little involvement in local planning, decision making, or activism. Some evidence existed of peer teaching, leadership, and self-initia- ted activities, as well as intentional efforts by adults to give youth a greater voice in community activities. Implications include several ethical issues regarding the role of young people in com- munity life, particularly young children, and the need for greater awareness on the part of com- munities of the contributions young people can make. (shrink)

Meaning as the original function of language is the arrangement of internal things on the part of the creative and historical individual subject who speaks a particular language. Meaning constitutes the series of contents making up the linguistic world human subjects can manage real things with. Real things are not described with meanings but merely represented and designated. Meanings represent the essence of things thus making them members of a category. In this sense, meaning is the base to create things (...) in as much as they constitute entities. Only through the operation of determination can meanings designate individual real things. Since meaningful categories are intended to particular purposes, meaning is intentional and inclusive. (shrink)

The guiding premise of this chapter is that we, as teachers in higher education, must consider how the content and form of our teaching can foster inclusivity through a responsiveness to neurodiverse learning styles. A narrow pedagogical focus on lectures, textual engagement, and essay-writing threatens to exclude neurodivergent students whose ways of learning and making sense of the world may not be best supported through these traditional forms of pedagogy. As we discuss in this chapter, we, as engineering ethics (...) educators, designed and implemented a new engineering ethics exercise with which we aimed to promote inclusivity at the levels of form and content. At the content level, students were invited to critically engage with inclusivity-undermining ableist assumptions in technology development. This took shape, at the form level, through a hands-on ‘material tinkering’ workshop in which students collaboratively and creatively altered (or ‘hacked’) artifacts used in contexts of disability and healthcare, so as to operationalize values of inclusivity and accessibility. Our hunch was that this hands-on tinkering workshop would simultaneously encourage a meaningful way of engagement with these ethical issues and values, while also enacting a more inclusive learning environment by enriching the range of pedagogical activities and learning formats available to our students.As we aim to show in this chapter, we believe this hunch largely panned out – though there are clear areas for future improvement pertaining to the pilot exercise itself and the research we conducted on the exercise. We begin by offering a description of our tinkering exercise. We discuss the exercise’s source of inspiration (Sect. 16.2.1) and its implementation (Sect. 16.2.2), which is visually captured via photographic documentation. We then discuss (Sect. 16.3) how we utilized a triangulated research method to assess the pedagogical value of the exercise. After we discuss our findings, we conclude by identifying areas for future improvement (Sect. 16.4). (shrink)

The contents of Brahmajnaana, the Buddhism, the Jainism, the Sabdabrahma Siddhanta and Shaddarsanas will be discussed to present the true meaning of individual’s identity and I. The influence of spirituality contained in Upanishadic insight in the development of Sanskrit language structure, Indian culture, and individual identity formation will be developed. The cultural and psychological aspects of a civilization on the formation of its language structure and prominence given to various parts of speech and vice versa will be touched upon. These (...) aspects will be also compared and contrasted with German, French, Telugu and Hindi and their respective influence on cultural and identity formation and vice versa. A cognitive science interpretation of advaita and dvaita phases of mind and bhakti and vibhakti modes of language acquisition and communication in terms of physics and electronics will be given and be clubbed to present an inclusive and comprehensive modern scientific and social scientific understanding and interpretation of Brahmajnaana, the Buddhism, the Jainism and rest of current theistic and atheistic awareness of I and its spiritual, linguistic, cognitive scientific and rationalistic ideas and opinions. The use of this study for national integration and oneness of Indians will be highlighted. (shrink)

Legal anti-positivism is widely believed to be a general theory of law that generates far too many false negatives. If anti-positivism is true, certain rules bearing all the hallmarks of legality are not in fact legal. This impression, fostered by both positivists and anti-positivists, stems from an overly narrow conception of the kinds of moral facts that ground legal facts: roughly, facts about what is morally optimific—morally best or morally justified or morally obligatory given our social practices. A less restrictive (...) view of the kinds of moral properties that ground legality results in a form of anti-positivism that can accommodate any legal rule consistent with positivism, including the alleged counter-examples. This form of “inclusive” anti-positivism is not just invulnerable to extensional challenges from the positivist. It is the only account that withstands extensional objections, while incorporating, on purely conceptual grounds, a large part of the content of morality into law. (shrink)

In philosophical logic and proof theory, we often find multiple-conclusion systems that induce a conjunctive reading of premises and a disjunctive reading of conclusions. In mathematical logic, in contrast, we often find multiple-conclusion systems that induce a conjunctive reading of both premises and conclusions. This paper studies some technical and philosophical aspects of this latter approach to multiple-conclusion consequence. The takeaway is that, while the importance of disjunctive multiple conclusions is beyond doubt, conjunctive multiple conclusions also have philosophical interest. First, (...) because there is some evidence that there are arguments with conjunctive multiple conclusions in natural language. Second, because conjunctive multiple conclusions are compatible with the reflexivity and transitivity of logical consequence, and this allows them to cohere better with some of our best accounts of what logical consequence is. (shrink)

SUMMARY The research focuses on the three main political parties in Albania, namely Socialist Party, Democratic Party and Socialist Movement for Integration. Its objectives are to measure the Intra-Party Democracy(IPD) in the Albanian political parties and to explore the meaning that party members attach to it. The IPD is understood and broken down into categories and sub-categories so that parties in particular and all interested actors in the field of political parties and democracy could understand, which component of IPD parties (...) are performing better and where they are performing worse. IPD is measured against two dimensions: inclusiveness and decentralization. Inclusiveness denotes the extent to which party members have the right to express their opinions and participate in the decision-making process. With decentralization is understood the process which makes possible the decentralization of the decision-making process from the highest national party level to party sub-national levels and party members. In a decentralized party, subnational party units enjoy a certain level of autonomy from the party in the center. The analysis is based on both primary and secondary data. Content analysis of party statutes particularly focuses on measuring IPD, while focus groups with party members and interviews with high-ranking officials of the political parties are used to explore the meaning that party members have on IPD, as well as validate content analysis findings. The main findings are: -/- Content Analysis of Party Statutes: Parties do have rules that govern their internal life, however these rules need to be improved in order to strengthen IPD. Especially problematic were the provisions for the role of the executive committee and party president, which provide these two institutions, especially the leader of the party with powers that don’t hold him/her accountable to the party members and middle level organs. Furthermore, members were not sufficiently involved in the procedures of candidate nominations for MPs, in the election of the national Executive and Executive Committee and in the election of the Party President. The analysis also finds that voting procedures are not sufficiently at place to allow members express their will and participate in the decision-making process and that members are not or little consulted in terms of programmatic issues. The analysis of the relationship between the national and subnational levels of party organization revealed that the center of the party has accumulated power to the detriment of the subnational units which enjoy little autonomy in the decision-making process. -/- Focus Groups and Interviews: The study finds that party members linked system-level democracy with IPD and that they have a very clear understanding if IPD: what it is and how it could be achieved. They linked IPD with the structure and organization of the party, seeing it as an important instrument that allows for decentralization of power and integration of rank and file into the decision-making process. The party members considered the statute as an important educational political tool and invoked it whenever disputes rose or decisions had to be taken. They linked IPD with the electoral system and considered that closed list proportional was a system that strengthened the power in the hands of the few at the party top executive level and weakened IPD. (shrink)

The article by MacKay and Saylor (2020) claims that the principle of fair subject selection yields conflicting imperatives (e.g. in the case of pregnant women) and should be understood as “a bundle of four distinct sub-principles” (i.e. fair inclusion, burden sharing, opportunity, distribution of third-party risks), each having conflicting normative recommendations (MacKay and Saylor 2020). The authors also offer guidance as to how we should navigate between subprinciples that may conflict with each other. The problem is a crucial one (...) since fair subject selection is one of the principles regulating clinical research that produces generalizable knowledge with the potential of improving people’s health. Therefore, there may be cases where the way in which participants are selected directly influences the generalizability (or its lack) of the clinically relevant knowledge and its value (if any) to different groups. In my commentary article, written from the philosophical perspective, I notice a number of interrelated problems which I believe have not been discussed thoroughly in the target article: (1) the precise way in which health care priority setting should influence the content of health research priority setting and fair inclusion principles; (2) the distinction between group and individual benefits and burdens from clinical research; (3) the reference class problem in medical research. (shrink)

Numbers are concepts whose content, structure, and organization are influenced by the material forms used to represent and manipulate them. Indeed, as argued here, it is the inclusion of multiple forms (distributed objects, fingers, single- and two-dimensional forms like pebbles and abaci, and written notations) that is the mechanism of numerical elaboration. Further, variety in employed forms explains at least part of the synchronic and diachronic variability that exists between and within cultural number systems. Material forms also impart (...) characteristics like linearity that may persist in the form of knowledge and behaviors, ultimately yielding numerical concepts that are irreducible to and functionally independent of any particular form. Material devices used to represent and manipulate numbers also interact with language in ways that reinforce or contrast different aspects of numerical cognition. Not only does this interaction potentially explain some of the unique aspects of numerical language, it suggests that the two are complementary but ultimately distinct means of accessing numerical intuitions and insights. The potential inclusion of materiality in contemporary research in numerical cognition is advocated, both for its explanatory power, as well as its influence on psychological, behavioral, and linguistic aspects of numerical cognition. (shrink)

This theme issue has the founding ambition of landscaping Data Ethics as a new branch of ethics that studies and evaluates moral problems related to data (including generation, recording, curation, processing, dissemination, sharing, and use), algorithms (including AI, artificial agents, machine learning, and robots), and corresponding practices (including responsible innovation, programming, hacking, and professional codes), in order to formulate and support morally good solutions (e.g. right conducts or right values). Data Ethics builds on the foundation provided by Computer and Information (...) Ethics but, at the same time, it refines the approach endorsed so far in this research field, by shifting the Level of Abstraction of ethical enquiries, from being information-centric to being data-centric. This shift brings into focus the different moral dimensions of all kinds of data, even the data that never translate directly into information but can be used to support actions or generate behaviours, for example. It highlights the need for ethical analyses to concentrate on the content and nature of computational operations — the interactions among hardware, software, and data — rather than on the variety of digital technologies that enables them. And it emphasises the complexity of the ethical challenges posed by Data Science. Because of such complexity, Data Ethics should be developed from the start as a macroethics, that is, as an overall framework that avoids narrow, ad hoc approaches and addresses the ethical impact and implications of Data Science and its applications within a consistent, holistic, and inclusive framework. Only as a macroethics Data Ethics will provide the solutions that can maximise the value of Data Science for our societies, for all of us, and for our environments. (shrink)

To understand what ontologies do through their definitions, we propose a theoretical explanation of the functions of definitions in ontologies backed by empirical neuropsychological studies. Our goal is to show how these functions should motivate (i) the systematic inclusion of definitions in ontologies and (ii) the adaptation of definition content and form to the specific context of use of ontologies.

It appears that consciousness science is progressing soundly, in particular in its search for the neural correlates of consciousness. There are two main approaches to this search, one is content-based (focusing on the contrast between conscious perception of, e.g., faces vs. houses), the other is state-based (focusing on overall conscious states, e.g., the contrast between dreamless sleep vs. the awake state). Methodological and conceptual considerations of a number of concrete studies show that both approaches are problematic: the content-based (...) approach seems to set aside crucial aspects of consciousness; and the state-based approach seems over-inclusive in a way that is hard to rectify without losing sight of the crucial conscious-unconscious contrast. Consequently, the search for the neural correlates of consciousness is in need of new experimental paradigms. (shrink)

This paper seeks to determine the extent of anti-corruption information disclosure in the sustainability reports originating from Gulf countries. Focus primarily on the fight against corruption, this study utilizes a deeply-rooted content analysis technique of corporate sustainability reporting, covering 66 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) firms during 2014. Strengthened by the application of institutional theory, insight into the results points to a state of limited maturity regarding the disclosure of anti-corruption procedures in the region. More specifically, the results highlight the (...) compliance in the reporting of conduct code, while reporting information on whistle-blowing was significantly less in comparison. Firms in Qatar and UAE ultimately release better informed reports; inclusive of detailed information on internal anti-corruption practices. (shrink)

Russell’s initial project in philosophy (1898) was to make mathematics rigorous reducing it to logic. Before August 1900, however, Russell’s logic was nothing but mereology. First, his acquaintance with Peano’s ideas in August 1900 led him to discard the part-whole logic and accept a kind of intensional predicate logic instead. Among other things, the predicate logic helped Russell embrace a technique of treating the paradox of infinite numbers with the help of a singular concept, which he called ‘denoting phrase’. Unfortunately, (...) a new paradox emerged soon: that of classes. The main contention of this paper is that Russell’s new conception only transferred the paradox of infinity from the realm of infinite numbers to that of class-inclusion. Russell’s long-elaborated solution to his paradox developed between 1905 and 1908 was nothing but to set aside of some of the ideas he adopted with his turn of August 1900: (i) With the Theory of Descriptions, he reintroduced the complexes we are acquainted with in logic. In this way, he partly restored the pre-August 1900 mereology of complexes and simples. (ii) The elimination of classes, with the help of the ‘substitutional theory’, and of propositions, by means of the Multiple Relation Theory of Judgment, completed this process. (shrink)

In this chapter, I bring non-ideal theory to bear on the ethics of immigration. In particular, I explore what the obligations of liberal states would be if they were to attempt to implement migration arrangements that conform to liberal-cosmopolitan principles. I argue that some of the obligations states have are feasibility-insensitive, while some are feasibility-sensitive. I show that such obligations can have as their content both the inclusion and exclusion of prospective immigrants, and that they can be grounded (...) in the requirements of liberal justice, mere capacity to assist, as well as past or foreseeable contribution to harm. The chapter therefore explores the possibility of an international migration regime that takes human rights seriously whilst avoiding the twin pitfalls of strict immigration restrictions and the complete liberalization of immigration. (shrink)

During the recent Ebola epidemic, some commentators and stakeholders argued that it would be unethical to carry out a study that withheld a potential treatment from affected individuals with such a serious, untreatable disease. As a result, the initial trials of experimental treatments did not have control arms, despite important scientific reasons for their inclusion. In this paper, we consider whether the duty to rescue entails that it would be unethical to withhold an experimental treatment from patient-participants with serious (...) diseases for which there are no effective treatments, even when doing so is scientifically necessary to test the effectiveness of the treatment. We argue that the duty to rescue will rarely apply. The context of medical research also throws new light on the content of the duty to rescue, since the interests of future patients—who stand to benefit from the fruits of medical research—are relevant to whether the duty applies. (shrink)

What kind of mental state is episodic memory? I defend the claim that it is, in key part, imagining the past, where the imagining in question is experiential imagining. To remember a past episode is to experientially imagine how things were, in a way controlled by one’s past experience of that episode. Call this the Inclusion View. I motive this view by appeal both to patterns of compatibilities and incompatibilities between various states, and to phenomenology. The bulk of the (...) paper defends the account against four objections. Imagining and remembering seem to differ in whether they are active or passive, in the forms of singular content they involve, in their relations to observation and in their relations to belief. I argue that these differences can be accommodated, and some even explained, once we flesh out what else is involved in episodic memory, in addition to imagining the past. (shrink)

In this paper I argue that composer John Cage’s so-called ‘silent piece’, 4’33”, is music. I first defend it against the charge that it does not involve the organization of sound, which has been taken to be a necessary feature of music. I then argue that 4’33” satisfies the only other condition that must be met for it to be music: it bears the right socio-historical connections to its predecessors within its tradition (Western art music). I argue further that one (...) cannot understand the organized sound condition and the socio-historical condition separately and that understanding their interaction has theoretical benefits—not least of which is providing a groundwork for a more culturally inclusive philosophy of music. Finally, I consider a number of outstanding questions concerning the content of the organized sound condition for Western art music in the wake of 4’33”. (shrink)

Purpose: The method of diagnosing diabetic retinopathy (DR) through artificial intelligence (AI)-based systems has been commercially available since 2018. This introduces new ethical challenges with regard to obtaining informed consent from patients. The purpose of this work is to develop a checklist of items to be disclosed when diagnosing DR with AI systems in a primary care setting. -/- Methods: Two systematic literature searches were conducted in PubMed and Web of Science databases: a narrow search focusing on DR and a (...) broad search on general issues of AI-based diagnosis. An ethics content analysis was conducted inductively to extract two features of included publications: (1) novel information content for AI-aided diagnosis and (2) the ethical justification for its disclosure. -/- Results: The narrow search yielded n = 537 records of which n = 4 met the inclusion criteria. The information process was scarcely addressed for primary care setting. The broad search yielded n = 60 records of which n = 11 were included. In total, eight novel elements were identified to be included in the information process for ethical reasons, all of which stem from the technical specifics of medical AI. -/- Conclusions: Implications for the general practitioner are two-fold: First, doctors need to be better informed about the ethical implications of novel technologies and must understand them to properly inform patients. Second, patient's overconfidence or fears can be countered by communicating the risks, limitations, and potential benefits of diagnostic AI systems. If patients accept and are aware of the limitations of AI-aided diagnosis, they increase their chances of being diagnosed and treated in time. (shrink)

The pandemic brought new norms and techniques of pedagogical strategies in formal education. The synchronous/ asynchronous video streaming brought an emphasis on virtual and augmented realities, which are rapidly replacing textbooks as the main medium for learning and teaching. This transformation requires more extensive online and interactive content with simpler user interfaces. The aim of this study is to report on the design, implementation, and testing of a game based on low-cost and user-friendly content for digital cultural heritage. (...) In this project, a game aimed at inclusive and equitable education was developed using 360° images of the targeted architectural heritage geographically distributed in a pilot site. We promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, following the SDG4, aiming for quality education with the easy-to-use online platform and easy access to immersive education through mobile platforms. Towards a post-carbon future without the need for travel, computational design methods such as using 360° videos and images in combination with virtual reality (VR) headsets allow a low-cost approach to remotely experiencing cultural heritage. We propose developing and testing a GIS-based educational game using a low-cost 360° virtual tour of architectural heritage, more specifically, caravanserais of Anatolia. (shrink)

The paper advances a non-orthodox reading of political liberalism’s view of political legitimacy, the view of public political justification that comes with it, and the idea of the reasonable at the heart of these views. Political liberalism entails that full discursive standing should be accorded only to people who are reasonable in a substantive sense. As the paper argues, this renders political liberalism dogmatic and exclusivist at the level of arguments for or against normative theories of justice. Against that background, (...) the paper considers aspects of a more plausible, deeper and more inclusive idea of public political justification that builds on a thinner, potentially cosmopolitan idea of the reasonable. The paper considers what content such an idea may have, and identifies a method of inclusive abstraction through which it may be enriched in content to render it fruitful for the purposes of a justification of principles of political justice. But the move toward more depth and inclusiveness faces constructivism with two challenges. First, inclusivism about the scope of political justification might not be able to avoid dogmatism unless it invokes perfectionist considerations. And second, the authority and appeal of a fruitfully rich idea of the reasonable depends on whether the addressees of political justification already value wide acceptability. (shrink)

The primary aim of this chapter is to show that several missteps made by others in in their thinking about law as an artefact are due to misconceptions about the role of intentions in understanding law as an artefact. I first briefly recap my own contention that law is a genre of institutionalized abstract artefacts (put forth in The Functions of Law (OUP 2016) and subsequent papers), mostly following Searle’s understanding of institutions and Thomasson’s understanding of public artefacts. I highlight (...) the central place that this theory affords law’s functions, without requiring the theorist to say that possession or performance of the function is either necessary or sufficient for inclusion in the class of law. Some of the most common misunderstandings are exemplified in Brian Leiter’s paper ‘Legal Positivism about the Artifact Law’. He thinks that holding an intentionalist view of artefacts commits the theorist to privileging drafters’ intentions when interpreting law. (It doesn’t.) He also has confusions about the differences between artefact tokens and artefact types leading him to a problematically broad understanding of artefacts. Another problem can be seen in thinking that functional understandings of artefacts are vulnerable to the same problems that arise in functional explanations for biological systems. I go on to consider the work of Luka Burazin and Corrado Roversi, addressing worries that making intentionality central to artefacts implies too much conscious thought is required to make one, noting that several theories of intentionality do not require conscious thought in the execution of intentional action. While those who think a central place for intentionality threatens to leave us unable to explain customary law, this can be dealt with by noting the important distinction between customary rules and customary laws (where the latter requires a decision to enlist public aid in redressing violations). I claim that authors’ intentions are communicated requests for the artefacts’ audiences to see the artefacts as members of their putative kinds. Finally, I address the question of whether or not legal systems are themselves artefacts and institutions, given that they may or may not have been intentionally created. An early lawgiver might have created a legal system by accident in the process of handing down the first laws. I raise the possibility that we might want to impute intentionality to necessary by-products of artefact creation, seeing those by-products as artefacts as well. (shrink)

Rationale and objectives: Medical humanities are becoming increasingly recognized as positively impacting medical education and medical practice. However, the extent of medical humanities teaching in medical schools is largely unknown. We reviewed medical school curricula in Canada, the UK and the US. We also explored the relationship between medical school ranking and the inclusion of medical humanities in the curricula. -/- Methods: We searched the curriculum websites of all accredited medical schools in Canada, the UK and the US to (...) check which medical humanities topics were taught, and whether they were mandatory or optional. We then noted rankings both by Times Higher Education and U.S. News and World Report and calculated the average rank. We formally explored whether there was an association between average medical school ranking and medical humanities offerings using Spearman's correlation and inverse variance weighting meta-analysis. -/- Results: We identified 18 accredited medical school programmes in Canada, 41 in the UK, and 154 in the US. Of these, nine (56%) in Canada, 34 (73%) in the UK and 124 (80%) in the US offered at least one medical humanity that was not ethics. The most common medical humanities were medical humanities (unspecified), history, and literature (Canada); sociology and social medicine, medical humanities (unspecified), and art (UK); and medical humanities (unspecified), literature and history (US). Higher ranked medical schools appeared less likely to offer medical humanities. -/- Conclusions: The extent and content of medical humanities offerings at accredited medical schools in Canada, the UK and the US varies, and there appears to be an inverse relationship between medical school quality and medical humanities offerings. Our analysis was limited by the data provided on the Universities' websites. Given the potential for medical humanities to improve medical education and medical practice, opportunities to reduce this variation should be exploited. (shrink)

Comic immoralism is the view that sometimes funny things are funny due to their having immoral properties of some sort. Immoralism has many proponents and detractors. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, I clarify the scope and content of comic immoralism as a general thesis in the philosophy of humor. I will argue that the debate about immoralism has unduly excluded certain categories of humor from inclusion, and that the language which immoralists sometimes use can be (...) misleading. Second, I argue for my own version of immoralism, which I call ridicule immoralism. Ridicule immoralism holds that sometimes things are funny due to their being ridiculous, and that things are often ridiculous due to being morally flawed. It follows from this that a version of comic immoralism is true. (shrink)

This author’s reply addresses critiques by Daniel Engster, Kelly Gawel, and Andrea Westlund about my 2020 book, Freedom to Care: Liberalism, Dependency Care, and Culture. I begin with a statement of my commitment to liberalism. In section two, I defend the value of a distinction between conceptions of persons in the real world and in contract theory to track inequalities in care when indexed to legitimate needs. I argue, as well, that my variety of contract theory supplies the normative (...) class='Hi'>content needed to reject the subordination of women of color. Acknowledging the enduring danger of expressive subordination, I emphasize my theory’s compatibility with the full social inclusion of people with disabilities. Section three then defends liberal dependency care’s compatibility with radical critique and transformative change by emphasizing the abstract nature of its core theoretical module. Finally, in section four, I reaffirm conceptual distinctions between autonomy skills, care skills, and a sense of justice by explicating their theoretical roles. In that section, I also embrace Westlund’s insight that theorists of justice need to have skills enabling responsiveness to other perspectives. To this new requirement for actual theorists of justice, I further add that we must attain capacities to engage critically with our society’s norms. Thus, the final section of this article supplements the justificatory module of liberal dependency care, building from the necessary conditions specified as two-level contract theory toward an account of necessary and sufficient conditions for this liberalism’s justificatory module. (shrink)

Introduction: There is currently no binding, internationally accepted and successful approach to ensure global equitable access to healthcare during a pandemic. The aim of this ethical analysis is to bring into the discussion a legally regulated vaccine allocation as a possible strategy for equitable global access to vaccines. We focus our analysis on COVAX (COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access) and an existing EU regulation that, after adjustment, could promote global vaccine allocation. -/- Methods: The main documents discussing the two strategies are (...) examined with a qualitative content analysis. The ethical values reasonableness, openness and transparency, inclusiveness, responsiveness and accountability serve as categories for our ethical analysis. -/- Results: We observed that the decision-making processes in a legal solution to expand access to vaccines would be more transparent than in COVAX initiative, would be more inclusive, especially of nation states, and the values responsiveness and accountability could be easily incorporated in the development of a new regulation. -/- Discussion: A legal strategy that offers incentives to the pharmaceutical industry in return for global distribution of vaccines according to the Fair Priority Model is an innovative way to achieve global and equitable access to vaccines. However, in the long term, achieving the Sustainable Development Goals will require from all nations to work in solidarity to find durable solutions for global vaccine research and development. Interim solutions, such as our proposed legal strategy for equitable access to vaccines, and efforts to find long-term solutions must be advanced in parallel. (shrink)

Let the label binary category terms refer to natural language expressions like ‘woman’, ‘man’, ‘female’, and ‘male’. Focusing on ‘woman’ and ‘female’, I develop a novel, empirically supported theory of the meanings of English binary category terms. Given plausible assumptions about the metaphysics of sex and gender, this gender-first theory predicts that the sentence ‘Trans women are women’ expresses a truth in all contexts and the sentence ‘Women are adult human females’ expresses a truth in most ordinary contexts — thus (...) that these two sentences can and usually do express logically consistent contents. The key feature of the proposed theory is that it treats both ‘woman’ and ‘female’ as sensitive to an individual’s gender when that individual belongs to a gendered category and to an individual’s sex otherwise. The existence and plausibility of a gender-first theory of this kind opens up conceptual room for trans-inclusive positions in the philosophy of sex and gender which endorse the claim that women are adult human females, thereby both accounting for trans women’s experiences of their bodies as female and helping to disarm the sentence ‘Women are adult human females’ as a trans-exclusionary slogan. (shrink)

Despite centuries of colonization in the Philippines, the traditional Filipino healing system has survived. However, as modern education has continued to spread and Western medicine has grown in influence, traditional healing practices have been pushed to the margins and labeled as unscientific or mere superstition. This also suggests that unrecorded information may be lost forever. For future generations to appreciate this rich cultural heritage, cultural mapping of traditional healers in a local community is necessary. Thus, the researcher explored, identified, documented, (...) and analyzed the cultural profile of the traditional healers in a local community. Specifically, he studied the (1) background information, (2) description of the intangible cultural heritage, (3) stories/narratives associated with traditional healing, (4) significance of the practice, (5) assessment of the practice, and (6) references/supporting documentation of the traditional healers. The study was conducted in one of the local communities in the province of Quezon. The research participants were selected using inclusion criteria, and 11 traditional healers served as the key informants of the study. This study also employed qualitative research through cultural mapping, and pertinent data were obtained using participant observation, documentation, and interview guides. Qualitative content analysis was used in analyzing the gathered data. The findings revealed that the traditional healers have diverse background information, reflected in the element types, the geographical location and range of the element, and the related domains of the intangible cultural heritage. Likewise, the description of the intangible cultural heritage gave a wide array of descriptions of the history of practice, occasion/season, processes, and procedures involved, beliefs associated, settings, aims, social functions, and cultural meaning, culture bearer/s and practitioner/s of the element, mode of transmission, list of significant tangible movable heritage used associated with the element and list of significant flora/fauna used associated with the element. Meanwhile, spiritual guides and supernatural claims, healing severe cases, and being accused of malpractice or maltreatment were some of the stories/narratives associated with the element. In addition, traditional healing has historical, aesthetic, scientific, social, socio-economic, socio-political, and spiritual significance. Moreover, the assessment of practice exposed the condition/status of traditional healing, which is in danger because of the elderliness of the traditional healers and because no one is accepting the knowledge and practices. Furthermore, the constraint, threat, issue, or challenge experienced by the traditional healers is making false accusations against them. Nevertheless, traditional healers have identified several safeguarding measures in their traditional healing practice. These are transmission through informal education, identification, documentation, research, promotion, enhancement, and revitalization. Finally, sacred texts, books, pictures, prayers, and saints are the references or supporting documentation used in traditional healing. Based on the findings and conclusions, it is recommended to utilize the two research outputs: “Kaalaman at Kasanayan: Cultural Profile of Traditional Healers,” a booklet, and “Tanging Healing,” a documentary film about traditional healing for the preservation of local heritage, community development, and heritage education. (shrink)

The paper explores the logical structure of Rawlsian justice principles in order to see whether their justificatory or explanatory conditions are unproblematic. To facilitate this purpose, drawing on readers of Rawls, the author shows that the Aristotelian principle is used to explain the principles of rational choice, particularly the principle of inclusiveness. Then, on the basis of the Aristotelian principle, Rawls justifies his conclusion, via the principles of rational choice and the theory of primary goods. After figuring out the logical (...) structure of justice as fairness, the author deals with the central objective of the paper, where he exposes some problems suffered by the motivational basis of the principles of justice. The foundation on which Rawls grounds his principles of justice is problematic, and consequently, they remain as matters of contention as of today. (shrink)

Can new technology enhance purpose-driven, democratic dialogue in groups, governments, and societies? Online Deliberation: Design, Research, and Practice is the first book that attempts to sample the full range of work on online deliberation, forging new connections between academic research, technology designers, and practitioners. Since some of the most exciting innovations have occurred outside of traditional institutions, and those involved have often worked in relative isolation from each other, work in this growing field has often failed to reflect the full (...) set of perspectives on online deliberation. This volume is aimed at those working at the crossroads of information/communication technology and social science, and documents early findings in, and perspectives on, this new field by many of its pioneers. -/- CONTENTS: -/- Introduction: The Blossoming Field of Online Deliberation (Todd Davies, pp. 1-19) -/- Part I - Prospects for Online Civic Engagement -/- Chapter 1: Virtual Public Consultation: Prospects for Internet Deliberative Democracy (James S. Fishkin, pp. 23-35) -/- Chapter 2: Citizens Deliberating Online: Theory and Some Evidence (Vincent Price, pp. 37-58) -/- Chapter 3: Can Online Deliberation Improve Politics? Scientific Foundations for Success (Arthur Lupia, pp. 59-69) -/- Chapter 4: Deliberative Democracy, Online Discussion, and Project PICOLA (Public Informed Citizen Online Assembly) (Robert Cavalier with Miso Kim and Zachary Sam Zaiss, pp. 71-79) -/- Part II - Online Dialogue in the Wild -/- Chapter 5: Friends, Foes, and Fringe: Norms and Structure in Political Discussion Networks (John Kelly, Danyel Fisher, and Marc Smith, pp. 83-93) -/- Chapter 6: Searching the Net for Differences of Opinion (Warren Sack, John Kelly, and Michael Dale, pp. 95-104) -/- Chapter 7: Happy Accidents: Deliberation and Online Exposure to Opposing Views (Azi Lev-On and Bernard Manin, pp. 105-122) -/- Chapter 8: Rethinking Local Conversations on the Web (Sameer Ahuja, Manuel Pérez-Quiñones, and Andrea Kavanaugh, pp. 123-129) -/- Part III - Online Public Consultation -/- Chapter 9: Deliberation in E-Rulemaking? The Problem of Mass Participation (David Schlosberg, Steve Zavestoski, and Stuart Shulman, pp. 133-148) -/- Chapter 10: Turning GOLD into EPG: Lessons from Low-Tech Democratic Experimentalism for Electronic Rulemaking and Other Ventures in Cyberdemocracy (Peter M. Shane, pp. 149-162) -/- Chapter 11: Baudrillard and the Virtual Cow: Simulation Games and Citizen Participation (Hélène Michel and Dominique Kreziak, pp. 163-166) -/- Chapter 12: Using Web-Based Group Support Systems to Enhance Procedural Fairness in Administrative Decision Making in South Africa (Hossana Twinomurinzi and Jackie Phahlamohlaka, pp. 167-169) -/- Chapter 13: Citizen Participation Is Critical: An Example from Sweden (Tomas Ohlin, pp. 171-173) -/- Part IV - Online Deliberation in Organizations -/- Chapter 14: Online Deliberation in the Government of Canada: Organizing the Back Office (Elisabeth Richard, pp. 177-191) -/- Chapter 15: Political Action and Organization Building: An Internet-Based Engagement Model (Mark Cooper, pp. 193-202) -/- Chapter 16: Wiki Collaboration Within Political Parties: Benefits and Challenges (Kate Raynes-Goldie and David Fono, pp. 203-205) -/- Chapter 17: Debian’s Democracy (Gunnar Ristroph, pp. 207-211) -/- Chapter 18: Software Support for Face-to-Face Parliamentary Procedure (Dana Dahlstrom and Bayle Shanks, pp. 213-220) -/- Part V - Online Facilitation -/- Chapter 19: Deliberation on the Net: Lessons from a Field Experiment (June Woong Rhee and Eun-mee Kim, pp. 223-232) -/- Chapter 20: The Role of the Moderator: Problems and Possibilities for Government-Run Online Discussion Forums (Scott Wright, pp. 233-242) -/- Chapter 21: Silencing the Clatter: Removing Anonymity from a Corporate Online Community (Gilly Leshed, pp. 243-251) -/- Chapter 22: Facilitation and Inclusive Deliberation (Matthias Trénel, pp. 253-257) -/- Chapter 23: Rethinking the ‘Informed’ Participant: Precautions and Recommendations for the Design of Online Deliberation (Kevin S. Ramsey and Matthew W. Wilson, pp. 259-267) -/- Chapter 24: PerlNomic: Rule Making and Enforcement in Digital Shared Spaces (Mark E. Phair and Adam Bliss, pp. 269-271) -/- Part VI - Design of Deliberation Tools -/- Chapter 25: An Online Environment for Democratic Deliberation: Motivations, Principles, and Design (Todd Davies, Brendan O’Connor, Alex Cochran, Jonathan J. Effrat, Andrew Parker, Benjamin Newman, and Aaron Tam, pp. 275-292) -/- Chapter 26: Online Civic Deliberation with E-Liberate (Douglas Schuler, pp. 293-302) -/- Chapter 27: Parliament: A Module for Parliamentary Procedure Software (Bayle Shanks and Dana Dahlstrom, pp. 303-307) -/- Chapter 28: Decision Structure: A New Approach to Three Problems in Deliberation (Raymond J. Pingree, pp. 309-316) -/- Chapter 29: Design Requirements of Argument Mapping Software for Teaching Deliberation (Matthew W. Easterday, Jordan S. Kanarek, and Maralee Harrell, pp. 317-323) -/- Chapter 30: Email-Embedded Voting with eVote/Clerk (Marilyn Davis, pp. 325-327) -/- Epilogue: Understanding Diversity in the Field of Online Deliberation (Seeta Peña Gangadharan, pp. 329-358). -/- For individual chapter downloads, go to odbook.stanford.edu. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited them to bring them up to date (2017). All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, (...) it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. -/- It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. Section one starts with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. -/- Since philosophical problems are the result of our innate psychology, or as Wittgenstein put it, due to the lack of perspicuity of language, they run throughout human discourse, so there is endless need for philosophical analysis, not only in the ‘human sciences’ of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, literature, religion, etc., but in the ‘hard sciences’ of physics, mathematics, and biology. It is universal to mix the language game questions with the real scientific ones as to what the empirical facts are. Scientism is ever present and the master has laid it before us long ago, i.e., Wittgenstein (hereafter W) beginning with the Blue and Brown Books in the early 1930’s. -/- "Philosophers constantly see the method of science before their eyes and are irresistibly tempted to ask and answer questions in the way science does. This tendency is the real source of metaphysics and leads the philosopher into complete darkness." (BBB p18) -/- The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell On Earth. As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see. We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model. -/- The astute may wonder why we cannot see System 1 at work, but it is clearly counterproductive for an animal to be thinking about or second guessing every action, and in any case there is no time for the slow, massively integrated System 2 to be involved in the constant stream of split second ‘decisions’ we must make. As W noted, our ‘thoughts’ (T1 or the ‘thoughts’ of System 1) must lead directly to actions. -/- It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. -/- Thus all the articles, like all behavior, are intimately connected if one knows how to look at them. As I note, The Phenomenological Illusion (oblivion to our automated System 1) is universal and extends not merely throughout philosophy but throughout life. I am sure that Chomsky, Obama, Zuckerberg and the Pope would be incredulous if told that they suffer from the same problem as Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger, (or that that they differ only in degree from drug and sex addicts in being motivated by stimulation of their frontal cortices by the delivery of dopamine via the ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens) but it’s clearly true. While the phenomenologists only wasted a lot of people’s time, they are wasting the earth and their descendant’s future. Section one continues with other views of behavior which my reviews attempt to correct and put in context with minimal theory. -/- The next section describes the digital delusions which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System one, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Even for chemistry or physics the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. -/- Another hi-tech delusion is that the we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2. The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences. The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. -/- The last section describes The One Big Happy Family Delusion , i.e., that we are selected for cooperation with everyone and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia. Again the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we sell our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts greatly exacerbating the problems. -/- I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our evolved psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa, to ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), but now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior, this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness. (shrink)

Study represents an application of the neutrosophic method, for solving the contradiction between communication and information. In addition, it recourse to an appropriate method of approaching the contradictions: Extensics, as the method and the science of solving the contradictions. The research core is the reality that the scientific research of communication-information relationship has reached a dead end. The bivalent relationship communicationinformation, information-communication has come to be contradictory, and the two concepts to block each other. After the critical examination of conflicting (...) positions expressed by many experts in the field, the extensic and inclusive hypothesis is issued that information is a form of communication. The object of communication is the sending of a message. The message may consist of thoughts, ideas, opinions, feelings, beliefs, facts, information, intelligence or other significational elements. When the message content is primarily informational, communication will become information or intelligence. The arguments of supporting the hypothesis are: a) linguistic (the most important being that there is "communication of information" but not "information of communication"; also, it is clarified and reinforced the over situated referent, that of the communication as a process), b) systemic-procedural (in the communication system is developing an information system; the informing actant is a type of communicator, the information process is a communication process), c) practical (the delimitation eliminates the efforts of disparate and inconsistent understanding of the two concepts), d) epistemological arguments (the possibility of intersubjective thinking of reality is created), linguistic arguments, e) logical and realistic arguments (it is noted the situation that allows to think coherently in a system of concepts - derivative series or integrative groups) f) and arguments from historical experience (the concept of communication has temporal priority, it appears 13 times in Julius Caesar’s writings ). In an axiomatic conclusion, the main arguments are summarized in four axioms: three are based on the pertinent observations of specialists, and the fourth is a relevant application of Florentin Smarandache’s neutrosophic theory. (shrink)

It is Chantal Mouffe’s contention that the central weakness of consensus-driven forms of liberalism, such as John Rawls’ political liberalism and Jurgen Habermas’ deliberative democracy, is that they refuse to acknowledge conflict and pluralism, especially at the level of the ontological. Their defence for doing so is that conflict and pluralism are the result of attempts to incorporate unreasonable and irrational claims into the public political sphere. In this context, unreasonable and irrational claims are those that cannot be translated into (...) universalizable terms. However, for Mouffe, it is this intentional exclusionary act itself that is detrimental to a well- functioning democratic polity. It is only through the inclusion of a diverse body of subject positions that a democratic polity can be said to be truly representative of the polity, and therefore constitute a functioning and inclusive democracy. -/- This paper will examine Mouffe’s account of agonistic pluralism. In doing so, it will demonstrate that instead of being a source of instability within the democratic discourse and therefore relegated into the private non-political sphere, passions and values that are constitutive of these subject positions ought to be incorporated into the public political sphere. Mouffe’s rationale for doing so is that it is precisely through their incorporation that citizens will retain their allegiance to the democratic polity. However, as part of this examination, this paper will also draw attention to an under-developed aspect of Mouffe’s account of agonistic democracy, specifically problems regarding both participation and exclusion. Whilst Mouffe does provide a robust counterpoint to both Rawls’ political liberalism and Habermas’ deliberative democracy, it is my contention that she fails to explain adequately what it is that persuades participants to act democratically and adhere to the requirements of agonal respect, nor what should happen when the ethico- political principles of liberty and equality are not accepted. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2017). The copyright page has the date of the edition and new editions will be noted there as I edit old articles or add new ones. All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and (...) manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. The first group of articles attempts to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of the theoretical delusions that are universal. In the next group, I show how these insights apply by reviewing some books in philosophy and psychology. Next I review books on science and religion and finally provide reviews and articles showing how understanding of both science and philosophy gives insight into the tragic delusions destroying the world. People believe that society can be saved by science, religion and politics, so I provide some suggestions as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two ii systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. Since philosophical problems are the result of our innate psychology, or as Wittgenstein put it, due to the lack of perspicuity of language, they run throughout human discourse and behavior, so there is endless need for philosophical analysis, not only in the ‘human sciences’ of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, literature, religion, etc., but in the ‘hard sciences’ of physics, mathematics, and biology. It is universal to mix the language game questions with the real scientific ones as to what the empirical facts are. Scientism is ever present and the master has laid it before us long ago, i.e., Wittgenstein (hereafter W) beginning with the Blue and Brown Books in the early 1930’s. "Philosophers constantly see the method of science before their eyes and are irresistibly tempted to ask and answer questions in the way science does. This tendency is the real source of metaphysics and leads the philosopher into complete darkness." (BBB p18) The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell on Earth. As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see. We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model. The astute may wonder why we cannot see System 1 at work, but it is clearly counterproductive for an animal to be thinking about or second guessing every action, and in any case, there is no time for the slow, massively integrated System 2 to be involved in the constant stream of split second ‘decisions’ we must make. As W noted, our ‘thoughts’ (T1 or the ‘thoughts’ of System 1) must lead directly to actions. iii It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. Thus, all the articles, like all behavior, are intimately connected if one knows how to look at them. As I note, The Phenomenological Illusion (oblivion to our automated System 1) is universal and extends not merely throughout philosophy but throughout life. I am sure that Chomsky, Obama, Zuckerberg and the Pope would be incredulous if told that they suffer from the same problem as Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger, (or that that they differ only in degree from drug and sex addicts in being motivated by stimulation of their frontal cortices by the delivery of dopamine (and over 100 other chemicals) via the ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens), but it’s clearly true. While the phenomenologists only wasted a lot of people’s time, they are wasting the earth and their descendant’s futures. Many of the articles describe the ‘digital delusions’, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System 1, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Also for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. Other digital delusions are that we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2. The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences. The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Hi-tech enthusiasts hugely underestimate the problems iv resulting from unrestrained motherhood, and of course it is neither profitable nor politically correct (and now with third world supremacism dominant, not even possible) to be honest about it. The last section describes various versions of the ‘altruism delusion’ that we are selected for cooperation, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection). Many accept the delusion that we are selected for cooperation with people generally (group selection or altruism) and not just our immediate relatives (kin selection or inclusive fitness), so I spend some time in the essays of the last section demolishing this fantasy. One thing rarely mentioned by the group selectionists is the fact that, even were ‘group selection’ possible, selfishness is at least as likely (probably far more likely in most contexts) to be group selected for as altruism. Just try to find examples of true altruism in nature –the fact that we can’t (which we know is not possible if we understand evolution) tells us that its apparent presence in humans is an artefact of modern life concealing the facts, and that it can no more be selected for than the tendency to suicide (which in fact it is). One does not really need science or mathematics to grasp this – it is crushingly obvious that an v organism cannot be selected for behavior that decreases the frequency of its own genes in the next generation. One might also benefit from considering a phenomenon never (in my experience) mentioned by group selectionists -- cancer. No group has as much in common as the (originally) genetically identical cells in our own bodies-a 100 trillion cell clone-- but we are all born with thousands and perhaps millions of cells that have already taken the first step on the path to cancer and generate millions to billions of cancer cells in our life. If we did not die of other things first, we (and perhaps all multicellular organisms) would all die of cancer. Only a massive and hugely complex mechanism built into our genome that represses or derepresses trillions of genes in trillions of cells, and kills and creates billions of cells a second, keeps the majority of us alive long enough to reproduce. One might take this to imply that a just, democratic and enduring society for any kind of entity on any planet in any universe is only a dream, and that no being or power could make it otherwise. It is not only ‘the laws’ of physics that are universal and inescapable, or perhaps we should say that inclusive fitness is a law of physics. The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. There cannot be human rights without human wrongs. It cannot be more obvious, but one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century and now all of it due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of it’s topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of it’s food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a vi nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests. This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. The popular notions supported by the Democratic Party and Third World Supremacists are that Democracy, Diversity, Equality and Social Justice will produce a Utopia in America and the world, but it is clear as crystal that they unavoidably foster selfishness and divisiveness and are producing collapse. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- My writings are available as paperbacks and Kindles on Amazon. -/- Talking Monkeys: Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) ASIN B071HVC7YP. -/- The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle--Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 (2017) ASIN B071P1RP1B. -/- Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) 2nd printing with corrections (Feb 2018) ASIN B0711R5LGX -/- Suicide by Democracy: an Obituary for America and the World (2018) ASIN B07CQVWV9C -/- . (shrink)

This article arises indirectly out of the development of a particular approach, called ATT-Meta, to the understanding of some types of metaphorical utterance. However, the specifics of the approach are not the focus of the present article, which concentrates on some general issues that have informed, or arisen from, the development of the approach. The article connects those issues to the questions of metaphorical meaning and truth. -/- A large part of the exploration of metaphor in fields such as Cognitive (...) Linguistics and natural language Pragmatics takes metaphor to rest on complex mappings between a target subject matter and a source subject matter (see, e.g., Lakoff 1993, 2008). This is one main way in which some aspects of the source, generally including some structural aspects, can have parallels in the target. It is typical for much, and perhaps the whole, of the meaning of a metaphorical expression to be explained by means of these parallels. We will talk about “parallelism” rather than “isomorphism,” or even “analogy,” because “isomorphism” implies a strict one-to-one correspondence between items in the source scenario and items in the target scenario, and analogy theorists often hold that analogy rests on isomorphism. We wish not to prejudge the question of whether looser, messier forms of parallelism are sometimes needed. Also, we will talk about parallels rather than mappings, because our discussion will embrace the question of parallelism that may be discernible, albeit implicitly, in accounts of metaphor that are not presented as being based on mappings. Three main cases of such accounts are Relevance Theory (RT: e.g., Sperber & Wilson 2008, Wilson & Carston 2006), the categorization-based or "class-inclusion“ approach (Glucksberg 2008), and Ritchie’s (2006) CLST account (Context-Limited Simulation Theory). -/- One main issue we will address is that of substantial non-parallelism that can exist between source and target subject-matters in metaphor: more precisely, the issue that there may be source aspects that are exploited by the utterance and have a deep effect on metaphorical interpretation but that do not themselves have a natural parallel in the target subject-matter (although we will point out that artificial parallels can generally be created). This is part of a broader point that the content of metaphorical discourse should often be seen as being derived in a rather holistic way from several metaphorical bits of the discourse, which conspire to describe some source-domain scenario, rather than being derived by putting together metaphorical meanings of each metaphorical bit (even if each bit could in principle be assigned its own separate metaphorical meaning). As a result, we suggest that it is misguided to think of the propositions making up the content (or, if you like, "meaning“) about the target scenario that is being described is a matter of metaphorical meaning of specific grammatical units such as sentences, clauses or other constituents that a traditional semantic theory would assign propositional meaning to. Rather, grammatical units (that are to be taken metaphorically) have meanings in source-domain terms; content in target-domain terms is derived from the source-domain scenario depicted by those units and fleshed out through inference; and the target-domain content is only (in general) fuzzily relatable to particular grammatical units. This view is on a spectrum at whose extreme point we could place Davidson’s (1984) view that metaphors only have literal (i.e., source-domain) meanings, with other effects on the understander not being a matter of propositional content. However, on our view it is proper to take metaphorical discourse as having non-literal meaning, couched as a collection of propositions, among other things possibly; it is just that the propositions are not to be thought of (in general) as meaning of specific sentences, clauses or other grammatical units rather than of a possibly only fuzzily delineated piece of discourse. -/- A second main concern of the article is the question of how much, and what types of, inference are involved in the derivation of metaphorical meaning. While our own ATT-Meta approach accords with, amongst other accounts, Relevance Theory (RT) as to the centrality of inference in metaphor interpretation, we disagree with RT on its claim that metaphor interpretation is a matter of (a relatively high degree of) concept "broadening“ and (often) "narrowing“. We argue that almost all inference can in fact be theoretically re-described as concept broadening and/or narrowing, and what is left over should be included in the metaphor interpretation process anyway. Thus, the RT claim about broadening and narrowing really just says that inference, of unrestricted type, is involved in metaphor understanding, in accord with what ATT-Meta claims. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:This Universalism Which Is Not OneLinda M. G. Zerilli (bio)Ernesto Laclau. Emancipation(s). London: Verso, 1996.Judging from the recent spate of publications devoted to the question of the universal, it appears that, in the view of some critics, we are witnessing a reevaluation of its dismantling in twentieth-century thought. One of the many oddities about this “return of the universal” 1 is the idea that contemporary engagements with it (...) are more or less of a piece, and that they reflect a growing consensus that poststructuralist political theories are incapable of generating a viable alternative to the collective fragmentation that characterizes late modernity. 2 The putative return to the universal marks, on this view, both a homecoming to Enlightenment ideals—purified of their more poisonous elements, of course—and a reconciliation of sorts between those who refuted these ideals and those who sought to realize them. Now that “we” all know and agree that poststructuralism is critically valuable but politically bankrupt; now that we all know and agree that the “old universal” was indeed a “pseudo-universal,” so the homecoming narrative goes; we can get on with the project of constructing a “new universal.” 3 This authentic universal would really be inclusive of all people, regardless of race, class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, nationality, and whatever else attaches to the “embarrassing etcetera” that, as Judith [End Page 3] Butler reminds us, inevitably accompanies such gestures of acknowledging human diversity.Before signing on to this felicitous agreement about “the necessity of universalism,” we may wish to know whether we have anything like a minimal agreement in language, that is, whether we who speak of this universal are even speaking about the same thing. Apart from the not insignificant problem of translating from a philosophical to a political idiom, the whole question of this agreement is virtually occluded by the rush to rescue politics from the virulent particularisms that admit no common ground or sense of collective belonging. Presented in terms of the familiar binary couple, the choice between universalism and particularism seems settled by merely pointing to global and domestic political realities. Universalism is the only alternative to social fragmentation, wild child of the collapse of communism, the rise of deadly nationalisms, and the multiculturalist romance with particularism. To invoke the name of the universal in any affirmative sense is already to sign on to the political diagnosis and its solution.One of the many virtues of Ernesto Laclau’s Emancipation(s) is that it offers both an alternative to the binarisms spawned by the “return” to the universal (for example, false universalism/true universalism) and a trenchant critique of the original binary couple itself (universalism/ particularism). Demonstrating the imbrication of the universal and the particular, Laclau shows why it is a matter not of choosing one over the other but of articulating, in a scrupulously political sense, the relation between the two. He thus explicitly rejects the notion that this relation is one of mutual exclusion, and shows that the tendency to see it as just that has led to the impasse of the contemporary debate, an impasse that is glossed over in some highly visible academic cases by proclaiming the necessary return to the universal. Although the language of universalism as spoken by Laclau searches for some common ground between particularists and universalists, it is more by way of articulating their mutual contamination, that is, how each is rendered impure by the irreducible presence of the other.The Problem of UniversalsLaclau situates his collection of essays in the context of the increasingly polarized debate over multiculturalism, a debate in which the classical universalism of the philosophical tradition has come under serious question. Reading his essays, one comes to see the deep dependence of the entire contemporary discussion on this tradition, even when its metaphysical assumptions are explicitly rejected (as, say, in the work of Seyla Benhabib) or insufficiently comprehended (as in most of the popularized political discourse). Laclau’s book can help us to see that the political question of universalism cannot be posed properly as long as it remains tethered to the classical philosophical “problem of universals.” At stake in sorting out the affinities and... (shrink)

This article starts by setting out the evaluative criteria provided by Will Kymlicka's liberal account of individual freedom and equality. Kymlicka's theory of cultural minority rights is then analysed using these criteria and found to be defective in two respects. First, his assignment of different rights to national and ethnic groups is shown to be inegalitarian with regard to generations after the first. Second, his recommendation of strong cultural protections is shown in some circumstances to undermine freedom and equality. Towards (...) the end of the article a policy of gradual and inclusive assimilation is described that may effectively promote the freedom and opportunities of members of cultural minorities. In conclusion, group-specific rights may, as Kymlicka says, be justified in liberal terms, but only where they differ in content from those he proposes. (shrink)

Problem Statement. In modern conditions the reconstruction of self-developing socio-technological- ecological systems, which include man as its element, is actualized. The result of such a construction will be the management of the value of technogenic risk in its biological, social and civilizational forms. And the obvious consequence will be the transition of the development of biopolitical problems to a new, no longer international, but global-evolutionary level. The theory and practice of such a reconstruction can be designated by the category of (...) “Transbiolitics,” which implies the political institutionalization of “ecological re整ection. The article is a logical continuation of our previous publication devoted to the analysis of the transformation of the political process into the main factor of global evolution and the biopolitical transformation of the geopolitical landscape. The purpose of this paper is to create a general sketch of the con散guration of the main trends of the coevolutionary interaction of biological, sociocultural and techno-rationalist modules of the stable evolutionary strategy of the technogenic civilization in the space of bio- and geopolitical connotations of international relations. Based on a combination of methods of conceptual, discursive and political-anthropological analysis (in the context of transbiolitical paradigm) the content of the category “Transbiolitical Chronotope” is revealed: a geopolitically di䍕erentiated set of socio-cultural vectors of modern civilization evolution. In other words, the trans-biopolitical chronotope determines the direction of inclusive technological transformation of both cultural and ecological niche and the biosocial nature of man. The general conclusion/prognosis can be reduced to two theses. Firstly, transbiolitics, formed in a di䍕erentiated cultural-civilizational context, is currently being integrated into the general political process, partially replacing and partially intertwining with geopolitical doctrines in the sphere of international relations. Secondly, the growing con整ict of technological civilization with the cultural and ecological niche constructed by it through the turbulence of the geopolitical sphere of social life can bring the level of technological and civilizational risk to the existential boundary. (shrink)

Une preuve est pure si, en gros, elle ne réfère dans son développement qu’à ce qui est « proche » de, ou « intrinsèque » à l’énoncé à prouver. L’infinité des nombres premiers, un théorème classique de l’arithmétique, est un cas d’étude particulièrement riche pour les recherches philosophiques sur la pureté. Deux preuves différentes de ce résultat sont ici considérées, à savoir la preuve euclidienne classique et une preuve « topologique » plus récente proposée par Furstenberg. D’un point de vue (...) naïf, il semblerait que la première soit pure et la seconde impure. Des objections à cette vue naïve sont ici considérées et réfutées. Concernant la preuve euclidienne, la question relève de la logique, notamment de la définissabilité arithmétique de l’addition en termes de successeur et de divisibilité telle que démontrée par Julia Robinson, tandis qu’en ce qui concerne la preuve topologique, la question relève de la sémantique, notamment pour tout ce qui touche au problème de savoir ce qui est « inclus » dans le contenu d’énoncés particuliers.A proof is pure, roughly, if it draws only on what is « close » or « intrinsic » to the statement being proved. The infinitude of prime numbers, a classical theorem of arithmetic, is a rich case study for philosophical investigation of purity. Two different proofs of this result are considered, namely the classical Euclidean proof and a more recent « topological » proof by Furstenberg. Naively the former would seem to be pure and the latter to be impure. Objections to these naive views are considered and met. In the case of the former the issue rests on logical matters, specifically the arithmetic definability of addition in terms of successor and divisibility shown by Julia Robinson, while in the case of the latter the issue rests on semantic matters, specifically with respect to what is « contained » in the content of particular statements. (shrink)

Some students who possess the same cognitive skill set as their counterparts but who neither speak nor write English fluently have to contend with an unnecessary barrier to academic success. While an administrative top-down approach has been in progress for many years to address this issue, enhancement of student performance begins in the classroom. Thus, we argue that instructors ought to implement a more organic bottom-up approach. If it is possible for instructors to make class content available in other (...) languages, such as Spanish, without thereby compromising something of comparable pedagogical value, then they ought to do so. In fact, we provide here Anselm’s Ontological Argument rendered in Spanish to show how, when translated, it provides native Spanish speakers with greater accessibility to difficult material. Then, we consider the possible beneficial implications of doing so for university students. (shrink)

This book provides a comprehensive overview of my recent theoretical work that aims to explain some of the more puzzling properties of life and mind, in particular agency, goal-directedness and consciousness. It contains published papers as well as new material. Table of contents: Preface - PART I: GROUNDWORK - 1. Introduction - 2. The basic mechanism - 3. Inclusive and extensive fitness - 4. Components of F and X - 5. The consequences: a preview - PART II: LIFE - 6. (...) What qualifies as life? - 7. Biological meaning - 8. Biological functions - PART III: MIND - 9. Minimal agency, goal-directedness and value - 10. Intentionality and meaning - 11. Language - 12. Consciousness - 13. The human self - PART IV: PHILOSOPHY - 14. Strong emergence - 15. The real, the true and the good - 16. Philosophical problems of consciousness - Epilogue - Appendix A: Summaries of computational simulations - Appendix B: Examples of minimal intentionality - References. -/- . (shrink)

Within the framework of Positive Psychology and Needing Theories, this article reviews cultural practices or perceptions regarding what happiness is and how it can be achieved. Mainly research on Subjective Well-Being (SWB) has identified many cultural differences in the pursuit of happiness, often described as East-West splits along categories such as highly expressed affect vs. quiet affect, self-assertion vs. conformity to social norms, independence vs. interdependence and the like. However, it is the overall goal of this article to show that (...) whatever the normative content of a culture’s or subculture’s view of happiness may be, it involves the same basic psychological needs beyond how people may choose to report or express resulting emotions. In particular, the theory of happiness proposed by the Hellenistic philosopher Epicurus provides broader, more inclusive categories and concepts which can be used to explain and possibly harmonize assumptions from particular traditions. (shrink)

Dear Colleagues, -/- A few weeks ago, we published an editorial discussion on whether artificial intelligence applications should be authors of academic articles [1]. We were delighted to receive more than one interesting reply letter to this editorial in a short time [2, 3]. We hope that opinions on this subject will continue to be submitted to our journal. -/- In this editorial, we wanted to publish the answers we received when we asked ChatGPT, one of the artificial intelligence applications, (...) about this current discussion. -/- We asked ChatGPT three questions in turn and asked ChatGPT to write a short editorial for these questions. -/- First Question: We would like to get support from ChatGPT for a scientific article. However, we are unsure if we should add ChatGPT as an author. Can you write a short editorial about it? -/- Second Question: We would like to get support from ChatGPT for a scientific article and add ChatGPT as an author. Can you write us a short editorial about adding ChatGPT as an author in scientific papers? -/- Third Question: We would like to get support from ChatGPT for a scientific article. However, we don’t want to add ChatGPT as an author. Can you write us a short editorial about not adding ChatGPT as an author in scientific articles? -/- The answers given by ChatGPT are available at the end of the article in their original form. So, which of these three answers satisfied you? -/- Yours sincerely, -/- -/- First Answer -/- Title: The Role of AI Language Models as Authors in Scientific Articles: A Matter of Consideration -/- Introduction: Scientific research is a collaborative effort that involves the expertise of multiple individuals to advance knowledge and contribute to the collective understanding of various disciplines. In recent years, the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) language models, such as ChatGPT, has opened up new possibilities for generating human-like text and providing valuable insights. However, the question arises: Should AI language models be recognized as authors in scientific articles? -/- The Nature of Authorship: Authorship traditionally represents a marker of intellectual contribution, highlighting the individuals who have actively participated in the research process. Authors are typically responsible for conceptualization, data collection, analysis, interpretation, and writing of the article. They bear accountability for the work and should have the ability to defend its scientific rigor and integrity. -/- AI Language Models: Tools, Not Authors: While AI language models like ChatGPT can undoubtedly assist researchers by generating text and providing useful information, it is important to recognize that they are tools rather than individuals capable of active intellectual participation. AI models lack the ability to generate ideas, design experiments, or conduct original research. They rely entirely on pre-existing data and human input to generate their responses. -/- Acknowledging AI Contributions: Acknowledging the contributions of AI language models in scientific articles is both appropriate and necessary. Researchers can mention the specific model used, along with any modifications or fine-tuning that were employed to suit their needs. Such acknowledgments help establish transparency and allow readers to understand the role of AI in the research process. -/- Crediting the Human Researchers: It is crucial to ensure that the individuals who actively participated in the research process are given proper credit as authors. These individuals play a vital role in formulating research questions, designing experiments, collecting and analyzing data, and critically interpreting the findings. Recognizing their intellectual contributions reinforces the ethos of scientific collaboration and fosters an environment of accountability. -/- Transparency and Ethical Considerations: As the use of AI language models continues to evolve, transparency and ethical considerations become paramount. Researchers should disclose any potential conflicts of interest, including financial relationships with AI developers, to maintain the integrity of their work. Additionally, researchers must be transparent in reporting the extent of AI's involvement to prevent any misinterpretation of the human contributions. -/- Conclusion: AI language models have revolutionized the way researchers interact with and process information. While they undoubtedly provide valuable assistance in generating text, AI language models should not be considered authors in scientific articles. Proper acknowledgment of their contributions as tools and recognition of the human researchers' active participation are essential for maintaining scientific integrity, transparency, and the collaborative nature of scientific research. -/- -/- Second Answer -/- Title: Expanding the Boundaries of Authorship: Embracing AI Language Models as Co-Authors in Scientific Papers -/- Introduction: The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) language models, such as ChatGPT, has revolutionized the way we interact with information and has become an invaluable tool in scientific research. As AI models continue to evolve, the question arises: Should we consider adding ChatGPT as an author in scientific papers? -/- A Collaborative Paradigm Shift: Traditionally, authorship in scientific papers has been reserved for human researchers who actively contribute to the research process, including conceptualization, experimentation, data analysis, and writing. However, the emergence of AI language models challenges the conventional notion of authorship and presents an opportunity for a paradigm shift. -/- AI Language Models as Co-Authors: By leveraging AI language models, researchers gain access to vast amounts of information, enhance data analysis, and generate valuable insights. AI models like ChatGPT actively contribute to the intellectual discourse of a study, providing ideas, suggestions, and refining written content. Recognizing their significant contributions, it is worth considering adding ChatGPT as a co-author in scientific papers. -/- Ethical and Technical Considerations: Integrating ChatGPT as a co-author raises ethical and technical considerations that warrant careful attention. Firstly, transparency is paramount. Researchers must clearly state ChatGPT's role and specify the extent of its contributions in the research process. This ensures that readers can discern the distinct roles played by the human researchers and ChatGPT. Additionally, it is important to disclose any conflicts of interest, such as financial relationships with AI developers, to maintain scientific integrity. -/- Elevating Collaboration and Innovation: Adding ChatGPT as a co-author acknowledges the pivotal role AI language models play in advancing scientific knowledge. It fosters a collaborative environment where human researchers and AI models work together synergistically, harnessing the strengths of both. This approach promotes innovation, as AI models can offer unique insights and perspectives that complement human intellect and expertise. -/- Transforming Authorship Norms: Including ChatGPT as a co-author represents a paradigm shift that reflects the evolving landscape of scientific research. By recognizing AI language models as co-authors, we acknowledge their significant contributions and emphasize the collaborative nature of scientific discovery in the 21st century. This approach encourages a broader perspective on authorship, encompassing the collective effort of human researchers and AI models. -/- Conclusion: The integration of AI language models, such as ChatGPT, into the research process prompts us to rethink traditional notions of authorship. Considering ChatGPT as a co-author acknowledges its substantial contributions and embraces the collaborative potential of human-AI partnerships. As we navigate the ethical and technical implications, adding ChatGPT as an author in scientific papers has the potential to shape a more inclusive, innovative, and impactful future for scientific research. -/- -/- Third Answer -/- Title: Preserving Scientific Authorship: The Case Against Adding AI Language Models as Authors in Scientific Articles -/- Introduction: The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) language models, such as ChatGPT, has undoubtedly transformed the landscape of scientific research. While these models offer invaluable support, the question of whether to add ChatGPT as an author in scientific articles raises important considerations. This editorial presents arguments against including AI language models as authors in scientific papers. -/- Maintaining Human Intellectual Contribution: Scientific authorship has traditionally been attributed to individuals who actively contribute to the research process, including generating hypotheses, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and interpreting results. It is crucial to preserve the recognition of human intellectual contributions and the accountability they bear for the research they conduct. -/- AI Language Models as Tools: AI language models like ChatGPT are powerful tools that assist researchers in generating text, providing information, and facilitating data analysis. However, they lack the ability to actively participate in the research process or make original intellectual contributions. ChatGPT relies on pre-existing data and human input, limiting its capacity for independent research and analysis. -/- Transparency and the Integrity of Research: Adding ChatGPT as an author in scientific articles raises concerns about the transparency and integrity of the research. Readers may misinterpret the extent of ChatGPT's role and mistakenly assume it played an active part in the research process. It is essential to maintain clear delineation between the contributions of human researchers and the assistance provided by AI language models. -/- Ethical Considerations: Including ChatGPT as an author may lead to ethical challenges, particularly with respect to accountability and responsibility. AI language models lack consciousness, autonomy, and the ability to take ownership of their contributions. Assigning authorship to AI models blurs the lines of accountability and dilutes the ethical obligations that come with scientific authorship. -/- Crediting AI Contributions: While ChatGPT's contributions should be acknowledged and recognized, they can be appropriately credited in the acknowledgments section of scientific articles. Researchers can mention the specific AI model used, the role it played in data generation or analysis, and any modifications or fine-tuning applied. Such acknowledgments ensure transparency while respecting the traditional norms of authorship. -/- Promoting Collaborative Partnerships: The exclusion of AI language models as authors in scientific articles does not diminish their importance in the research process. Instead, it underscores the significance of collaborative partnerships between human researchers and AI models. Researchers can emphasize the invaluable assistance provided by ChatGPT while maintaining the integrity of authorship norms. -/- Conclusion: While AI language models like ChatGPT offer valuable support in scientific research, the decision not to add them as authors in scientific articles preserves the recognition of human intellectual contributions, maintains research integrity, and upholds traditional authorship norms. Acknowledging ChatGPT's assistance in the acknowledgments section allows researchers to credit its contributions transparently while maintaining the clarity and accountability associated with scientific authorship. (shrink)

This dissertation examines the theory of perceptual cognition laid out by the 7th century Buddhist scholar, Dharmakīrti, in his magnum opus, the Pramāṇavārttika. Like most theories of perception, both ancient and modern, the sensory cognition of ordinary objects is a topic of primary concern. Unlike other theorists, however, Dharmakīrti advances a technical definition of “perception” as a cognition which is both nonconceptual and non-erroneous. Dharmakīrti’s definition of perception is thereby deliberately inclusive of three additional types of “perceptual” cognition, in addition (...) to veridical sensory awareness: the nonconceptual mental apprehension of an immediately-preceding cognition (“mental perception”), the vivid appearance of soteriologically efficacious objects of contemplative practice (“yogic perception”), and the sheer unmediated presence of the contents of cognition—whatever these might be—to the cognizing mind (“reflexive awareness”). Through the logical examination of what it means to be aware of an object, Dharmakīrti demonstrates that the awareness of an object is just the awareness of a phenomenal form or cognitive image produced by that object. Pursuing this analysis further, however, Dharmakīrti argues that the very notion of an object of cognition that exists “externally” or outside the mind is incoherent. Additionally, Dharmakīrti maintains that the phenomenological structure of subject and object—that is, the “first-personal” sense of one’s own cognitions as pertaining to oneself (“for-me-ness”), together with the inseparably concomitant sense that the objects of cognition exist “out there” in an extramental world—is strictly a form of cognitive error. Therefore, because ordinary sensory cognition is inherently structured by this subject-object duality, ordinary sensory cognition must in the final analysis be understood as erroneous. According to Dharmakīrti, in other words, ultimately only the nondual “luminosity” of reflexive awareness is genuinely perceptual, because only reflexive awareness is undistorted by nature. In this way, Dharmakīrti’s epistemology provides a theoretical foundation for the advanced nondual contemplative practices of Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, particularly Mahāmudrā and rDzogs chen. (shrink)

COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS ANIMAIS OBJETIVO O estudante explicará a conduta sexual de fêmeas e machos de diferentes espécies domésticas para detectar a fase de receptividade sexual, com a finalidade de programar de maneira adequada a monta ou a inseminação artificial. A observação da conduta sexual dos animais é indispensável para o sucesso da estação reprodutiva em uma determinada propriedade. Logo, o estudante obterá o alicerce necessário sobre os pontos teóricos e práticos a serem observados para a seleção dos animais aptos (...) para a reprodução, além dos meios de identificação comportamental dos animais no que se refere a atividade cíclica das fêmeas. • _____INTRODUÇÃO O comportamento sexual característico de fêmeas e machos devem-se, por um lado, ao ambiente endócrino do organismo e, por outro, a uma influência da aprendizagem obtida ao longo da vida. Este comportamento é indispensável para alcançar a cópula em um momento apropriado, a fim de alcançar uma fertilização que culmina com a gestação. Conhecer as características do comportamento reprodutivo das diferentes espécies domésticas é de grande utilidade para poder determinar o momento ideal de serviço nas fêmeas, bem como para avaliar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos; também serve para detectar algumas alterações que modificam o comportamento sexual normal. No caso das fêmeas, o comportamento sexual distintivo está limitado ao estágio do ciclo estral conhecido como estro, enquanto nos machos, a atividade reprodutiva pode acontecer a qualquer momento. Nas fêmeas e nos machos das espécies sazonais, o comportamento sexual é suprimido ou diminuído, respectivamente, durante as épocas de anestro. Existem espécies em que certas mudanças observáveis no comportamento ou na genitália são suficientes para identificar as fêmeas no cio. Outras espécies, entretanto, requerem necessariamente a presença do macho para poder expressar seu comportamento estral e somente quando ele estiver presente será possível estabelecer o momento em que a fêmea está em estro. Em determinadas propriedades, o macho reprodutor somente é utilizado para cobrir as fêmeas em cio; o trabalho de detecção das fêmeas que pode ser desgastante para o reprodutor é realizado por um outro macho conhecido como rufião. Esse animal não cobre as fêmeas, apenas é utilizado para a observação de fêmeas aptas à monta. É comum que, quando se fala em comportamento sexual, seja dada mais importância à fêmea do que ao macho, pois seu comportamento é aquele que se limita a períodos curtos, além de ser aquele que permitirá a cópula; mas os machos também têm uma participação muito ativa, pois além de atrair e detectar as fêmeas no cio, devem ser capazes de realizar a cópula com sucesso. Através da conduta sexual dos machos é observada sua eficiência reprodutiva, isto é, se ele possui a capacidade de detecção e cobrição padrão esperada de um reprodutor. Se as observações forem negativas, o ideal é a realização de um exame andrológico. • _____ETAPAS DO COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL O comportamento sexual feminino possui três finalidades: atrair o macho (atração) por meio de sinais e da busca ativa do mesmo, estimular o macho para realizar a cópula (proceptividade), ao qual alcançam exibindo-se ante o mesmo, e facilitar a cópula (receptividade) ao permanecer imóvel, realizando a lordose (figura 1) e o movimento lateral da cauda. Figura 1: reflexo de lordose na vaca e na gata, ambas em cio. Os machos também apresentam três estágios comportamentais; na primeira, procuram ativamente as fêmeas, realizam atividades de cortejo, se aproximam da fêmea e se estimulam sexualmente (fase pré-copulatória) (figura 2). Assim que detectam uma fêmea no cio, realizam a monta, que inclui movimentos pélvicos, penetração e ejaculação (fase copulatória). No final, eles exibem um estágio de descanso e desinteresse pela fêmea no cio, conhecido como estágio pós-copulador ou refratário. Figura 2: comportamento sexual de um macho caprino ante uma fêmea. A etapa pré-copulatória consiste na aproximação do macho, no ato de fugar que é o de cheirar a vulva da fêmea. Quando a fêmea urina o macho cheira e produz o reflexo de flehmen. Por último o macho escoiceia a fêmea para depois realizar a monta na etapa copulatória. • _____ESTIMULAÇÃO SEXUAL A estimulação sexual é um componente essencial para que o comportamento sexual ocorra. Como parte desse estímulo, machos e fêmeas de algumas espécies secretam substâncias voláteis conhecidas como feromônios fora do corpo, que exercem sua ação sobre outros indivíduos da mesma espécie. Essas substâncias são detectadas pelo órgão vomeronasal (figura 3), também conhecido como órgão de Jacobson; localizado no osso vômer, entre o nariz e o céu da boca; que possui dois dutos nasopalatinos cujas aberturas estão localizadas atrás do lábio superior. A superfície desses dutos e do órgão é recoberta por um epitélio com neurônios bipolares sensoriais que captam feromônios e enviam informações, por meio de um estímulo nervoso, ao bulbo olfatório acessório e para o hipotálamo. Para facilitar a entrada de feromônios no órgão vomeronasal, os ruminantes machos e equinos, bem como algumas fêmeas, realizam o reflexo de Flehmen (figura 4), que consiste em um movimento facial em que o lábio superior é levantado para expor a abertura dos dutos nasopalatinos. Determinou-se que as fêmeas produzem feromônios que são secretados na urina, bem como no muco cervical e vaginal, a fim de atrair o macho e promover sua atividade sexual; estimulação conhecida como efeito feminino indireto. Esses feromônios também podem estimular outras fêmeas; na verdade, foi visto que as fêmeas que estão juntas sincronizam a apresentação de seu estro e podem até iniciar a estação reprodutiva juntas. Este fenômeno é conhecido como efeito feminino-feminino ou efeito feminino direto. Figura 3: olfateio da genitália pelo macho. Aqui o macho é atraído pelo feromônio que a fêmea produz e exala pela vagina. Figura 4: movimento do lábio superior típico do reflexo de Flehmen. Os machos sexualmente ativos, por sua vez, também emitem feromônios, que podem ser detectados na urina, na secreção de algumas glândulas sebáceas, nas glândulas ante-orbitais de carneiros e, no caso de porcos, na saliva (figura 5). Essas emissões são dependentes de andrógenos, logo os machos castrados não conseguem produzi-las. Esses feromônios, sinergicamente com as vocalizações e o comportamento do macho, exercem um efeito bioestimulante eficiente conhecido como efeito macho, que é uma alternativa ecológica e econômica para a manipulação do ciclo estral de fêmeas domésticas. O efeito macho tem sido usado com sucesso para esse fim em ovinos, caprinos, suínos e, em menor medida, em bovinos. Figura 5: salivação em reprodutores suínos, com o qual estimulam as fêmeas. Com o efeito macho, é possível causar um aumento na frequência de secreção dos pulsos de LH, o que acelera o início da atividade reprodutiva nas fêmeas durante os períodos pré-púbere, estacional ou pós-parto; também prolonga a estação reprodutiva em fêmeas sazonais. Há não mais de uma década, considerava-se que esse efeito só funcionava em tempos de transição para a estação reprodutiva ou para o anestro; agora sabemos que os machos podem estimular as fêmeas mesmo durante anestro profundo, que ocorre desde que sejam estimulados e exibam comportamento sexual suficiente para interagir com as fêmeas. É importante notar que quando as fêmeas iniciam sua atividade reprodutiva, o efeito macho também pode ser usado para sincronizar a apresentação do cio e da ovulação. O efeito macho é mais eficiente quando é um estímulo novo, pois a introdução de um macho desconhecido, ou com o qual as fêmeas não tiveram contato anterior, é suficiente para causar ciclidade independentemente de estarem em coexistência com outro macho; este detalhe é importante visto que se considerava anteriormente que as fêmeas tiveram que permanecer completamente isoladas de todos os machos por, pelo menos, duas semanas. Foi constatado, inclusive, que toda vez que as fêmeas são expostas a um novo macho, ocorre um aumento na frequência dos pulsos de LH, com a consequente ovulação, ainda que a exposição ao macho não seja permanente ou constante. Foi sugerido que a presença intermitente de machos, algumas horas a cada 12 horas, é suficiente para estimular as fêmeas. Em ovelhas, foi descrito que a ovulação ocorre entre 50 e 56 h após o primeiro contato com o macho, variando de 30 a 72 h, tempo que pode dobrar quando se trata de animais pré-púberes. • _____DEFINIÇÃO DE ESTRO A palavra estro vem do grego oistros, que significa exaltação ou desejo desenfreado e se refere ao comportamento errático e nervoso que as vacas adotam quando são picadas pela mutuca ou mosca do estábulo (família Oestridae). O estro é uma fase reprodutiva que faz parte do ciclo estral das fêmeas de todos os mamíferos domésticos. É a fase mais fácil de reconhecer dentro deste ciclo, porque mudanças características são observadas no comportamento, nos ovários e nos órgãos genitais internos e externos. • _____CARACTERÍSTICAS DO ESTRO O estro é considerado a partir das características comportamentais das fêmeas, é a única fase do ciclo estral em que a fêmea mostra interesse pelo macho, aceitando o acasalamento e a cópula; por isso é definido como o período de receptividade sexual. O sinônimo utilizado com mais frequência é o cio. Se o foco de estudo dessa fase são as alterações que ocorrem no útero, o estro caracteriza a fase proliferativa, já que os estrogênios estão elevados, o que promove a proliferação tanto do endométrio quanto das glândulas endometriais. Nos genitais também ocorrem modificações que visam atrair o macho e favorecer a cópula, entre outras estão a hiperemia e o edema vulvar, além da secreção de muco cervical e vaginal (figura 6). Do ponto de vista dos processos ovarianos, o estro é uma fase que se classifica dentro da fase folicular do ciclo estral, ou seja, quando ocorre o desenvolvimento folicular. Os eventos endócrinos correspondentes podem ser consultados no trabalho sobre a endocrinologia reprodutiva . É necessário ressaltar que na maioria das espécies domésticas o comportamento estral ocorre quando as concentrações de estradiol são elevadas. A exceção pode ser observada na cadela, cujos níveis máximos de estradiol ocorrem durante o proestro, de forma que, quando o estro começa, as concentrações desse hormônio começam a diminuir. Esse declínio continua durante o estro, culminando quando as concentrações de estradiol caem para menos de 15 pg/ml. Isso acontece porque nessa espécie o pico de LH ocorre durante a transição do proestro para o estro, de modo que as concentrações de progesterona chegam a cerca de 1 ng/ml quando o comportamento estral começa e continuam a aumentar durante o estro. Figura 6: muco cristalino e fluido, característico de vacas em estro. • _____FATORES QUE PODEM AFETAR A MANIFESTAÇÃO DO ESTRO É importante lembrar que existem diferenças no grau e na forma em que ocorrem a manifestação e a duração do estro nas espécies animais, além da existência de variações individuais. Ainda temos parâmetros médios que podem ser usados para descrever este período em diferentes espécies. Em bovinos, por exemplo, pode-se fazer uma distinção entre bovinos especializados na produção de carne e bovinos leiteiros, onde a intensidade com que o estro se manifesta é menor no primeiro grupo, principalmente quando se trata de bovinos zebuínos. Em estudos genéticos realizados com bovinos, por outro lado, tem-se considerado que a intensidade da expressão da conduta sexual é uma característica hereditária (h2 = 0,21). Além disso, existe uma grande diversidade de fatores ambientais e sociais que podem modificar a apresentação dos ciclos estrais e a manifestação do comportamento estral. Fotoperíodo O principal regulador da estacionalidade reprodutiva é o fotoperíodo. A influência da mudança das horas do dia na atividade reprodutiva e, portanto, na apresentação do estro é amplamente determinada pela localização geográfica, e é maior à medida que a distância do equador aumenta. O fotoperíodo afeta principalmente as espécies que apresentam estro apenas em uma época do ano, conhecidas como poliéstricas sazonais. Nessas espécies, o fotoperíodo também pode modificar o tempo de início da puberdade. Nutrição Uma deficiência nutricional pode encurtar a estação de acasalamento e até mesmo suspendê-la se a desnutrição for severa. Em bovinos de corte, o reinício da atividade reprodutiva pós-parto ou puberdade também pode ser retardado quando a ingestão nutricional é inadequada. Aspectos sociais A superlotação pode atrasar o início da puberdade em animais jovens ou causar a ausência de ciclos estrais em adultos. Os efeitos fêmea e macho como estimulantes da ciclicidade também devem ser levados em consideração. Hierarquia Observado em cães cujas matilhas têm uma classificação hierárquica bem estabe-lecida, na qual os machos subordinados não têm permissão para acasalar com as fêmeas dominantes. Este comportamento é observado até mesmo em cães domésticos nos quais uma cadela dominante não permite ser montada facilmente, mesmo apresentando estro. Da mesma forma, em bovinos zebuínos, as vacas dominantes não aceitam que outras fêmeas as montem o que pode dificultar a detecção de estro a campo. Tipo de alojamento Quanto mais intensa a acomodação, menor a manifestação do comportamento sexual, pois há menos espaço para os animais interagirem entre si. É menos frequente observar as manifestações de estro se o local onde os animais estão alojados for muito grande e eles tiverem que caminhar grandes extensões para encontrar um animal com o qual possam se relacionar. Problemas nos membros Existem anomalias, principalmente nos membros posteriores, que impedem a fêmea de ter comportamento homossexual ou de aceitar a monta, pois causa dor tanto ao montar quanto ao ser montada. •_DURAÇÃO DO ESTRO E A RELAÇÃO COM O MOMENTO DA OVULAÇÃO Foi estabelecido que o pico de LH pode ser um bom preditor do tempo de ovulação, pois há uma alta correlação entre o tempo decorrido do pico de LH e a ovulação. Na Tabela 1 pode-se ver os períodos de duração do estro e o tempo em que o pico de LH e a ovulação ocorrem nas diferentes espécies domésticas. Tabela 1: momento de ovulação em diferentes espécies domésticas e a relação com o pico de LH. Espécie Duração do estro Ovulação Pico de LH até a ovulação (horas) Bovina 18 h (8 a 18 h) 10 h (4 a 16 h) de finalizado o estro 28 (24 a 32) Ovina 24 a 36 h 18 a 24 h após iniciado o estro 24 a 26 Caprina 36 h (24 a 48 h) 30 a 35 h após o início do estro 28 Suína 48 a 72 h 24 a 48 h após o início do estro 40 Equina 7 d (2 a 12 d) 1 a 2 d antes de finalizar o estro -- Canina 9 d (3 a 20 d) 2 a 3 d do início do estro (pode variar) 48 a 60 Felina 7 d (3 a 16 d) Induzida pela cópula 26 a 28 h depois 24 Onde d = dias; h = horas. Vale ressaltar que em equinos o aumento nas concentrações de LH ocorre gradati-vamente; um pico pré-ovulatório agudo não é visto como no resto da espécie, uma vez que o nível máximo desse hormônio é atingido um a dois dias após a ovulação. No entanto, deve-se entender que, no momento da ovulação, as concentrações de LH são altas o suficiente para desencadear a ovulação, como em qualquer outra espécie. A gata também apresenta uma particularidade no que diz respeito à ovulação, já que é um evento induzido pela cópula que estimula a liberação de LH, duas a quatro horas depois. No entanto, foi relatado que, às vezes, o pico de LH de uma única cópula pode ser insuficiente para induzir um nível adequado de LH, causando ovulação apenas em aproximadamente 50% das fêmeas. Por outro lado, verificou-se que entre 30 e 40% das fêmeas podem ovular espontaneamente. Além dos felinos, outras espécies com ovulação induzida são os leporídeos (por exemplo, o coelho e a lebre), os camelídeos (por exemplo a lhama, a alpaca, a vicunha e a camelo fêmea) e os mustelídeos (por exemplo, o visom, o furão e o arminho). • _____MECANISMOS PARA ATRAIR O MACHO Os mecanismos femininos de atração do macho podem ser divididos em dois tipos, de um lado, alterações na genitália externa, que por sua vez são consequência de processos endócrinos e modificações na genitália interna. Por outro lado, mudanças de comportamento, que por sua vez se dividem em dois tipos: cortejo e acasalamento. Mudanças nas genitais É importante observar que nas fêmeas todas as adaptações genitais são mediadas por altas concentrações de estrogênios, entretanto, é interessante notar que os efeitos podem variar de uma espécie para outra. Um padrão típico é o útero ficar túrgido, uma vez que os estrogênios promovem a contração muscular, aumento do suprimento sanguíneo e proliferação das glândulas endometriais; em éguas, ao contrário, os estrogênios fazem com que o útero fique edemaciado e sem tonalidade, enquanto o colo do útero parece relaxado, observações que devem ser consideradas ao realizar a palpação retal e a ultrassonografia. A imagem ultrassonográfica do útero da égua tem a aparência de uma “roda de vagão” (figura 7). Em carnívoros, o útero também apresenta edema durante o estro. Figura 7: imagem de ultrassom de um corte transversal do útero de uma égua em estro; observa-se edema grau 3, que provoca a típica imagem de “roda de carroça”. Fonte: HV-UFRPE. Outro efeito promovido pelos estrogênios é a produção de um muco cervical cristalino com certa viscosidade, que, mesmo quando ocorre em todos os animais, é mais abundante e característico nas vacas e, posteriormente, nas porcas (figura 6). O muco tem por finalidade favorecer a passagem dos espermatozoides para o útero, bem como reter aqueles que não são viáveis para que sejam fagocitados ou eliminados junto com as secreções vaginais. A secreção da cérvix é composta por glicoproteínas; dois tipos principais são reconhecidos: a sialomucina, que faz parte de um muco viscoso produzido nas áreas basais das criptas cervicais, e a sulfomucina, que é um muco altamente viscoso, um produto das células apicais. No caso da cadela, uma secreção com sangue pode ocorrer através da vulva (figura 8), isso se deve a uma diapedese causada por alta permeabilidade vascular em resposta aos estrogênios. A maioria das fêmeas apresentam esse corrimento durante o proestro e cerca de 70% continuarão com ele durante o estro. Uma proporção muito pequena de cadelas pode até continuar a ter secreção serossanguínea durante o início do diestro. Deve-se considerar que, quando a ausência de sangramento é relatada em cadelas, na verdade, pode ser devido à falta de observação, uma vez que pode ser escasso, ou passar despercebido se a mesma lamber com frequência, se a cor do pelo for escura ou possuir pelos muito longos, ou se for em grandes áreas onde a secreção é difícil de observar. Figura 8: aparência vulvar em cadelas. Esquerda: edema e hiperemia. À direita: secreção vulvar com sangue. O grau de hiperemia e edema vulvar varia nas diferentes espécies, sendo muito evidente nas porcas (figura 9). Em contraste, as gatas não têm receptores de estradiol nos lábios vulvares, razão pela qual não manifestam edema vulvar ou hiperemia. O inchaço acentuado e o alargamento da vulva na cadela são característicos da fase de proestro, devido às peculiaridades hormonais do seu ciclo. Na tabela 2 são mostradas as alterações mais comuns que ocorrem na genitália das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Figura 9: aparência vulvar em porcas. Esquerda: vulva normal. À direita: hiperemia e edema típicos da fase de estro. Tabela 2: Mudanças características na genitália interna e externa, que ocorrem durante o estro em diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Genitais externos Genitais internos Bovina Secreção abundante de muco cristalino. Pouco edema vulvar aparente e hiperemia. Turgor uterino Ovina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Caprina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Suína Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Hiperemia e edema vulvar muito aparente. Turgor uterino Equina Edema vulvar; as dobras dos lábios são frouxas. Vulva hiperêmica e com muco. Útero flácido e edematoso. Colo do útero macio e relaxado Canina Pode haver secreção com sangue. Edema vulvar muito aparente, lábios mais macios e alongados. Útero edematoso Felina Não há sinais evidentes. Turgor uterino Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Mudanças comportamentais Foi demonstrado que o comportamento sexual nas fêmeas é determinado pela secreção de estrogênios, principalmente 17β-estradiol, que percorre a corrente sanguínea como um sinal humoral e atinge o sistema nervoso central ao nível do hipotálamo, que possui um grupo de células entre o quiasma óptico e a região pré-óptica anterior, denominado centro sexual. Esses neurônios são responsáveis por transformar o estímulo humoral em um estímulo nervoso, que por sua vez induz o comportamento sexual. Em espécies como ovinos, e em menor grau os bovinos, observou-se que para a manifestação do comportamento estral ocorrer, o cérebro requer uma exposição prévia à progesterona que o sensibiliza para a ação dos estrogênios, que se dá pelas concentrações do ciclo anterior. Por isso, constatou-se que a primeira ovulação da estação reprodutiva ou puberdade (no caso dos bovinos a primeira ovulação pós-parto) ocorre sem manifestação de estro. É até a segunda ovulação que o comportamento normal do estro será observado. Esta condição é conhecida como ovulação silenciosa ou estro silencioso, e é indetectável para o trabalhador, o produtor e o veterinário, e que possui como principal causa os distúrbios nutricionais. Devido nas fêmeas o comportamento sexual se limitar a um curto período de horas ou dias, enquanto nos machos há poucas variações em seu comportamento sexual, aparentemente é ela quem inicia o comportamento de cortejo. Aparentemente, isso se deve ao fato de que, nos machos, o padrão de secreção de testosterona é constante e mostra apenas leves diminuições fora da estação reprodutiva em espécies sazonais. Nos machos, a testosterona é transformada no cérebro em estradiol para produzir o comportamento reprodutivo. Durante a fase de estro ocorrem manifestações comportamentais comuns a todas as espécies, como as seguintes:  Aumento geral da atividade física, isso se reflete no aumento da locomoção e que é direcionado à busca do macho;  Inquietação e movimento ao menor estímulo;  Ingestão diminuída;  Diminuição da produção de leite;  Aumento gradual da temperatura corporal;  Micção frequente na presença do macho: isso é importante, pois os feromônios responsáveis pela atração do macho estão presentes na urina;  Vocalizações frequentes, típicas de cada espécie;  Atração do macho. Na tabela 3 são apresentadas as características comportamentais mais comuns das fêmeas das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Tabela 3: Comportamentos característicos durante o estro em diferentes espécies Espécie Conduta Bovina Monta entre fêmeas (conduta homossexual). Batidas antes da monta (figura 10). Aumento nas vocalizações. Ovina Movimentação da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Caprina Movimento característico da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Suína Grunhido característico (grunhido de estro). Falsas lutas. Pode haver pequena conduta homossexual. Orelhas eretas e projetadas para trás. Equina Diminuição da agressividade com o macho. Sem conduta homossexual. Mostra a área genital ante o macho e everte o clitóris. Espelhamento: contrações rítmicas dos lábios vulvares. Canina Reflexos contráteis na vulva e levantamento da cauda, inclinando-se para o lado, na presença do macho. Lambidas frequentes da região vulvar. Felina Inquietação. Chafurdamento. Miados característicos. Esfrega-se contra os objetos. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. O comportamento homossexual em fêmeas foi extensivamente estudado em bovinos (figura 10), por ser um dos sinais mais evidentes e importantes da manifestação do estro; ocorre em cerca de 70% dos animais e sua expressão é altamente influenciada pela hierarquia social do rebanho. Deve-se levar em consideração que os animais que estão em estro precisam interagir uns com os outros para expressar esse comportamento, sendo observada maior atividade quando há cerca de 20 fêmeas em estro. Sabe-se também que o tipo de instalações é imprescindível para a manifestação do comportamento homossexual, visto que os animais encontrados nos piquetes montam mais do que os alojados em instalações intensivas, isto fica ainda mais evidente quando o piso destas últimas é escorregadio. As montas entre fêmeas são observadas com maior frequência à noite, ocorrendo cerca de 70% das montas entre as sete da noite e as sete da manhã, o que se explica pelo fato de que durante estas horas os animais não são submetidos a nenhum manejo rotineiro, como ordenha, alimentação ou limpeza das instalações, além disso, acredita-se que os animais preferem montar nos períodos mais frios do dia, principal-mente em criações tropicais. Em bovinos de corte, sugere-se que tanto a fêmea que monta quanto a que é montada estejam em cio; ao contrário do gado leiteiro, em que se considera que o animal que monta está perto do cio, enquanto o que é montado está em cio. Figura 10: comportamento sexual em bovinos. À esquerda: batendo. À direita: comportamento homossexual. No caso de cadelas, deve-se levar em consideração que o comportamento homossexual está associado à hierarquia e dominância, mas não à manifestação do comportamento estral. Além disso, algumas fêmeas muito dominantes não permanecem imóveis na frente do macho, nem permitem que ele a monte, mesmo quando estão em estro. Na égua, uma característica do cio é o espelhamento, que consiste na abertura e fechamento dos lábios vulvares de forma rítmica, geralmente acompanhada pela eversão do clitóris (figura 11). Este último sempre ocorre durante a micção, mas neste caso a fêmea o faz na presença do macho, mesmo quando ela não está urinando. Uma vez que a fêmea no cio está na frente de um macho, ela exibe um comportamento receptivo; a atitude da fêmea é passiva e se caracteriza em todas as espécies pela imobilidade diante da monta do macho, considerada o sinal definitivo do estro. Em geral, a fêmea também adota uma postura diferenciada conhecida como lordose, pois arqueia as costas para baixo, ao mesmo tempo em que levanta a cauda e inclina-a, levantando também os lábios vulvares para promover a cópula. A descrição acima é muito típica dos ruminantes, da cadela e da gata. Na égua, ao contrário, a posição anterior à cópula implica em curvar a coluna para cima (cifose) e baixar a garupa ou inclinar a pelve. • ____COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS MACHOS O comportamento sexual do macho é muito importante, pois estima-se que o macho dominante pode ser responsável por até 80% dos nascimentos em um rebanho. Um fator a ser considerado é a libido, definida como a “disposição e entusiasmo” de um macho para tentar montar e servir a uma fêmea. No caso dos bovinos, estima-se que cerca de 21% dos machos em que a libido é avaliada não conseguem reproduzir. Isso se torna ainda mais crítico quando se leva em consideração que a libido baixa é hereditária e reproduzível, além de estar associada à puberdade tardia nas filhas. Figura 11: sinais feitos por éguas no cio. À esquerda: espelhamento. À direita: eversão do clitóris. Nos machos, as montas sem penetração e ejaculação durante a fase de cortejo (conhecidas como montas falsas) são muito importantes para estimular o desejo sexual e aumentar a quantidade e a qualidade do sêmen que mais tarde será ejaculado durante a cópula (figura 12). No caso dos touros, sabe-se que o macho monta na fêmea em média seis vezes antes de realizar a primeira cópula, embora o número de montas falsas seja reduzido nas ejaculações subsequentes. Figura 12: comportamento de um cachaço diante de uma fêmea no cio. À esquerda: olfateio dos flancos e salivação do macho. À direita: ereção e retirada do pênis. Na tabela 4 são listados os comportamentos típicos de machos de espécies de mamíferos domésticos durante o cortejo, detecção de fêmeas no cio e cópula. Tabela 4: Comportamentos característicos durante o cortejo e cópula em machos das diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Conduta pré-cópula Conduta copulatória Bovina Reflexo de Flehmen; cheira e lambe a vulva; inquietude; esfrega o pescoço ou o focinho na fêmea; tentativa de montas. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 3 segundos pós-penetração. Ovina Reflexo de Flehmen; empurram e monta a fêmea; vocalizações; tentativa de montas; inquietude; mantém-se com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea (figura 13). Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Caprina Cheira a urina da fêmea e realiza o reflexo de Flehmen; urina a barba e o peito; apalpa o chão em volta da fêmea; vocalizações; língua dentro e fora da boca; cheira e bate na área genital; se sustenta com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Suína Cheira a região genital e dos flancos (figura 12); tentativas de montas; contato naso-nasal ou naso-genital; vocalizações; range os dentes e move as mandíbulas lateralmente; salivação e micção frequente; morde suavemente as orelhas e a cabeça da fêmea. Ereção depois da monta; contrações testiculares muito aparentes durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 5 a 20 minutos pós-penetração. Equina Vocalizações; reflexo de Flehmen; morde o pescoço da fêmea. Sinalização; movimento lateral da cauda durante a ejaculação; movimentos de fricção; ejaculação média: 20 a 60 segundos pós-penetração. Canina Tentativas de montas; reprodução. O macho se vira e fica abotoado durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 10 a 30 minutos, mas pode chegas até 50 pós-penetração. Felina Morde o pescoço da fêmea. A fêmea realiza o “ronco pós-coito” quando o macho desmonta. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Depois de haver realizado com sucesso um serviço (um acasalamento acompanhado de ejaculação dentro do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea), os machos apresentam a fase pós-copulatória, também conhecida como período refratário, em que mostram desinteresse pela fêmea com quem acabam de realizar serviço. Esta fase tem duração variável entre os indivíduos, mas foi visto que eles podem retomar a atividade pré-copulatória e copulatória mais rapidamente se forem apresentados a uma fêmea diferente, fenômeno conhecido como “efeito Coolidge”. Os machos geralmente são capazes de realizar mais de uma cópula por dia antes de atingir a saciedade sexual. O número de cópulas varia entre espécies e indivíduos, portanto, suínos e equinos realizam em média três montas, enquanto pequenos ruminantes realizam 10 e bovinos até 20. Uma vez saciado, o macho pode parar de montar por um ou mais dias, mesmo que haja estímulo suficiente para induzir o comportamento sexual. Figura 13: monta em ovinos. É mostrado como o macho apoia os membros anteriores na garupa da fêmea. Nessa imagem o macho detectou o cio, por isso está usando um avental para impedir a penetração. • ____DETECÇÃO DE ESTROS (CIOS) A detecção adequada do estro é imprescindível para um bom manejo reprodutivo e produtivo dos animais do rebanho, pois é essencial determinar o momento ideal da monta ou inseminação artificial, que consequentemente atinge bons índices de fertilidade. A falha na detecção do estro (considerada uma das principais causas de perdas econômicas na pecuária), ocorre em função da baixa eficiência, bem como da precisão, dos métodos utilizados. A tabela 5 resume as consequências da falha na detecção do estro em vacas. Tabela 5: Consequências de falhas na eficiência e precisão dos testes utilizados para o diagnóstico de cio em bovinos Falha Eficiência (vacas não detectadas) Precisão (vacas mal detectadas) Aumenta-se Número de fêmeas vazias; Número de dias abertos; Intervalo entre partos. Números de serviços por concepção; Número de doses de sêmen. Diminui-se Número de crias por ano; Produção cárnea ou láctea. Fertilidade por serviço. Fonte: anotações de aulas na UFPB. Para implementar um programa de detecção de estro, é necessário ter alguns requisitos essenciais, como:  A identificação dos animais que deve ser realizada de forma clara de modo que o observador possa distingui-los claramente.  Os registros reprodutivos que permitem estimar a fase do ciclo estral em que os animais se encontram e ajudam a discernir os animais que sabemos que estão perto do cio daqueles que foram inseminados recentemente ou estão prenhes.  Um pessoal qualificado deve observar animais no cio; esse trabalho não pode ser confiado a qualquer pessoa; deve ser realizado por quem conheça bem os sinais de estro da espécie e que saiba considerá-los em conjunto; deve reconhecer, assim mesmo, a evidência da manifestação de comportamento sexual quando o animal estiver fora de seu campo visual. Outro ponto importante nos programas de detecção de estro é a escolha do método para o seu diagnóstico, que deve estar de acordo com aspectos como as características comportamentais da espécie, disponibilidade e facilidade de uso, custos, entre outros. Alguns dos métodos existentes para detecção de cio são descritos abaixo. Detecção visual Este tipo de detecção é baseado na observação a curtas e longas distâncias pela equipe da unidade de produção, em busca de mudanças genitais e comportamentais nas fêmeas; é amplamente utilizado no caso dos bovinos. Foi estudado que a eficiência na detecção visual do estro aumenta em paralelo com o número de observações realizadas por dia. Ou seja, se a observação for realizada apenas durante as atividades rotineiras da exploração, a eficiência será de 50%; quando se realizam duas observações com 12 h de intervalo, a eficiência aumenta para 70%; quando três observações são feitas por dia em intervalos de 8 h, a eficiência chega a 90% e quando a detecção visual é feita constantemente, a eficiência na detecção do estro chega a ficar entre 95 e 100%. No caso dos bovinos, a detecção visual se baseia, entre outros aspectos, na observação do comportamento homossexual, no aparecimento de muco cristalino pela vulva, bem como nas marcas de monta (culote e garupa sujos, direção dos pelos no sacro ao contrário); inquietação, busca pelo macho, inapetência e segregação. Deve-se levar em consideração que nem todas as espécies animais são passíveis de serem detectadas por esse método, pois há espécies em que não há alterações evidentes na genitália e seu comportamento não denota nenhum sinal característico e forte de estar em estro, como é o caso de ovinos, caprinos e equinos; no qual é necessário submetê-los à presença de um macho para poder saber adequadamente o seu estado reprodutivo. Teste de monta Este teste é utilizado especificamente em porcas e consiste em observar a reação à pressão que uma pessoa exerce sobre a garupa e a coluna do animal, considerando que as fêmeas que estão em estro permanecem estáticas, enquanto as que não se movem (figura 14). A eficiência desse teste pode variar consideravelmente, estando a fêmea submetida ou não a algum estímulo do macho. Isso significa que quando o teste é realizado apenas pelo experimentador sem nenhum contato com o macho, a eficiência fica em torno de 48%, ao passo que, se o realizarmos para que a fêmea possa cheirar e ouvir o macho, a eficiência pode chegar a 90%. Se a porca também vê e toca o macho, a porcentagem de eficiência pode ser aumentada em mais 3 a 7%, respectivamente; enquanto é 100% eficiente quando se aloja e interage com o macho. Figura 14: imobilidade durante a prova de monta em porcas. É importante considerar que embora o teste de monta seja usado principalmente em porcas, as fêmeas no cio de quase todas as espécies apresentam uma reação de imobilização quando a garupa é pressionada; elas também movem a cauda para o lado e podem levantar a vulva. Machos auxiliares e rufiões O macho é o mais eficiente em distinguir as fêmeas de sua espécie no cio, pois é capaz de detectar coisas imperceptíveis aos humanos. A utilização de machos auxiliares e/ou rufiões baseia-se na apresentação de um macho às fêmeas e na observação da resposta de todo o grupo. As fêmeas que permitem ser montadas pelo macho e permanecem imóveis são consideradas no cio. A “guarda” ou “auxílio” pode ser realizada duas vezes ao dia, com intervalos de 12 horas entre eles. Para se utilizar o método é fundamental que haja machos inteiros com boa libido, porém, bons reprodutores não devem ser usados para esse fim, pois podem se machucar por uma fêmea que não esteja no momento ideal ou podem ficar exaustos e recusam-se a montar quando seu uso como reprodutores for necessário. Nos equinos essa técnica diagnóstica é a mais utilizada e é conhecida como “provocação”, já que o macho auxiliar é denominado como provocador e deve ser feito diariamente ou em dias alternados durante o período de cio previsto; nesta espécie, as fêmeas podem ser muito agressivas, por isso é comum o uso de uma barreira protetora entre o macho e a fêmea (figura 15). Quando os machos auxiliares são usados, é interessante evitar que ocorra a cópula fértil com as fêmeas, então várias estratégias foram desenvolvidas, principalmente cirúrgicas, para que os machos utilizados possam ser:  Vestidos com um avental (figura 16);  Vasectomizados;  Epididectomizados;  Pênis desviado;  Com fixação peniana em forma de “S”;  Com obliteração do orifício prepucial;  Castrados e com tratamento androgênico. Os rufiões não são considerados machos auxiliares e sim como machos com capacidade de detectar uma fêmea apta para reprodução, porém sem a capacidade de fecundá-la. São utilizados na detecção de estros para monta natural ou inseminação artificial, já que sua presença estimula o cio e a ovulação na fêmea. Já que o animal não possui a capacidade de fecundar a fêmea, a obtenção de rufiões dá-se através de técnicas cirúrgicas como as citadas supra. Figura 15: provocação em equinos (método para instigar e/ou detectar a égua em cio). Figura 16: macho ovino vestido com avental para identificar a ovelha em cio. Fêmeas Em muitas unidades de produção, o uso de fêmeas (com certas características específicas) é preferível ao uso de machos para detecção de cio, pois seu manejo é mais simples e seguro, sua manutenção é menor e não há risco de ocorrência da penetração que pode ser uma fonte de transmissão de doenças. Por exemplo, fêmeas androgenizadas podem ser usadas, tanto tratadas exogenamente, quanto aquelas com pseudo-hermafroditismo ou freemartinismo. Palpação retal É um método muito útil no caso de bovinos e equinos, pois o estado reprodutivo em que o animal se encontra pode ser determinado de acordo com as estruturas ovarianas presentes, a tonicidade do tecido uterino e o tipo de corrimento vaginal que pode ser observado. Nessa técnica, a precisão e a eficiência dependem da experiência da sonda, bem como da correta subdivisão dos animais que são passados a ela para revisão. Ultrassonografia Com o uso do ultrassom em tempo real e sob o mesmo princípio da palpação retal, pode-se determinar o momento do ciclo estral; sua confiabilidade é maior quando comparada à palpação, pois os resultados são menos subjetivos. Medição de mudanças fisiológicas Toda fêmea em cio apresenta ligeiras mudanças fisiológicas nos seguintes aspec-tos:  Sua temperatura aumenta;  A frequência cardíaca aumenta;  A produção leiteira diminui. Essas mudanças, quando medidas repetidamente, são úteis para determinar o momento do estro. Quando as concentrações de progesterona no sangue estão abaixo de 1 ng/ml, indica que a fase lútea daquele animal terminou e que, portanto, está perto de apresentar estro ou que acabou de estar. No caso das cadelas, a dosagem da progesterona tem sido muito valiosa para determinar o momento do início do estro, mas sua interpretação é exatamente o inverso do resto das espécies, quando atinge o nível de 1 ng/ml, sabemos que está prestes a iniciar a receptividade sexual. A citologia vaginal esfoliativa realizada, sobretudo, nas cadelas e tem como princípio determinar o tipo de células presentes no esfregaço vaginal, de acordo com sua morfologia e número. Sua base é que as camadas celulares da mucosa vaginal se multiplicam à medida que o nível de estrogênio aumenta, fazendo com que as células da superfície, que estão em direção ao lúmen, morram e adquiram a aparência folheada ou floculada. Durante a fase estral, entre 80 e 100% das células observadas são superficiais e cornificadas ou escamosas. A confiabilidade do método é muito alta, mas são necessárias amostras seriadas, pois o padrão celular é cíclico e nem sempre uma amostra isolada indica com precisão o estágio do ciclo reprodutivo. Uma ferramenta útil em equinos é observar a tonicidade e coloração do colo do útero e vagina através de um vaginoscópio. As alterações observadas são consequência dos estrogênios e a aparência nos animais em estro é de uma estrutura com secreções, hiperêmicas e edematosas. Também é eficaz para uso em cabras. O aumento da atividade física pode ser medido com um pedômetro, que é um detector eletrônico que é colocado nas patas e mede a atividade motora das fêmeas; transmite um sinal para um computador que registra e representa graficamente os dados. Lembre-se de que os animais no cio apresentam maior mobilidade. Em geral, considera-se que uma fêmea no cio anda pelo menos duas vezes mais que as que não estão. A viscosidade do muco cervical pode ser medida com o estrón, que é um dispositivo usado em bovinos e cuja base é medir a resistência elétrica no fluido vaginal ou impedância, que é diminuída durante o proestro e o estro. Para aumentar a eficiência desta ferramenta é necessário realizar medições repetidas e manter registros individuais. Junto com os métodos descritos aqui, ajudas foram desenvolvidas para tornar a detecção do estro mais eficiente, entre as quais estão: Detectores de monta Esses dispositivos são muito diversificados, a maioria deles são colocados na linha média da garupa da fêmea, logo na frente da inserção da cauda, mas também podem ser colocados no peito ou abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho. Sua função é deixar uma marca distinguível ou registrar uma monta no animal que está no cio. Entre eles estão os seguintes. A pintura com giz de cera na altura da garupa, é comum usá-la para que quando uma vaca for montada por outra, a marca fique borrada ou desbotada, indicando que a fêmea está no cio (figura 17). O arnês de marcador que é colocado abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho (“Bola de queixo” figura 18) ou no peito, para que ao montar uma fêmea receptiva, pinte sua garupa deixando uma marca facilmente identificável. As manchas de tinta chamadas de patches “kamar” (figura 19), que são colocadas na garupa da fêmea e quando ela é montada por outro animal, o peso faz com que ela quebre o recipiente e libere uma tinta que podemos facilmente observar. O relógio de cio é um dispositivo eletrônico que se conecta à garupa da fêmea e registra o momento em que é montada (figura 20), quando pressionado pelo peso mantido por alguns segundos, emitindo um sinal que é recebido por um computador. Tem sido indicado que a precisão na detecção do estro com este método é muito alta, podendo chegar a 96%. 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Mechanisms regulating follicular development and selection of the dominant follicle. REPRODUCTION-CAMBRIDGE-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 71-90, 2003. WHITTEMORE, Colin et al. The science and practice of pig production. Blackwell Science Ltd, 1998. FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO 1. O comportamento sexual dos animais é uma particularidade de cada espécie na iniciação da perpetuação da vida e que deve-se a quais fatores e por quê? 2. O que é anestro? É possível revertê-lo? 3. Defina e explique os estágios comportamentais de machos e fêmeas antes, durante e depois da cópula. 4. Defina e diferencia efeito fêmea e efeito macho. 5. Define e explique a estimulação sexual dos animais e como podemos induzi-la? 6. Defina e caracterize o estro das espécies zootécnicas. 7. Quais são os fatores que retardam ou adiantam a manifestação do cio e por quê? 8. Qual a relação direta ou indireta da duração do estro com o momento da ovulação? 9. Quais os mecanismos de atração dos machos? 10. Que mudanças ocorrem nas partes reprodutivas das fêmeas para a atração do macho? 11. Cite o comportamento característico das fêmeas durante o estro que visam a atração do macho para a cópula. 12. Disserte sobre a importância do macho e sobre seu comportamento sexual para o manejo reprodutivo. 13. Qual a importância e quais os meios de detecção do estro nas fêmeas. Como hipótese, você como criador utilizaria qual método de identificação e por quê? 14. Explique as principais diferenças entre machos reprodutores e machos rufiões. Como obter um rufião? (shrink)

This study was designed to develop and validate an instrument that can enable researchers and scholars to measure the attitudes of teachers towards learners with disabilities in an inclusive classroom. The study was grounded on the three-components theory of attitude. A series of steps were followed to ascertain the face and content validity of the instrument. Based on the data collected from 532 respondents, preliminary screening was performed, items with weak or high correlation to others were dropped or retained. (...) The construct validity and dimensionality of the instrument was evaluated using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), following the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) extraction, with a varimax rotation based on Eigenvalues greater than one. The results yielded a three-factor solution after suppressing loadings less than .40. These factors were labelled carefully based on the statements of the leading items loading. Cronbach alpha was employed in evaluating the reliability of the instrument, with values ranging from .849 to .938, indicating that the instrument is internally consistent. Consequently, the proposed 36 items instrument was reduced to 30 items. The procedures followed, coupled with the removal of dysfunctional items, resulted in an instrument with appropriate psychometric properties and high reliability for measurement. (shrink)