The polis, as a gathering of various citizens, may be threatened by discord and finally may collapse because of the stasis, the internal conflict between different groups of people with diverging interests. This scheme is tackled by Plato in Gorgias, and more thoroughly in the Republic. Both dialogues were a source of inspiration for the pseudo-Pythagorean writings which flourished between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the Hellenistic period. Among them, the treaties attributed to Kleinias, Metopus, (...) Theages, Lysis and Hippodamus frequently use the concept of stasis and pleonexia to describe how a city may be governed and what kind of danger may appear if the citizens’ behavior is not controlled. In general, these treaties adapt the vision of Plato concerning conflict to some Pythagorean images and teachings. By mingling both influences, they blur the frontier between Platonism and Pythagoreanism and create a genre of intertwined literature which may be qualified as bricolage, according to Lévi-Strauss’s concept. These philosophical texts use a range of material mostly traced back to the Hellenistic period, but also some fragments related to the conception of conflicts and violence in early Pythagoreanism. (shrink)

Is all explanations causal explanation? Puzzles about barometer readings "explain" storms and shadow lengths "explaining" flagpole heights make it attractive to think so. Wesley Salmon (1984) has endorsed this causal thesis. One way to test this thesis is to assess the explanatory import of pseudo-processes. I do so by discussing the concept of heritability, which measures a pseudo-process, and one role it played in the theory of natural selection: explaining response to selection. This will show, not just (...) that heritability has heuristic or predictive utility, but that it can be explanatory. Possible responses to this case are also discussed. (shrink)

ABSTRACT In order to explore what it means to pursue philosophical investigations for theological reasons, this paper argues that Ludwig Wittgenstein continues and corrects Pseudo-Denys’ project in The Divine Names. I first argue that The Divine Names should be interpreted as attempting to render human thought transparent to the divine by relativizing our concepts. The success of this project is compromised because the concept of ‘unity’ is not relativized. I then develop the claim that Wittgenstein does relativize unity (...) in a similar way and for similar religious reasons to Pseudo-Denys. As such, he can be read as continuing and correcting the Pseudo-Dionysian project. I conclude by reflecting on several of this argument’s implications for the relationship between philosophy and Christian systematic theology. (shrink)

Neutrosophic set is a new mathematical tool for handling problems involving imprecise, indetermi nacy and inconsistent data. Pseudo-BCI algebra is a kind of non-classical logic algebra in close connection with various non-commutative fuzzy logics. Recently, we applied neutrosophic set theory to pseudo-BCI al gebras. In this paper, we study neutrosophic filters in pseudo-BCI algebras. The concepts of neutrosophic regular filter, neutrosophic closed filter and fuzzy regular filter in pseudo-BCI algebras are introduced, and some basic properties are (...) discussed. Moreover, the relationships among neutrosophic regular filter, fuzzy filters and anti-grouped neutrosophic filters are prese nted, and the results are proved: a neutrosophic filter (fuzzy filter) is a neutrosophic regular filter (fuzzy regular filter), if and only if it is both a neutrosophic closed filter (fuzzy closed filter) and an anti-grouped neutrosophic filter (fuzzy anti-grouped filter). (shrink)

The main objective of this paper is to present a reinterpretation of Karl Popper’'s position on the methodological and sociopolitical views of Karl Marx. In spite of the weaknesses of the Popper’'s critique of the achievements of Marx, special attention will be focused on the explanation of contradictions within the epistemological position of the former. This will be of great importance in the context of the analysis of Marx’s historicism, and will also help undermine the coherence view of the founder (...) of falsi
cationism. Additionally, this newly developed perspective will serve as a starting point for evaluation of Marx’s intellectual output, as well as conceptions that refer to him. (shrink)

The claim that ―concepts serve as rules for the synthesis of representations‖ is understood by the mainstream of Kant‘s scholarship as if categories and concepts, in general, are conditions for the constitution of objects out of the manifold of sensations devoid of reference. That is the claim that I wish to question here. The claim comes in different flavors and formulations. Still, none of them are relevant here. I aim to provide an alternative account for the claim that ―the representation (...) makes the object possible.‖ I argue that the traditional view represents a solution to what I call the pseudo-problem of intentionality, namely to account for how a representation of something emerges out of a manifold of sensations devoid of reference. Yet, the intentionality problem is a misunderstanding of what I call the recognition thesis: the role of concepts is to provide the rules for the (mind-dependent) recognition (Erkenntnis) of the mind-independent existence of transcendental objects (noumena). ―The representation makes the object possible in the relevant sense that only by means of concepts can we recognize that what is sense-dependently represented actually exists mind-independently as transcendental objects or noumena in the negative sense. My view is embedded in the framework of what today is called ―Kantian Nonceptualism‖. Still, my view is neither a simple re-statement of Kantian Nonconceptualism nor depends on it. It is independently grounded on what Kant calls ―Erkenntnis‖. (shrink)

This article presented the apophatism of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a mystical knowledge as refusing determine God as an objective concept and requires the abandonment of formulations that dare quit the Divine Mystery into categories. Therefore, it was necessary to discuss the principle, the difference between the apophaticism own ousia of Scholastic concludes that by reason of the impossibility of knowledge of the “substance” of the Absolute and the persona of the Areopagite concluded that, from personal a relationship and (...) / existential or establish with God, that He cannot be exhausted in noetic formulations of thought. In this sense, the apophatism presents as mystical resignation or a way of overcoming the knowledge of God, which is in the darkness and silence far away from all conceptual idolatry that dare to define Him; unless the symbolic language concluded from their phanias. Understood as mystical renunciation, this apophatism possible to understand God as the “Nothing of all that is” and how “Unnamed Name”; i.e., its nihility and your anonymity. KEYWORDS. (shrink)

Wittgenstein famously criticizes the philosophical practice of analyzing the meaning of words outside their ordinary use in everyday language, whereby often self-made pseudo-problems arise. In order to shed further light on Wittgenstein’s critique, this article makes use of the Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology. First, starting from the remark in Vol. I, §52, his criticism of the philosophical method of selection and generalization is explained in detail. Next, I give a brief outline of Wittgenstein’s own way of philosophizing (...) by reference to a selection of comments concerning the use of psychological words in everyday language, which will also further elucidate his critique. Finally, I enter into the question which significance everyday language according to Wittgenstein has for philosophy. (shrink)

The standard definition of “argument” is satisfied by any series of statements in which one (of the statements) is marked as the conclusion of the others. This leads to the counter-intuitive result that “I like cookies, therefore, all swans are white” is an argument, since “therefore” marks “all swans are white” as the conclusion of “I like cookies”. This objection is often disregarded by stating that, although the previous sequence is an argument, it fails to be a good one. However, (...) when we compare our previous argument with a definitely bad argument like “this swan is white, therefore, all swans are white”, we see that there is an important difference between them. Whereas the former fails to fulfil our intuition of what an argument is, the latter does qualify as an argument, but as a bad one. In this talk, I will sketch a definition that better captures this feature of our intuition of what an argument is in three steps. Following Díez and Moulines (1999), I first reduce inductive validity to deductive validity through what we may call the method of deductivisation. Second, through epistemic predicates (cf. Thompson 2002), I introduce a broader concept of validity that accounts not only for deductive and inductive validity, but also for a weaker type of validity that may be called pseudo-validity. I show that these pseudo-valid arguments can also be deductivised with the help of the above-mentioned epistemic predicates. Finally, I re-define the concept of argument as any series of statements that is at least pseudo-valid, which leaves the “cookies argument” outside of this definition. (shrink)

This article debunks Bruno Latour’s seemingly pro-scientific and well-intentioned posture. I briefly summarize Latour’s constructivist, relativist, hybridist, and mystic philosophy, insisting on his radicalization in his last two books. I show that Latour’s conception is akin to “pseudo-profound bullshit”, inasmuch as he tries to hide his mysticism behind the invocation of scientific facts. I then concentrate on Latour’s politicization of climate science, showing that it is: self-contradictory from an epistemological point of view, since it presupposes scientifically established facts while (...) at the same time undermining their objectivity; counterproductive, and even dangerous, from the political point of view, since it recommends a full politicization of climate science and ignores its harmful effects. I conclude by advocating a distinction between science and politics, and by showing that Latour’s philosophy fosters our current post-truth predicament. (shrink)

The article concerns the role of the phrase of the Pseudo Dyonisius "Bonum ex integra causa" in Aquinas' Ethics.

Nietzsche regarded nihilism as an outgrowth of the natural sciences which, he worried, were bringing about “an essentially mechanistic [and hence meaningless] world.” Nihilism in this sense refers to the doctrine that there are no values, or that everything we might value is worthless. In the last issue of Modern Horizons, I offered this conditional explanation of the relation of science and nihilism: that a scientific worldview is nihilistic insofar as it rules out the existence of anything that cannot in (...) principle be precisely picked out or identified.i What kinds of entities would a scientific worldview eliminate on the basis of such an assumption? The list is long and various, but it includes those intentional (mentalii) entities of our consciousness that underwrite the existence of persons, and more basically of thought itself – e.g., belief, value, agency, truth, and meaning. I argued in that previous paper that intentional concepts are ultimately inscrutable, and yet impossible coherently to deny. I claimed that we could no more doubt the existence of values than we could doubt reality itself – and when I spoke of values I had in mind the (suspicion-engendering) concept of the good, and was even toying with the related idea of the Logos (an even more suspect concept). There are a several attractive reasons why the idea of the good, or the Logos, might be regarded with suspicion, and why either might reasonably be discarded as a pseudo concept. Leaving the latter concern until later, we might worry that insisting on the possibility of an overarching good supports the idea of a total worldview, or that we are gradually progressing towards a single correct vision of things. A progressivist, totalising vision would seem to foreclose on outlooks, values, and persons that deviate from its most likely trajectory, and may stymie or interfere with incommensurate forms of otherness,iii awkward disturbances, and idiosyncrasies threatening its more well-established precincts – perhaps whatever stands out as strange, rare, and indissolubly individual. The idea of an emerging universal standard of values thus might amount to a source of oppression, e.g., if it provides a warrant to transform a currently limited universally prescriptive set of global practices and institutes into an ever more elaborate totalising hierarchy. In the discussion below, I will say why the good, conceived as the Logos, suggests a more salutary trajectory for individuals, and erodes support for either a totalitarian vision or a dissolving nihilistic outlook on the world. (shrink)

I begin and conclude the article by arguing that culturalisation has contributed significantly to the decline of the Left and its universal ideals. In the current climate of public opinion, ‘race’ is no longer used, at least openly, as a scientific truth to justify racism. Instead, ‘culture’ has become the mysterious term that has made the perpetuation of racist discourse possible. ‘Culture’, in this newracist worldview, is the unquestioned set of traits continually attributed to the non-White Other, essentially to de-world (...) her Being and de-individualise her personhood. In other words, ‘culture’, as it is used in the old anthropological sense, is the magic incantation with which the Other is demonised, mystified, and/or ridiculously oversimplified. I focus on the phenomenon of ‘culturalisation’ as a common new-racist method of de-politicising the Other’s affairs and surrounding socio-political phenomena. The article is an attempt to discredit the paradigm of ‘culture’ as a pseudo-concept used commonly in cultural racism. This cultural racism routinely assumes ‘culture’ to be a natural given almost exactly as the pseudo-scientific paradigm ‘race’ was (and is still) used in some discourses of biological racism. If mentality X attributes categorical differences to different groups of people based on A and A is assumed to be natural, ahistorical, and/or metaphysical, then X is a racist mentality. Obviously, A does not have to be skin-color or ‘blood’ in order for X to be racist. (shrink)

A homeomorphism is built between the separable complex Hilbert space (quantum mechanics) and Minkowski space (special relativity) by meditation of quantum information (i.e. qubit by qubit). That homeomorphism can be interpreted physically as the invariance to a reference frame within a system and its unambiguous counterpart out of the system. The same idea can be applied to Poincaré’s conjecture (proved by G. Perelman) hinting at another way for proving it, more concise and meaningful physically. Furthermore, the conjecture can be generalized (...) and interpreted in relation to the pseudo-Riemannian space of general relativity therefore allowing for both mathematical and philosophical interpretations of the force of gravitation due to the mismatch of choice and ordering and resulting into the “curving of information” (e.g. entanglement). Mathematically, that homeomorphism means the invariance to choice, the axiom of choice, well-ordering, and well-ordering “theorem” (or “principle”) and can be defined generally as “information invariance”. Philosophically, the same homeomorphism implies transcendentalism once the philosophical category of the totality is defined formally. The fundamental concepts of “choice”, “ordering” and “information” unify physics, mathematics, and philosophy and should be related to their shared foundations. (shrink)

This chapter conceptually analyzes the post-traumatic stress injuries called moral injury, moral fatigue or exhaustion, and broken spirit. It then identifies two puzzles. First, soldiers sometimes sustain moral injury even from doing right actions. Second, they experience moral exhaustion from making decisions even where the morally right choice is so obvious that it shouldn’t be stressful to make it; and even where rightness of decision is so murky that no decision could be morally faulted. The injuries result of mistaken moral (...) self-evaluation. Methods of preventing and treating these injuries are defended, including training in self-forgiveness, moral off-loading of actions and decisions to persons and devices less likely to feel inappropriate guilt, and the use of drugs to prevent such guilt. The foregoing has been about moral injury erroneously resulting from the non-violation of a correct moral code. But the chapter then introduces the concept of moral pseudo-injury—felt moral injury that has in reality resulted from violation of a false moral code, so that no one has really been morally injured. This can be used as a method in warfighting. And since the injuries it produces are illusory, this would be morally superior to physical violence. For it causes less injury to its victims, and should cause less guilt in those who must inflict it. Historical precedents are considered. Finally, our enemies often use moral pseudo-injury against us, in the form of terrorist violence against civilians. Terrorism causes comparatively few harms, yet we mistakenly see it as more morally horrific than conventional combat that causes much worse loss of life among armed forces members. Here we need the nuancing and clarifying power of philosophy to restore a sense of proportion, thence to prevent or therapize the moral pseudo-injury we may experience from these sorts of attacks. (This is a pre-penultimate version of the published version, available from OUP at the external link, which contains minor variances. The paper was earlier known as "PTSD Weaponized: A Theory of Moral Injury"; that now superseded version is archived under "past conferences" on the Center for Ethics and the Rule of Law website.). (shrink)

The explicit history of the “hidden variables” problem is well-known and established. The main events of its chronology are traced. An implicit context of that history is suggested. It links the problem with the “conservation of energy conservation” in quantum mechanics. Bohr, Kramers, and Slaters (1924) admitted its violation being due to the “fourth Heisenberg uncertainty”, that of energy in relation to time. Wolfgang Pauli rejected the conjecture and even forecast the existence of a new and unknown then elementary particle, (...) neutrino, on the ground of energy conservation in quantum mechanics, afterwards confirmed experimentally. Bohr recognized his defeat and Pauli’s truth: the paradigm of elementary particles (furthermore underlying the Standard model) dominates nowadays. However, the reason of energy conservation in quantum mechanics is quite different from that in classical mechanics (the Lie group of all translations in time). Even more, if the reason was the latter, Bohr, Cramers, and Slatters’s argument would be valid. The link between the “conservation of energy conservation” and the problem of hidden variables is the following: the former is equivalent to their absence. The same can be verified historically by the unification of Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics in the contemporary quantum mechanics by means of the separable complex Hilbert space. The Heisenberg version relies on the vector interpretation of Hilbert space, and the Schrödinger one, on the wave-function interpretation. However the both are equivalent to each other only under the additional condition that a certain well-ordering is equivalent to the corresponding ordinal number (as in Neumann’s definition of “ordinal number”). The same condition interpreted in the proper terms of quantum mechanics means its “unitarity”, therefore the “conservation of energy conservation”. In other words, the “conservation of energy conservation” is postulated in the foundations of quantum mechanics by means of the concept of the separable complex Hilbert space, which furthermore is equivalent to postulating the absence of hidden variables in quantum mechanics (directly deducible from the properties of that Hilbert space). Further, the lesson of that unification (of Heisenberg’s approach and Schrödinger’s version) can be directly interpreted in terms of the unification of general relativity and quantum mechanics in the cherished “quantum gravity” as well as a “manual” of how one can do this considering them as isomorphic to each other in a new mathematical structure corresponding to quantum information. Even more, the condition of the unification is analogical to that in the historical precedent of the unifying mathematical structure (namely the separable complex Hilbert space of quantum mechanics) and consists in the class of equivalence of any smooth deformations of the pseudo-Riemannian space of general relativity: each element of that class is a wave function and vice versa as well. Thus, quantum mechanics can be considered as a “thermodynamic version” of general relativity, after which the universe is observed as if “outside” (similarly to a phenomenological thermodynamic system observable only “outside” as a whole). The statistical approach to that “phenomenological thermodynamics” of quantum mechanics implies Gibbs classes of equivalence of all states of the universe, furthermore re-presentable in Boltzmann’s manner implying general relativity properly … The meta-lesson is that the historical lesson can serve for future discoveries. (shrink)

The Constitution is the highest law of the country, while international law is a field of law that deals with the rights and obligations between countries. The essence of international community is of decentralized nature, in which the legal order is formed according to the principle of sovereign equality. However, there are many perspectives that approach the international community and international law from a universalistic and idealistic viewpoint. In other words, if the positivist and pseudo-oriented view of international law (...) is the reality of international community and international law, the universalist or idealist perception of international law can be said to be their goals. It is true that those two perspectives on international community and international law are neither omnicient nor all-perceiving, but complexly intertwined. The Constitution and international law, which can be considered the two axes of public law, are closely interrelated to the formation of a modern absolute state and civic democracy. The absoluteness of state power and civic democracy are doomed to fate our present and our future. This is not only such fundamental political order, but it also has become a foundation for the development of modern and contemporary order of law. And the two dimensions of order, politics and law, are developing in a dialectical manner. Under this background, this paper aims to provide a harmonious view sprucing up the reality of public law that penetrates both of the international and domestic society within a large framework. It is for research purpose and needs an effort of work by reviewing and analyzing the essence, commonalities, and differences among various adjacent concepts of the Constitution and international law discourse. This paper first begins with a discussion by presenting the historical development of existing hard legal system that penetrates the Constitution and international law through their realistic framework. Furthermore, we look at the softness of international law, conceptual discourse on the international law and world law, international constitutionalism and constitutional theory, and a compendium of world administrative law. We look at the background for the development of these commentaries, the main topics of discussion, and their commonalities or differences. Finally we briefly diagnose and place the future of new sermons that needs to be adduced due to changes in the international community. (shrink)

In this article I propose a new problem for the classical analysis of knowledge (as justified true belief) and all analyses belonging to its legacy. The gist of my argument is that truth as a condition for a belief to be knowledge is problematic insofar there is no definition of truth. From this, and other remarks relating to the possibility of defining truth (or lack thereof) and about what truth theories fit our thoughts about knowledge, I conclude that as long (...) as truth is unquestioningly taken as a condition of knowing, knowledge can never be defined in a way that could satisfy our intuitions about it. (shrink)

The paper interprets the concept “operator in the separable complex Hilbert space” (particalry, “Hermitian operator” as “quantity” is defined in the “classical” quantum mechanics) by that of “quantum information”. As far as wave function is the characteristic function of the probability (density) distribution for all possible values of a certain quantity to be measured, the definition of quantity in quantum mechanics means any unitary change of the probability (density) distribution. It can be represented as a particular case of “unitary” (...) qubits. The converse interpretation of any qubits as referring to a certain physical quantity implies its generalization to non-Hermitian operators, thus neither unitary, nor conserving energy. Their physical sense, speaking loosely, consists in exchanging temporal moments therefore being implemented out of the space-time “screen”. “Dark matter” and “dark energy” can be explained by the same generalization of “quantity” to non-Hermitian operators only secondarily projected on the pseudo-Riemannian space-time “screen” of general relativity according to Einstein's “Mach’s principle” and his field equation. (shrink)

[What It’s Like, or What It’s About? The Place of Consciousness in the Material World] Summary: The book is both a survey of the contemporary debate and a defense of a distinctive position. Most philosophers nowadays assume that the focus of the philosophy of consciousness, its shared explanandum, is a certain property of experience variously called “phenomenal character,” “qualitative character,” “qualia” or “phenomenology,” understood in terms of what it is like to undergo the experience in question. Consciousness as defined in (...) terms of its phenomenal aspect is often called “phenomenal consciousness.” The major issue that occupies most thinkers is whether this phenomenal character happens to be a physical property, or whether it is rather sui generis. Those who believe the former are materialists; those who conclude the latter are dualists. As the currently dominant metaphysic is materialism – also sometimes called physicalism – the challenge appears to be to slot phenomenal properties among the physical properties that ultimately make up the world. David Chalmers argued powerfully that we can go very far in situating many mental properties in the physical world – namely, the properties that can be understood in functional terms – but that phenomenal properties resist such a treatment. Chalmers calls this “the hard problem” of consciousness. But there are also some quite powerful positive arguments for dualism. The two most influential ones are the modal argument, also offered by Chalmers, and the knowledge argument invented by Frank Jackson. Chalmers invites us to conceive of creatures that are exactly like human beings – physically, functionally, behaviorally – only bereft of phenomenal consciousness. If such creatures are conceivable, says Chalmers, they are metaphysically possible. And if they are metaphysically possible, materialism is false. Jackson, for his part, suggests we imagine Mary who has spent her entire life inside a black-and-white room and has seen the world through a black-and-white TV screen. But she also happens to know everything there is to know about the physics of color. And yet, Jackson suggests that once Mary is finally released from her room and sees a lawn outside, she learns something new: that this is what it is like to experience green color. The current work on consciousness is by and large characterized by attempts to answer these two dualistic arguments. I try to make sense of the positions within the domain of philosophy of consciousness by means of two major distinctions that mutually intersect. First, there is a distinction between dualism and materialism. An apparent third alternative currently on offer, the so-called Russellian monism, is unstable, collapsing into either dualism (panpsychism) or materialism (Russellian physicalism). Materialism comes in two main flavors: either the a posteriori physicalism, which detects an epistemic gap between phenomenal and physical truths, hence denying that the former could be derived from the latter; or the a priori physicalism, which does not acknowledge any such obstacle. The second major distinction is between phenomenism and representationalism. It’s true that Ned Block, who introduced this contrast, meant to distinguish between two kinds of materialism. But I believe that the distinction actually intersects the one between materialism and dualism. We thus arrive at a table with six slots, representing six main positions in the philosophy of consciousness: (1) dualist phenomenism (Chalmers, the early Jackson, and Tyler Burge); (2) dualist representationalism (René Descartes); (3) aposteriori materialist phenomenism (Block); (4) a posteriori materialist representationalism (Michael Tye, Fred Dretske, David Rosenthal); (5) a priori materialist phenomenism (David Lewis); and (6) a priori materialist representationalism (Daniel Dennett, Derk Pereboom). However, this scheme is in fact somewhat misleading. It is true that Dennett is usually classified as an apriori materialist (or, more precisely an apriori materialist representationalist), but I believe that needs to be corrected. In order to understand why, I first analyze varieties of materialist representationalism in detail, in particular various construals of phenomenal character in terms of representation, or intentionality, which includes a discussion of the identity of its content (the issue of externalism). By contrast, Dennett rejects the concept of phenomenal character. Consciousness has no intrinsic, publicly inaccessible properties. On that ground, Dennett builds an empirical, fully functionalist theory of consciousness, which he also tries to integrate within a general Darwinian framework. From that point of view, one can contrast Dennettian and representationalist views on the issue of animal consciousness. In addition to his rejection of phenomenal character, Dennett also abstains from the regular metaphysical departure point of regular materialism. He does not so much ask how an enigmatic property of consciousness fits an antecedently characterized world, but rather how far we can investigate all aspects of the world, including consciousness, using the scientific method. He is thus a methodological naturalist, rather than a metaphysical materialist. While this approach removes obstacles to the science of consciousness, it does not solve what might be called “the hardest problem” – of intentionality, not phenomenal consciousness. The hardest problem consists in the fact that our intentional discourse involves conflicting commitments that prevent a coherent metaphysic of representational states. However, it does not follow that we should give up on this discourse as a theoretical means of reduction as well as a practical tool of explanation. But it might be that intentional discourse is a somewhat pseudo one. (shrink)

The way, in which quantum information can unify quantum mechanics (and therefore the standard model) and general relativity, is investigated. Quantum information is defined as the generalization of the concept of information as to the choice among infinite sets of alternatives. Relevantly, the axiom of choice is necessary in general. The unit of quantum information, a qubit is interpreted as a relevant elementary choice among an infinite set of alternatives generalizing that of a bit. The invariance to the axiom (...) of choice shared by quantum mechanics is introduced: It constitutes quantum information as the relation of any state unorderable in principle (e.g. any coherent quantum state before measurement) and the same state already well-ordered (e.g. the well-ordered statistical ensemble of the measurement of the quantum system at issue). This allows of equating the classical and quantum time correspondingly as the well-ordering of any physical quantity or quantities and their coherent superposition. That equating is interpretable as the isomorphism of Minkowski space and Hilbert space. Quantum information is the structure interpretable in both ways and thus underlying their unification. Its deformation is representable correspondingly as gravitation in the deformed pseudo-Riemannian space of general relativity and the entanglement of two or more quantum systems. The standard model studies a single quantum system and thus privileges a single reference frame turning out to be inertial for the generalized symmetry [U(1)]X[SU(2)]X[SU(3)] “gauging” the standard model. As the standard model refers to a single quantum system, it is necessarily linear and thus the corresponding privileged reference frame is necessary inertial. The Higgs mechanism U(1) → [U(1)]X[SU(2)] confirmed enough already experimentally describes exactly the choice of the initial position of a privileged reference frame as the corresponding breaking of the symmetry. The standard model defines ‘mass at rest’ linearly and absolutely, but general relativity non-linearly and relatively. The “Big Bang” hypothesis is additional interpreting that position as that of the “Big Bang”. It serves also in order to reconcile the linear standard model in the singularity of the “Big Bang” with the observed nonlinearity of the further expansion of the universe described very well by general relativity. Quantum information links the standard model and general relativity in another way by mediation of entanglement. The linearity and absoluteness of the former and the nonlinearity and relativeness of the latter can be considered as the relation of a whole and the same whole divided into parts entangled in general. (shrink)

The organism is neither a discovery like the circulation of the blood or the glycogenic function of the liver, nor a particular biological theory like epigenesis or preformationism. It is rather a concept which plays a series of roles – sometimes overt, sometimes masked – throughout the history of biology, and frequently in very normative ways, also shifting between the biological and the social. Indeed, it has often been presented as a key-concept in life science and the ‘theorization’ (...) of Life, but conversely has also been the target of influential rejections: as just an instrument of transmission for the selfish gene, but also, historiographically, as part of an outdated ‘vitalism’. Indeed, the organism, perhaps because it is experientially closer to the ‘body’ than to the ‘molecule’, is often the object of quasi-affective theoretical investments presenting it as essential, sometimes even as the pivot of a science or a particular approach to nature, while other approaches reject or attack it with equal force, assimilating it to a mysterious ‘vitalist’ ontology of extra-causal forces, or other pseudo-scientific doctrines. This paper does not seek to adjudicate between these debates, either in terms of scientific validity or historical coherence; nor does it return to the well-studied issue of the organism-mechanism tension in biology. Recent scholarship has begun to focus on the emergence and transformation of the concept of organism, but has not emphasized so much the way in which organism is a shifting, ‘go-between’ concept – invoked as ‘natural’ by some thinkers to justify their metaphysics, but then presented as value-laden by others, over and against the natural world. The organism as go-between concept is also a hybrid, a boundary concept or an epistemic limit case, all of which partly overlap with the idea of ‘nomadic concepts’. Thereby the concept of organism continues to function in different contexts – as a heuristic, an explanatory challenge, a model of order, of regulation, etc. – despite having frequently been pronounced irrelevant and reduced to molecules or genes. Yet this perpetuation is far removed from any ‘metaphysics of organism’, or organismic biology. (shrink)

If each of the subtypes of autism is defined simply as constituted by a set of symptoms, then the criteria for its observation are straightforward, although, of course, some of those symptoms themselves might be hard to observe definitively. Compare with telling whether or not someone is bleeding: while it might be hard to tell if someone is bleeding internally, we know what it takes to find out, and when we have the right access and instruments we can settle the (...) issue. But matters are not so simple for the autism subtypes. For one thing, how do we settle which symptoms to group together under one heading? One key difference between “autism disorder” and “Asperger’s disorder” is that the former exhibit language delays (sometimes extreme), whereas the latter do not. But is that a sign of genuinely distinct conditions or is that an artifact of the distinct groups of subjects that Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger worked with? And in general, although there are certainly types of behavior that are taken to be indicative of autism, none by itself is taken by diagnosticians to be either necessary or sufficient for a definitive diagnosis for any of the autism subtypes. What is the diagnostician to do? This is not merely an academic issue, as many parents can attest. Are we in a situation, then, that each practitioner has his or her own “pet” signs that are the “real keys” to the diagnosis? That would suggest that the term “autistic” might meet the fate of the outdated term “neurotic,” which turned out to be a pseudo-scientific term for an inexact clumping together of unrelated phenomena. The assumption amongst specialists seems to be that we will reach the point with "autism" that we have with "water": there will be a root essence to autism whose presence or absence settles a diagnosis. If that is to be the case, however, we have to settle the level of application of the concept. Does the term apply to people who exhibit particular behaviors? Or is it possible to exhibit “autistic” behaviors without actually being autistic, because autism is instead a particular feature of the mind (as, for example, in Baron-Cohen’s “impaired theory of mind module” theory, discussed below) which usually but not necessarily has behavioral effects? Or is autism located instead in the brain, perhaps in damage to key areas, which in turn would typically have an effect on modules of the mind? Or perhaps autism is located in genetics or biology, so that some people with damage to the brain caused by accidents so that they exhibit autistic symptoms would not actually be autistic. Conversely, supposing one had an “autistic brain” but showed none of (or not a sufficient number of) the symptoms, would one not be autistic? The assumption is that the genotypes and phenotypes will line up neatly, but if they do not, what happens to the concept “autistic?” (There is an analogy in the philosophy of sex and gender: androgen insensitive individuals tend to self-identify as female and have outward female traits, but have XY chromosomes—should we go with chromosomes or self-identity in assigning sex category?) Finally, the implications for these complications for diagnosis and categorization, with the attendant social and medical implications is discussed. The typical assumption of the medical profession is that autism cannot be “cured.” That assumes that autism is not simply the symptoms. However, at the same time, the tests used to diagnose ASDs work simply from the symptoms (for example, Baron-Cohen’s Sally/Anne test, which ASD children of a certain age almost all fail, but which practically no ASD adult fails). This implies an inherent confusion over the status of the concept. I conclude that attempts to make sense of some true or accurate summary of what it is to be autistic (such as one would find in the DSM) are almost certainly misguided and will vanish into history along with “neurotic.” But as with racial terms, which are similarly shifting and perverse, the term has already passed into the public sphere and will have a lasting and dangerous influence beyond its short scientific shelf-life. (shrink)

Saying that x is ineffable seems to be paradoxical – either I cannot say anything about x, not even that it is ineffable – or I can say that it is ineffable, but then I can say something and it is not ineffable. In this article, I discuss Alston’s version of the paradox and a solution proposed by Hick which employs the concept of formal and substantial predicates. I reject Hick’s proposal and develop a different account based on some (...) passages from Pseudo-Dionysius’ Mystica Theologia. ‘God is ineffable’ is a metalinguistic statement concerning propositions about God: not all propositions about God are expressible in a human language. (shrink)

“I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately.” In order “to look again at the actual words of _Walden_, the main literary monument to the era’s eccentric etymological speculation” (Michael West), “deliberately” is the best place to start. This article aims to subject Walden’s most notable (instance of the) adverb to Thoreau’s hermeneutic methodology, “laboriously seeking [its] meaning” and minding the “perpetual suggestions and provocations” of etymology. In other words, it is an attempt to read the word (...) as deliberately as he, a Harvard-trained translator of the Classics and connoisseur of Enlightenment and Romantic philological theories, wrote it. This article focuses on wordplay stemming from the pseudo-etymological root “_liber_”—from freedom, through bark and leaves, to books. Throughout, the multi-layered ad-verb is shown to illustrate Thoreau’s idiosyncratic conception of ancient _askesis_. (shrink)

The concept of ideology is central to the understanding of the many political, economic, social, and cultural processes that have occurred in the last two centuries. And yet, what is the nature of the different ideologies remains a vague, open, and much disputed question. Many political, sociological, and ideological studies have been devoted to ideology. Very little, on the other hand, has been done from the philosophical field. And this despite the fact that there are undoubtedly many philosophical questions (...) related to ideology and its role in modern industrialized societies. Just a few examples of ideology-related philosophical questions suffice to prove the point: What objects do ideologies deal with? Are the ideologies testable? Are there true ideologies? Do they evolve? How are ideologies related to societies? Is the existence of ideologies inevitable in modern societies? What is the relation of ideology to science? Is science just another kind of ideology? Are we, as human beings, innately predisposed to believe in ideologies? Or, instead, ideologies proliferate through indoctrination and propaganda? Are ideologies necessarily harmful?...and much more. In this article I try to answer some of these questions from a philosophical point of view, taking a materialist approach. I begin by characterizing ideology as a complex, multi-layered concept. Then, I briefly discuss the material systems on which ideological movements operate, that is, societies and concrete human groups. I identify at least 11 different elements that seem to be present in most ideologies, and I compare these characteristics with those of contemporary science and technology. Although some superficial similarities can be identified, there are deep differences that make ideology completely different from science. The similarities, however, are stronger with technology. Ideologies continually evolve with technological advances, social changes, and even with mere fashion. The current fragmentation of ideologies caused by the widespread use of new technologies and social networks has given rise to new phenomena of ideological propagation which, in my opinion, are very dangerous, particularly for open societies. I discuss these processes, within the context of the nature vs nurture debate, along with the question of whether we can get rid of ideologies. (shrink)

La recherche dans le domaine de l'intelligence émotionnelle est « en dehors du compte scientifique » étant une continuation de « l'intelligence sociale » discréditée, se référant à trois aspects: il n'y a pas d'examen scientifique des mesures; la construction est enracinée dans le concept (discrédité) d '« intelligence sociale », et la recherche en intelligence émotionnelle est basée sur des modèles faibles, sans validité incrémentielle par rapport aux modèles traditionnels de personnalité et de comportement. L'intelligence émotionnelle a été (...) développée par des fournisseurs de tests commerciaux, sans données scientifiques critiques. Par ses fondements (pseudo)scientifiques naturels et sociaux, l'intelligence émotionnelle légitime une autorité irrésistible, plus difficile à rejeter comme une simple « rhétorique managériale ». DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25405.59367. (shrink)

Recent successes of systems biology clarified that biological functionality is multilevel. We point out that this fact makes it necessary to revise popular views about macromolecular functions and distinguish between local, physico-chemical and global, biological functions. Our analysis shows that physico-chemical functions are merely tools of biological functionality. This result sheds new light on the origin of cellular life, indicating that in evolutionary history, assignment of biological functions to cellular ingredients plays a crucial role. In this wider picture, even if (...) aggregation of chance mutations of replicator molecules and spontaneously self-assembled proteins led to the formation of a system identical with a living cell in all physical respects but devoid of biological functions, it would remain an inanimate physical system, a pseudo-cell or a zombie-cell but not a viable cell. In the origin of life scenarios, a fundamental circularity arises, since if cells are the minimal units of life, it is apparent that assignments of cellular functions require the presence of cells and vice versa. Resolution of this dilemma requires distinguishing between physico-chemical and biological symbols as well as between physico-chemical and biological information. Our analysis of the concepts of symbol, rule and code suggests that they all rely implicitly on biological laws or principles. We show that the problem is how to establish physico-chemically arbitrary rules assigning biological functions without the presence of living organisms. We propose a solution to that problem with the help of a generalized action principle and biological harnessing of quantum uncertainties. By our proposal, biology is an autonomous science having its own fundamental principle. The biological principle ought not to be regarded as an emergent phenomenon. It can guide chemical evolution towards the biological one, progressively assigning greater complexity and functionality to macromolecules and systems of macromolecules at all levels of organization. This solution explains some perplexing facts and posits a new context for thinking about the problems of the origin of life and mind. (shrink)

When faced with the charge that a given concept of God is contradictory, the standard move among philosophers and theologians has been to try to explain away the contradiction and show that the concept of God in question is consistent. This has to do, of course, with the Law of Non-Contradiction (LNC). Another option, which has recently generated interest among logicians and analytic philosophers of religion, is to reject such a move as unnecessary and defend what might be (...) called the contradictory God thesis. To be sure, something close to that can be found in philosophers such as Pseudo-Dionysius, Thomas Aquinas and Nicolaus de Cusa. However, it is only recently that this approach has gained momentum, certainly driven by the contemporary advance of dialetheism and glut theoretic approaches in general, and paraconsistent logic. Needless to say, a standard move among defenders of the contradictory God thesis is to reject the LNC. The argumentation, however, is seldomly framed in conceptual terms. Instead, it is mostly framed in ontological terms, as God being a contradictory entity. From this perspective, the contradictory God thesis is the thesis that God is a contradictory object. My goal in this paper is to provide a conceptual assessment of the discussion surrounding the contradictory God thesis. To achieve this, I make use of a general and hopefully non-controversial meta-theory of concepts and adopt a semantic approach rather than a metaphysical one. Within this framework, I address the following questions: What are the different ways we can understand the contradictory God thesis? What grounds are there for rejecting a contradictory concept of God? What standard moves are available to defend oneself from such criticisms and how do they relate to the LNC? What challenges do they present? As a secondary goal, the paper introduces a novel defense of the contradictory God thesis, drawing on a specific interpretation of the theology of the 16th-century Indian thinker Jīva Gosvāmī, which does not necessitate the rejection of the LNC. I term this approach ‘non-dialetheic mystical contradictory theism.’. (shrink)

Historically, secular humanism has been in conflict with religious thought in the academic and social spheres. This article supports the thesis that in modern times pseu-dosciences and pseudoscientific thinking are a threat to the humanist project, comparable to religious fundamen-talism. To prove it, the concept of Secular Humanism and how it is threatened by religious fundamentalism is explai-ned. This is followed by the definition of what pseudos-ciences are and what pseudoscientific thinking is. Subse-quently, the way how pseudosciences threaten the (...) secular humanist project is described. The conclusion states that pseudoscientific thought and religious fundamentalism are equally dangerous for social coexistence. (shrink)

In the first of the Insolubles in Chapter 8 of his Sophismata, Buridan contends that the inference Omnis propositio est affirmativa; ergo, nulla propositio est negativa (PS) is valid, even though it appeals to the self-reference in the conclusion to show that what we (following Read 2001) call the classical conception of validity (CCV) fails. This requires that we accept that there are good inferences in which a false conclusion follows from true premises. Partially following Hughes’ proposal (1982), we argue (...) that the First Sophism (PS) involves three different notions of validity. Two of them correspond to the ones described by Hughes (1982, 80–86), who calls them Theory A and Theory B. The third one—that will we call Theory C—is not mentioned by Hughes; instead, it is suggested by Buridan himself in the first three arguments in favor of the validity of PS. We show that: a) from what Buridan says in his Theory C it follows that PS is a formal and material consequence, and hence, a valid one. Then we show that: b) the rejection of CCV and the acceptance of Nulla propositio est negativa (NPN) as a (formal) consequence of Omnis propositio est affirmativa (OPA) leads to a paradox that bears similarities with the one put forward by Pseudo Scotus—which has been studied by Read (2001) and is related to Curry’s paradox. However, there are enough differences to merit considering this paradox separately, especially in relation to the so-called validity paradoxes. Interestingly, our work suggests that Buridan was aware of these problems, which explains why he introduced a new criterion for validity, one that is not based on truth-preservation but on what Spade (1988) calls firmness, and Klima (2016) correspondence. (shrink)

The concept of quantum information is introduced as both normed superposition of two orthogonal sub-spaces of the separable complex Hilbert space and in-variance of Hamilton and Lagrange representation of any mechanical system. The base is the isomorphism of the standard introduction and the representation of a qubit to a 3D unit ball, in which two points are chosen. The separable complex Hilbert space is considered as the free variable of quantum information and any point in it (a wave function (...) describing a state of a quantum system) as its value as the bound variable. A qubit is equivalent to the generalization of ‘bit’ from the set of two equally probable alternatives to an infinite set of alternatives. Then, that Hilbert space is considered as a generalization of Peano arithmetic where any unit is substituted by a qubit and thus the set of natural number is mappable within any qubit as the complex internal structure of the unit or a different state of it. Thus, any mathematical structure being reducible to set theory is re-presentable as a set of wave functions and a subspace of the separable complex Hilbert space, and it can be identified as the category of all categories for any functor represents an operator transforming a set (or subspace) of the separable complex Hilbert space into another. Thus, category theory is isomorphic to the Hilbert-space representation of set theory & Peano arithmetic as above. Given any value of quantum information, i.e. a point in the separable complex Hilbert space, it always admits two equally acceptable interpretations: the one is physical, the other is mathematical. The former is a wave function as the exhausted description of a certain state of a certain quantum system. The latter chooses a certain mathematical structure among a certain category. Thus there is no way to be distinguished a mathematical structure from a physical state for both are described exhaustedly as a value of quantum information. This statement in turn can be utilized to be defined quantum information by the identity of any mathematical structure to a physical state, and also vice versa. Further, that definition is equivalent to both standard definition as the normed superposition and in-variance of Hamilton and Lagrange interpretation of mechanical motion introduced in the beginning of the paper. Then, the concept of information symmetry can be involved as the symmetry between three elements or two pairs of elements: Lagrange representation and each counterpart of the pair of Hamilton representation. The sense and meaning of information symmetry may be visualized by a single (quantum) bit and its interpretation as both (privileged) reference frame and the symmetries of the Standard model. (shrink)

This essay is part of larger project in which I attempt to show that Western formal logic, from its inception in Aristotle onward, has both been partially constituted by, and partially constitutive of, what has become known as racism. More specifically, (a) racist/quasi-racist/proto-racist political forces were part of the impetus for logic’s attempt to classify the world into mutually exclusive, hierarchically-valued categories in the first place; and (b) these classifications, in turn, have been deployed throughout history to justify and empower (...) racism/quasi-racism/proto-racism. In other words, (a) an important part of the chaos and messiness that so troubles logic has been the natural bio-cultural diversity of human beings as described by concepts such as race and ethnicity; and (b) once these concepts were historically in place, taken for granted, buttressed with pseudo-science, and had their origins forgotten, they became tools for the oppression of diverse human groups. The central thesis of this essay is that close readings of a variety of Leibniz’s writings (including several essays and one letter) will reveal a pattern of mutual dependency and creation in regard to logic and racism in Leibniz. My conclusion will be that there is a meaningful connection between logic and racism (or at least between logic and politics in general) in Leibniz such that one should be skeptical of his logic’s claim to offer transparent and neutral descriptions of the world as well as imperatives for action. Put differently, I want to ask the following specific question: how do Leibniz’s own racially-informed political goals, along with the emergence of race-centric European colonialism, both invest and disguise themselves within Leibniz’s mathematizing of logic? (shrink)

A widespread view about early social functionalism is that its account of functional explanation was underpinned by an analogy between biological organisms and societies that suggested pseudo-explanations about the latter. I will challenge this view through a case study of the use G.W.F. Hegel made of the organismic analogy for the purpose of concept development in his theory of the state. My claim will be that the dismissal of this analogy is premature for two reasons. First, to claim (...) that the organismic analogy figured among the premises of an analogical argument and, thus, as explanans in an explanation misses its point. For Hegel made use of the analogy to model the apparent close cooperation among the parts of the state and, thus conceptualize its characteristic structure in terms of organization: the mutual dependence among distinct structures generated by the state as a whole. Second, the organizational view of social functions thus suggested by the organismic analogy has not obviously been made obsolete by evolutionary theory. Instead, reconsidering the organismic analogy in light of contemporary philosophy of biology puts an account of social functions that has fallen from view (and from grace) in the contemporary discussion back in focus: the organizational account. -/- . (shrink)

The psychiatric diagnostic system, as exemplified by the DSM, is a pseudo-scientific framework for diagnosing sick Cartesian isolated minds. As such, it completely overlooks the exquisite context sensitivity and radical context dependence of human emotional life and of all forms of emotional disturbance. In Descartes’s vision, the mind is a “thinking thing,” ontologically decontextualized, fundamentally separated from its world. Heidegger’s existential phenomenology mended this Cartesian subject-object split, unveiling our Being as always already contextualized, a Being-in-the-world. Here I offer a (...) critique of studies in “phenomenological psychopathology” that presuppose the validity of the psychiatric diagnostic system and leave it unchallenged. In this vein, I contend that all emotional disturbances are constituted in an indissoluble context of human interrelatedness. Specifically, I claim that all emotional disturbances, including those objectified by the DSM, take form in relational contexts of severe emotional trauma. There are no psychiatric entities, only devastating contexts. Additionally, I show that Heidegger’s analyses of Angst, world-collapse, uncanniness, and thrownness into Being-toward-death provide extraordinary philosophical tools for grasping the existential significance of such contexts of emotional trauma. Applying Heidegger’s concept of authenticity, I suggest that emotional health entails an ease of passage—i.e., an absence of dissociation—between the world of trauma and the world of everydayness. (shrink)

The present article focuses on the idea that divine nature is prior to being. This idea was first articulated in John of Scythopolis’s commentary on Pseudo-Dionysius. It was adopted by Maximus Confessor and re-used in Meister Eckhart’s first Quaestio Parisiensis. The main tenet of this idea is that, if God is the origin of being, he must be more fundamental than being. Thus, being cannot be identical to divine nature. The conclusion that can be drawn from the discussion of (...) this idea is that the importance that has been traditionally attached to the "Exodusmetaphysik" must be reconsidered, and that the pro-ontological conception of divine nature constitutes an autonomous tradition in Christian thought. (shrink)

This introduction presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in the subsequent chapters of this book. The book explores, inter alia, the strategy employed by Augustine in using Plato as a pseudo-prophet against later Platonists and explores Eusebius’ reception of Porphyry’s daemonology. It examines Plotinus’ claim that matter is absolute badness and focuses on Maximus the Confessor’s doctrine of creation and asks whether one may detect any influence on Maximus from Philoponus. The book addresses Christian receptions of Platonic (...) metaphysics and also examines the philosophy of number in Augustine’s early works. It argues that the aspect of Augustine’s philosophy must be read in context with the intellectual problems that occupied him at the beginning of his career as a writer. It draws on a number of sources to investigate the development of the doctrine and the various intellectual issues it confronted, including Plato’s Timaeus, Philo of Alexandria, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Plotinus and, finally, Athanasius. (shrink)

Popper's account of refutation is the linchpin of his famous view that the method of science is the method of conjecture and refutation. This thesis critically examines his account of refutation, and in particular the practice he deprecates as avoiding a refutation. I try to explain how he comes to hold the views that he does about these matters; how he seeks to make them plausible; how he has influenced others to accept his mistakes, and how some of the ideas (...) or responses to Popper of such people are thus similarly mistaken. I draw some distinctions necessary to the provision of an adequate account of the so-called practice of avoiding a refutation, and try to rid the debate about this practice of at least one red herring. I analyse one case of 'avoiding' a refutation in detail to show how the rationality of scientific practice eludes both Popper and many of his commentators. Popper's skepticism about contingent knowledge prevents him from providing an acceptable account of contingent refutation, and so his method is really the method of conjecture and conjecture. He cannot do without the concepts of knowledge and refutation, however, if his account of science is to be plausible or persuasive, and so he equivocates between, amongst other things, refutation as disproof and refutation as the weaker notion of discorroboration. I criticise David Stove's account of this matter, in particular to show how he misses this point. An additional advantage Popper would secure from this equivocation is that if refutations were mere discorroborations they would be easier to achieve, and hence more common in science, than is the case. On Popper's weak notion of refutation, it would be possible to refute true theories since corroboration does not entail truth. There are two other related doctrines Popper holds about refutation which, if accepted, make some refutations seem easier to obtain than is the case. I call these doctrines 'Strong Popperian Falsificationism' (SPF) and 'Weak Popperian Falsificationism' (WPF). SPF is the false doctrine that if a prediction from some theory is refuted then that theory is refuted. Popper does not always endorse SPF. In particular, when confronted with a counterexample to it, he retreats to WPF, which is the false doctrine that if a prediction from some theory is refuted then that theory is prima facie refuted. WPF , or even SPF, can seem plausible if one has in mind predictions derived from theories in strong or conclusive tests of those theories, which I suggest Popper characteristically does. v Popper is disposed to describe any such case of predictive failure which does not lead to the refutation of the theory concerned as one in which that refutation has been avoided. To reinforce his portrayal of the refutation, or the attempted refutation, of major scientific theories as the rational core of scientific practice, Popper treats the so-called practice of avoiding a refutation as untypical of science, and much so-called avoidance he dismisses as unscientific or pseudo-scientific. I argue that his notion of avoiding a refutation is incoherent. Popper is further driven to believe that such avoidance is possible, however, because he conflates sentences with propositions and propositions with propositional beliefs. Also, he wishes to avoid being saddled with the relativisim that is a consequence of his weak account of refutation as discorroboration. Popper believes that ad hoc hypotheses are the most important of the unscientific means of avoiding a refutation. I argue that his account of such hypotheses is also incoherent, and that several hypotheses thought to be ad hoc in his sense are not. Such hypotheses appear to be so largely because of Popper's use of rhetoric and partly because these hypotheses are unacceptable for other reasons. I conclude that to know that a hypothesis is ad hoc in Popper's sense does not illuminate scientific practice. Popper has also attempted to explicate ad hocness in terms of some undesirable, or allegedly undesirable, properties of hypotheses or the explanations they would provide. The first such property is circularity, which is undesirable; the second such property is reduction in empirical content, which is not. In the former case I argue that non-circularity is clearly preferable to non-ad hocness as a criterion for a satisfactory explanation or explanans, as the case may be, and in the latter case that Popper is barking up the wrong tree. Some cases of so-called avoidance are obviously not unscientific. The discovery of Neptune from a prediction based on the reasonable belief that there were residual perturbations in the motion of Uranus is an important case in point, and one that is much discussed in the literature. The manifest failure of astronomers to account for Uranus's motion did not lead to the refutation of Newton's law of gravitiation, yet significant scientific progress obviously did result. Retreating to WPF, Popper claims that Newton's law was prima facie refuted. In general, astronomers have never shared this view, and they are correct in not doing so. I argue that the law of gravitation would have been prima facie refuted only if there had been good reason at the time to believe as false what is true, namely, that an unknown trans-Uranian planet was the cause of those Uranian residuals. Knowledge of the trans-Uranian region was then so slight that it was merely a convenient assumption, one which there was little reason to believe was false, that the known influences on Uranus's motion were the only such influences. I conclude that in believing vi or supposing that it was this assumption that was false, rather than the law of gravitation, Leverrier and Adams, the co-predictors of Neptune, were acting rationally and intelligently. Popper's commentators offer a variety of accounts of the alleged practice of avoiding a refutation, and of this case in particular. I analyse a sample of their accounts to show how common is the acceptance of some of Popper's basic mistakes, even amongst those who claim to reject his falsificationism, and to display the effects on their accounts of this acceptance of his mistakes. Many commentators recognize that anomalies are typically dealt with by changes in the boundary conditions or in other of the auxiliary propositions employed. Where many still go wrong, however, is in retaining the presupposition of WPF which encouraged Popper to hold the contradictory view about anomalies in the first place. Thus Imre Lakatos and others, for example, have developed a 'siege mentality' about major scientific theories; they see them as under continual threat of refutation from anomalies, and so come to believe that dogmatism is essential in science if such theories are to survive as they do. I examine various such doomed attempts to reconcile Popper with the history of science. It is a common failure in this literature to conflate or to fail to see the need to distinguish a belief from a supposition, and an epistemic reason from a pragmatic reason. I argue that only if one does draw these distinctions can one give an adequate account of how anomalies are rationally dealt with in science. The other important strand in Popper's thinking about 'avoidance' of refutation which has seriously misled some of his commentators is his unfounded belief in the dangers of ad hoc hypotheses. I examine the accounts that a sample of such commentators provide of the trans-Uranian planet hypotheses of Leverrier and Adams. These commentators imply or assert what Popper only hints at, namely, that there is something fishy about this hypothesis. I provide a further defence of the rationality of entertaining this hypothesis at the time. I conclude with a few remarks about Popper's dilemma in respect of scientific practice and his long standing emphasis on refutations. (shrink)

This chapter examines modality in the history of analytic philosophy. There were, in this history, two principal types of reductionism or eliminativism about modality, and two corresponding phases in the rejection of anti-modal stances. First, the founders of analytic philosophy, Frege, Moore, and Russell, took necessity and possibility to be reducible to more fundamental logical notions, where logic for these thinkers consists of truths about a mind- and language-independent reality extending beyond the empirical world. Against this reductionism, C. I. Lewis (...) and Wittgenstein argued that logic itself requires modal notions. Second, Carnap advanced a pragmatically motivated account of modal terms as expressing pseudo-object properties, which appear to be properties of objects but can be construed as properties of their designations. Quine criticized this account and proposed a thoroughgoing elimination of modality. Quine’s well-known claim that quantifying into modal contexts is unintelligible without resorting to essentialism cannot be fully understood independently of Carnap’s notion of pseudo-object property. Against Quine, Ruth Marcus and Saul Kripke argued for the coherence of modal concepts and their entrenchment in ordinary language and thought, leading to the now dominant view that modal properties are mind- and language-independent features of the world. (shrink)

Proposition are the material of our reasoning. Proposition are the basic building blocks of the world/thought. Proposition have intense relation with the world. World is a series of atomic facts and these facts are valued by the proposition although sentences explain the world of reality but can’t have any truth values, only proposition have truth values to describe the world in terms of assertions. Propositions are truth value bearers, the only quality of proposition is truth & falsity, that they are (...) either true or false. Proposition mirrors the world and explains how world is arranged in an orderly manner. It scans the world(object) and are composed of atomic facts experienced and can be analyzed into propositions. Propositions are the basic units of logic. The truth (affirm) and falsity (nego) are the qualities of the propositions and universality (generality) and Particularity are the quantities of the propositions. There are propositions which are neither true nor false, they are called Pseudo-Propositions and their quality are ipso-facto i.e meaningless. Propositions are used in computers with the modifications brought by the modern logicians in the form of statements or logical sentences. The truth table of the logical gates and binary operations (1,s or 0,s are due to the revolution of the modern logic or mathematical logic. It is a fact that proposition cannot change the word but it shows the relation between the object and of the word. Objectives: The objectives of this research is to explore the importance and need of propositions in logic. It also shows the analysis of propositions and how a philosopher thoughts in terms of propositions or concepts. In this research problem it is shown that propositions had been described in many ways by most of the philosophers and logicians from Aristotle to contemporary philosophers. It also analysis the contribution of the philosophers towards proposition and its relation to the world of reality. This research also describes the definition and nature of proposition. (shrink)

En temps normal, les contrefactuels sont conçus comme produisant des énoncés portant sur des états de choses, mais des états de choses se trouvant dans des mondes simplement possibles ou alternes. Analysés ainsi, il s’avère que presque tous les contrefactuels sont incohérents. Tout contrefactuel analysé de la sorte exige qu’il y ait un monde métaphysiquement (et pas épistémiquement seulement) possible w où les lois sont les mêmes qu’ici, et où la quasi-totalité des faits sont les mêmes qu’ici. (Les différences factuelles (...) sont liées à l’antécédent et au conséquent du contrefactuel.) Mais comme je vais le montrer, cette exigence implique de manière typique la postulation de mondes dont on peut démontrer la nécessaire non-existence au moyen de déductions assez élémentaires. De plus, l’analyse des contrefactuels en termes de mondes possibles est coupable de circularité cachée. Analysés ainsi, les contrefactuels ne peuvent effectivement être compris qu’en termes de lois de la nature (les lois qui s’appliquent ici sont présupposées dans le monde hypothétique — excepté dans le cas atypique où le contrefactuel est également un contre-nomique). Mais il y a un argument répandu voulant que le concept de loi ne puisse pas être défini lui-même, sinon dans les termes de la notion de contrefactuel (une loi est, entre autres, quelque chose qui vient à l’appui des contrefactuels). Je donnerai une analyse purement épistémique des contrefactuels, déclarant que ce sont des propositions pseudo-probabilistes. Je déclarerai également que le type de probabilité en question peut être défini intégralement en termes de ce qui a été le cas (non pas de ce qui aurait été le cas, ni même de ce qui doit être le cas en un sens nomique.) Mon analyse n’est donc coupable d’aucune sorte de circularité. (shrink)

Logic is about reasoning, or so the story goes. This thesis looks at the concept of logic, what it is, and what claims of correctness of logics amount to. The concept of logic is not a settled matter, and has not been throughout the history of it as a notion. Tools from conceptual analysis aid in this historical venture. Once the unsettledness of logic is established we see the repercussions in current debates in the philosophy of logic. Much (...) of the battle over the ‘one true logic’ is conceptually talking past each other. The theory of logics-as-formalizations is presented as a conceptually open theory of logic which is Carnapian in flavour and grounding. Rudolf Carnap’s notions surrounding ‘external’ and ‘pseudo-questions’ about linguistic frameworks apply to formalizations, thus logics, as well. An account of what formalizations are, a more structured sub-set of modelling, is given to ground the claim that logics are formalizations. Finally, a novel account of correctness, the COFE framework, is developed which allows the notions of logical monism, pluralism and nihilism to be more precisely formulated than they currently are in the discourse. (shrink)

In the brain the relations between free neurons and the conditioned ones establish the constraints for the informational neural processes. These constraints reflect the systemenvironment state, i.e. the dynamics of homeocognitive activities. The constraints allow us to define the cost function in the phase space of free neurons so as to trace the trajectories of the possible configurations at minimal cost while respecting the constraints imposed. Since the space of the free states is a manifold or a non orthogonal space, (...) the minimum distance is not a straight line but a geodesic. The minimum condition is expressed by a set of ordinary differential equation ( ODE ) that in general are not linear. In the brain there is not an algorithm or a physical field that regulates the computation, then we must consider an emergent process coming out of the neural collective behavior triggered by synaptic variability. We define the neural computation as the study of the classes of trajectories on a manifold geometry defined under suitable constraints. The cost function supervises pseudo equilibrium thermodynamics effects that manage the computational activities from beginning to end and realizes an optimal control through constraints and geodetics. The task of this work is to establish a connection between the geometry of neural computation and cost functions. To illustrate the essential mathematical aspects we will use as toy model a Network Resistor with Adaptive Memory (Memristors).The information geometry here defined is an analog computation, therefore it does not suffer the limits of the Turing computation and it seems to respond to the demand for a greater biological plausibility. The model of brain optimal control proposed here can be a good foundation for implementing the concept of "intentionality",according to the suggestion of W. Freeman. Indeed, the geodesic in the brain states can produce suitable behavior to realize wanted functions and invariants as neural expressionsof cognitive intentions. (shrink)

Many philosophers and scientists claim that there is a ‘hard problem of consciousness’, that qualia, phenomenology, or subjective experience cannot be fully understood with reductive methods of neuroscience and psychology, and that there is a fact of the matter as to ‘what it is like’ to be conscious and which entities are conscious (Chalmers, 1995). Eliminativism and related views such as illusionism argue against this; they claim that consciousness does not exist in the ways implied by everyday or scholarly language. (...) However, this debate has largely consisted of each side jousting analogies and intuitions against the other. Both sides remain unconvinced. To break through this impasse, I present _consciousness semanticism_, a novel eliminativist theory that sidesteps analogy and intuition. Instead, it is based on a direct, formal argument drawing from the tension between the vague semantics in definitions of consciousness such as ‘what it is like’ to be an entity (Nagel, 1975) and the precise meaning implied by questions such as, ‘Is this entity conscious?’ I argue that semanticism naturally extends to erode realist notions of other philosophical concepts, such as morality and free will. Formal argumentation from precise semantics exposes these as pseudo-problems and removes their apparent mysteriousness and intractability. (shrink)

The article presents the grounds for defining the fetish of artificial intelligence (AI). The fundamental differences of AI from all previous technological innovations are highlighted, as primarily related to the introduction into the human cognitive sphere and fundamentally new uncontrolled consequences for society. Convincing arguments are presented that the leaders of the globalist project are the main beneficiaries of the AI fetish. This is clearly manifested in the works of philosophers close to big technology corporations and their mega-projects. It is (...) proposed to consider the problem of how to use the capabilities of AI to overcome the growing international conflicts and the global crisis in general. The focus is on the problem of subjectness, the solution of which from the standpoint of an anthropomorphic approach to AI is fraught with serious negative consequences. When endowing AI with subjectness, responsibility is implicitly removed from the person who uses this technology, and the established legislative practice is also destroyed. The presentation of AI as an agent endowed with a set of invariant simplified qualities that natural subjects have is proposed. These qualities include: the ability to purposefulness, a kind of reflexivity, communication and simplified elements of sociality. Such a representation of AI as an agent (pseudo-subject) is consistent with the principle of distributed control in biology and psychology, which was called the principle of a dual subject. In combination with the systems of principles and ontologies specified in the concept of post-nonclassical cybernetics of self-developing environments, this will allow the use of AI as a means of social innovation, while maintaining control over AI technologies. And also to pose and solve the problem of integrating the formations of artificial and natural intelligence while maintaining the basic qualities of carriers of natural intelligence. (shrink)

COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS ANIMAIS OBJETIVO O estudante explicará a conduta sexual de fêmeas e machos de diferentes espécies domésticas para detectar a fase de receptividade sexual, com a finalidade de programar de maneira adequada a monta ou a inseminação artificial. A observação da conduta sexual dos animais é indispensável para o sucesso da estação reprodutiva em uma determinada propriedade. Logo, o estudante obterá o alicerce necessário sobre os pontos teóricos e práticos a serem observados para a seleção dos animais aptos (...) para a reprodução, além dos meios de identificação comportamental dos animais no que se refere a atividade cíclica das fêmeas. • _____INTRODUÇÃO O comportamento sexual característico de fêmeas e machos devem-se, por um lado, ao ambiente endócrino do organismo e, por outro, a uma influência da aprendizagem obtida ao longo da vida. Este comportamento é indispensável para alcançar a cópula em um momento apropriado, a fim de alcançar uma fertilização que culmina com a gestação. Conhecer as características do comportamento reprodutivo das diferentes espécies domésticas é de grande utilidade para poder determinar o momento ideal de serviço nas fêmeas, bem como para avaliar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos; também serve para detectar algumas alterações que modificam o comportamento sexual normal. No caso das fêmeas, o comportamento sexual distintivo está limitado ao estágio do ciclo estral conhecido como estro, enquanto nos machos, a atividade reprodutiva pode acontecer a qualquer momento. Nas fêmeas e nos machos das espécies sazonais, o comportamento sexual é suprimido ou diminuído, respectivamente, durante as épocas de anestro. Existem espécies em que certas mudanças observáveis no comportamento ou na genitália são suficientes para identificar as fêmeas no cio. Outras espécies, entretanto, requerem necessariamente a presença do macho para poder expressar seu comportamento estral e somente quando ele estiver presente será possível estabelecer o momento em que a fêmea está em estro. Em determinadas propriedades, o macho reprodutor somente é utilizado para cobrir as fêmeas em cio; o trabalho de detecção das fêmeas que pode ser desgastante para o reprodutor é realizado por um outro macho conhecido como rufião. Esse animal não cobre as fêmeas, apenas é utilizado para a observação de fêmeas aptas à monta. É comum que, quando se fala em comportamento sexual, seja dada mais importância à fêmea do que ao macho, pois seu comportamento é aquele que se limita a períodos curtos, além de ser aquele que permitirá a cópula; mas os machos também têm uma participação muito ativa, pois além de atrair e detectar as fêmeas no cio, devem ser capazes de realizar a cópula com sucesso. Através da conduta sexual dos machos é observada sua eficiência reprodutiva, isto é, se ele possui a capacidade de detecção e cobrição padrão esperada de um reprodutor. Se as observações forem negativas, o ideal é a realização de um exame andrológico. • _____ETAPAS DO COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL O comportamento sexual feminino possui três finalidades: atrair o macho (atração) por meio de sinais e da busca ativa do mesmo, estimular o macho para realizar a cópula (proceptividade), ao qual alcançam exibindo-se ante o mesmo, e facilitar a cópula (receptividade) ao permanecer imóvel, realizando a lordose (figura 1) e o movimento lateral da cauda. Figura 1: reflexo de lordose na vaca e na gata, ambas em cio. Os machos também apresentam três estágios comportamentais; na primeira, procuram ativamente as fêmeas, realizam atividades de cortejo, se aproximam da fêmea e se estimulam sexualmente (fase pré-copulatória) (figura 2). Assim que detectam uma fêmea no cio, realizam a monta, que inclui movimentos pélvicos, penetração e ejaculação (fase copulatória). No final, eles exibem um estágio de descanso e desinteresse pela fêmea no cio, conhecido como estágio pós-copulador ou refratário. Figura 2: comportamento sexual de um macho caprino ante uma fêmea. A etapa pré-copulatória consiste na aproximação do macho, no ato de fugar que é o de cheirar a vulva da fêmea. Quando a fêmea urina o macho cheira e produz o reflexo de flehmen. Por último o macho escoiceia a fêmea para depois realizar a monta na etapa copulatória. • _____ESTIMULAÇÃO SEXUAL A estimulação sexual é um componente essencial para que o comportamento sexual ocorra. Como parte desse estímulo, machos e fêmeas de algumas espécies secretam substâncias voláteis conhecidas como feromônios fora do corpo, que exercem sua ação sobre outros indivíduos da mesma espécie. Essas substâncias são detectadas pelo órgão vomeronasal (figura 3), também conhecido como órgão de Jacobson; localizado no osso vômer, entre o nariz e o céu da boca; que possui dois dutos nasopalatinos cujas aberturas estão localizadas atrás do lábio superior. A superfície desses dutos e do órgão é recoberta por um epitélio com neurônios bipolares sensoriais que captam feromônios e enviam informações, por meio de um estímulo nervoso, ao bulbo olfatório acessório e para o hipotálamo. Para facilitar a entrada de feromônios no órgão vomeronasal, os ruminantes machos e equinos, bem como algumas fêmeas, realizam o reflexo de Flehmen (figura 4), que consiste em um movimento facial em que o lábio superior é levantado para expor a abertura dos dutos nasopalatinos. Determinou-se que as fêmeas produzem feromônios que são secretados na urina, bem como no muco cervical e vaginal, a fim de atrair o macho e promover sua atividade sexual; estimulação conhecida como efeito feminino indireto. Esses feromônios também podem estimular outras fêmeas; na verdade, foi visto que as fêmeas que estão juntas sincronizam a apresentação de seu estro e podem até iniciar a estação reprodutiva juntas. Este fenômeno é conhecido como efeito feminino-feminino ou efeito feminino direto. Figura 3: olfateio da genitália pelo macho. Aqui o macho é atraído pelo feromônio que a fêmea produz e exala pela vagina. Figura 4: movimento do lábio superior típico do reflexo de Flehmen. Os machos sexualmente ativos, por sua vez, também emitem feromônios, que podem ser detectados na urina, na secreção de algumas glândulas sebáceas, nas glândulas ante-orbitais de carneiros e, no caso de porcos, na saliva (figura 5). Essas emissões são dependentes de andrógenos, logo os machos castrados não conseguem produzi-las. Esses feromônios, sinergicamente com as vocalizações e o comportamento do macho, exercem um efeito bioestimulante eficiente conhecido como efeito macho, que é uma alternativa ecológica e econômica para a manipulação do ciclo estral de fêmeas domésticas. O efeito macho tem sido usado com sucesso para esse fim em ovinos, caprinos, suínos e, em menor medida, em bovinos. Figura 5: salivação em reprodutores suínos, com o qual estimulam as fêmeas. Com o efeito macho, é possível causar um aumento na frequência de secreção dos pulsos de LH, o que acelera o início da atividade reprodutiva nas fêmeas durante os períodos pré-púbere, estacional ou pós-parto; também prolonga a estação reprodutiva em fêmeas sazonais. Há não mais de uma década, considerava-se que esse efeito só funcionava em tempos de transição para a estação reprodutiva ou para o anestro; agora sabemos que os machos podem estimular as fêmeas mesmo durante anestro profundo, que ocorre desde que sejam estimulados e exibam comportamento sexual suficiente para interagir com as fêmeas. É importante notar que quando as fêmeas iniciam sua atividade reprodutiva, o efeito macho também pode ser usado para sincronizar a apresentação do cio e da ovulação. O efeito macho é mais eficiente quando é um estímulo novo, pois a introdução de um macho desconhecido, ou com o qual as fêmeas não tiveram contato anterior, é suficiente para causar ciclidade independentemente de estarem em coexistência com outro macho; este detalhe é importante visto que se considerava anteriormente que as fêmeas tiveram que permanecer completamente isoladas de todos os machos por, pelo menos, duas semanas. Foi constatado, inclusive, que toda vez que as fêmeas são expostas a um novo macho, ocorre um aumento na frequência dos pulsos de LH, com a consequente ovulação, ainda que a exposição ao macho não seja permanente ou constante. Foi sugerido que a presença intermitente de machos, algumas horas a cada 12 horas, é suficiente para estimular as fêmeas. Em ovelhas, foi descrito que a ovulação ocorre entre 50 e 56 h após o primeiro contato com o macho, variando de 30 a 72 h, tempo que pode dobrar quando se trata de animais pré-púberes. • _____DEFINIÇÃO DE ESTRO A palavra estro vem do grego oistros, que significa exaltação ou desejo desenfreado e se refere ao comportamento errático e nervoso que as vacas adotam quando são picadas pela mutuca ou mosca do estábulo (família Oestridae). O estro é uma fase reprodutiva que faz parte do ciclo estral das fêmeas de todos os mamíferos domésticos. É a fase mais fácil de reconhecer dentro deste ciclo, porque mudanças características são observadas no comportamento, nos ovários e nos órgãos genitais internos e externos. • _____CARACTERÍSTICAS DO ESTRO O estro é considerado a partir das características comportamentais das fêmeas, é a única fase do ciclo estral em que a fêmea mostra interesse pelo macho, aceitando o acasalamento e a cópula; por isso é definido como o período de receptividade sexual. O sinônimo utilizado com mais frequência é o cio. Se o foco de estudo dessa fase são as alterações que ocorrem no útero, o estro caracteriza a fase proliferativa, já que os estrogênios estão elevados, o que promove a proliferação tanto do endométrio quanto das glândulas endometriais. Nos genitais também ocorrem modificações que visam atrair o macho e favorecer a cópula, entre outras estão a hiperemia e o edema vulvar, além da secreção de muco cervical e vaginal (figura 6). Do ponto de vista dos processos ovarianos, o estro é uma fase que se classifica dentro da fase folicular do ciclo estral, ou seja, quando ocorre o desenvolvimento folicular. Os eventos endócrinos correspondentes podem ser consultados no trabalho sobre a endocrinologia reprodutiva . É necessário ressaltar que na maioria das espécies domésticas o comportamento estral ocorre quando as concentrações de estradiol são elevadas. A exceção pode ser observada na cadela, cujos níveis máximos de estradiol ocorrem durante o proestro, de forma que, quando o estro começa, as concentrações desse hormônio começam a diminuir. Esse declínio continua durante o estro, culminando quando as concentrações de estradiol caem para menos de 15 pg/ml. Isso acontece porque nessa espécie o pico de LH ocorre durante a transição do proestro para o estro, de modo que as concentrações de progesterona chegam a cerca de 1 ng/ml quando o comportamento estral começa e continuam a aumentar durante o estro. Figura 6: muco cristalino e fluido, característico de vacas em estro. • _____FATORES QUE PODEM AFETAR A MANIFESTAÇÃO DO ESTRO É importante lembrar que existem diferenças no grau e na forma em que ocorrem a manifestação e a duração do estro nas espécies animais, além da existência de variações individuais. Ainda temos parâmetros médios que podem ser usados para descrever este período em diferentes espécies. Em bovinos, por exemplo, pode-se fazer uma distinção entre bovinos especializados na produção de carne e bovinos leiteiros, onde a intensidade com que o estro se manifesta é menor no primeiro grupo, principalmente quando se trata de bovinos zebuínos. Em estudos genéticos realizados com bovinos, por outro lado, tem-se considerado que a intensidade da expressão da conduta sexual é uma característica hereditária (h2 = 0,21). Além disso, existe uma grande diversidade de fatores ambientais e sociais que podem modificar a apresentação dos ciclos estrais e a manifestação do comportamento estral. Fotoperíodo O principal regulador da estacionalidade reprodutiva é o fotoperíodo. A influência da mudança das horas do dia na atividade reprodutiva e, portanto, na apresentação do estro é amplamente determinada pela localização geográfica, e é maior à medida que a distância do equador aumenta. O fotoperíodo afeta principalmente as espécies que apresentam estro apenas em uma época do ano, conhecidas como poliéstricas sazonais. Nessas espécies, o fotoperíodo também pode modificar o tempo de início da puberdade. Nutrição Uma deficiência nutricional pode encurtar a estação de acasalamento e até mesmo suspendê-la se a desnutrição for severa. Em bovinos de corte, o reinício da atividade reprodutiva pós-parto ou puberdade também pode ser retardado quando a ingestão nutricional é inadequada. Aspectos sociais A superlotação pode atrasar o início da puberdade em animais jovens ou causar a ausência de ciclos estrais em adultos. Os efeitos fêmea e macho como estimulantes da ciclicidade também devem ser levados em consideração. Hierarquia Observado em cães cujas matilhas têm uma classificação hierárquica bem estabe-lecida, na qual os machos subordinados não têm permissão para acasalar com as fêmeas dominantes. Este comportamento é observado até mesmo em cães domésticos nos quais uma cadela dominante não permite ser montada facilmente, mesmo apresentando estro. Da mesma forma, em bovinos zebuínos, as vacas dominantes não aceitam que outras fêmeas as montem o que pode dificultar a detecção de estro a campo. Tipo de alojamento Quanto mais intensa a acomodação, menor a manifestação do comportamento sexual, pois há menos espaço para os animais interagirem entre si. É menos frequente observar as manifestações de estro se o local onde os animais estão alojados for muito grande e eles tiverem que caminhar grandes extensões para encontrar um animal com o qual possam se relacionar. Problemas nos membros Existem anomalias, principalmente nos membros posteriores, que impedem a fêmea de ter comportamento homossexual ou de aceitar a monta, pois causa dor tanto ao montar quanto ao ser montada. •_DURAÇÃO DO ESTRO E A RELAÇÃO COM O MOMENTO DA OVULAÇÃO Foi estabelecido que o pico de LH pode ser um bom preditor do tempo de ovulação, pois há uma alta correlação entre o tempo decorrido do pico de LH e a ovulação. Na Tabela 1 pode-se ver os períodos de duração do estro e o tempo em que o pico de LH e a ovulação ocorrem nas diferentes espécies domésticas. Tabela 1: momento de ovulação em diferentes espécies domésticas e a relação com o pico de LH. Espécie Duração do estro Ovulação Pico de LH até a ovulação (horas) Bovina 18 h (8 a 18 h) 10 h (4 a 16 h) de finalizado o estro 28 (24 a 32) Ovina 24 a 36 h 18 a 24 h após iniciado o estro 24 a 26 Caprina 36 h (24 a 48 h) 30 a 35 h após o início do estro 28 Suína 48 a 72 h 24 a 48 h após o início do estro 40 Equina 7 d (2 a 12 d) 1 a 2 d antes de finalizar o estro -- Canina 9 d (3 a 20 d) 2 a 3 d do início do estro (pode variar) 48 a 60 Felina 7 d (3 a 16 d) Induzida pela cópula 26 a 28 h depois 24 Onde d = dias; h = horas. Vale ressaltar que em equinos o aumento nas concentrações de LH ocorre gradati-vamente; um pico pré-ovulatório agudo não é visto como no resto da espécie, uma vez que o nível máximo desse hormônio é atingido um a dois dias após a ovulação. No entanto, deve-se entender que, no momento da ovulação, as concentrações de LH são altas o suficiente para desencadear a ovulação, como em qualquer outra espécie. A gata também apresenta uma particularidade no que diz respeito à ovulação, já que é um evento induzido pela cópula que estimula a liberação de LH, duas a quatro horas depois. No entanto, foi relatado que, às vezes, o pico de LH de uma única cópula pode ser insuficiente para induzir um nível adequado de LH, causando ovulação apenas em aproximadamente 50% das fêmeas. Por outro lado, verificou-se que entre 30 e 40% das fêmeas podem ovular espontaneamente. Além dos felinos, outras espécies com ovulação induzida são os leporídeos (por exemplo, o coelho e a lebre), os camelídeos (por exemplo a lhama, a alpaca, a vicunha e a camelo fêmea) e os mustelídeos (por exemplo, o visom, o furão e o arminho). • _____MECANISMOS PARA ATRAIR O MACHO Os mecanismos femininos de atração do macho podem ser divididos em dois tipos, de um lado, alterações na genitália externa, que por sua vez são consequência de processos endócrinos e modificações na genitália interna. Por outro lado, mudanças de comportamento, que por sua vez se dividem em dois tipos: cortejo e acasalamento. Mudanças nas genitais É importante observar que nas fêmeas todas as adaptações genitais são mediadas por altas concentrações de estrogênios, entretanto, é interessante notar que os efeitos podem variar de uma espécie para outra. Um padrão típico é o útero ficar túrgido, uma vez que os estrogênios promovem a contração muscular, aumento do suprimento sanguíneo e proliferação das glândulas endometriais; em éguas, ao contrário, os estrogênios fazem com que o útero fique edemaciado e sem tonalidade, enquanto o colo do útero parece relaxado, observações que devem ser consideradas ao realizar a palpação retal e a ultrassonografia. A imagem ultrassonográfica do útero da égua tem a aparência de uma “roda de vagão” (figura 7). Em carnívoros, o útero também apresenta edema durante o estro. Figura 7: imagem de ultrassom de um corte transversal do útero de uma égua em estro; observa-se edema grau 3, que provoca a típica imagem de “roda de carroça”. Fonte: HV-UFRPE. Outro efeito promovido pelos estrogênios é a produção de um muco cervical cristalino com certa viscosidade, que, mesmo quando ocorre em todos os animais, é mais abundante e característico nas vacas e, posteriormente, nas porcas (figura 6). O muco tem por finalidade favorecer a passagem dos espermatozoides para o útero, bem como reter aqueles que não são viáveis para que sejam fagocitados ou eliminados junto com as secreções vaginais. A secreção da cérvix é composta por glicoproteínas; dois tipos principais são reconhecidos: a sialomucina, que faz parte de um muco viscoso produzido nas áreas basais das criptas cervicais, e a sulfomucina, que é um muco altamente viscoso, um produto das células apicais. No caso da cadela, uma secreção com sangue pode ocorrer através da vulva (figura 8), isso se deve a uma diapedese causada por alta permeabilidade vascular em resposta aos estrogênios. A maioria das fêmeas apresentam esse corrimento durante o proestro e cerca de 70% continuarão com ele durante o estro. Uma proporção muito pequena de cadelas pode até continuar a ter secreção serossanguínea durante o início do diestro. Deve-se considerar que, quando a ausência de sangramento é relatada em cadelas, na verdade, pode ser devido à falta de observação, uma vez que pode ser escasso, ou passar despercebido se a mesma lamber com frequência, se a cor do pelo for escura ou possuir pelos muito longos, ou se for em grandes áreas onde a secreção é difícil de observar. Figura 8: aparência vulvar em cadelas. Esquerda: edema e hiperemia. À direita: secreção vulvar com sangue. O grau de hiperemia e edema vulvar varia nas diferentes espécies, sendo muito evidente nas porcas (figura 9). Em contraste, as gatas não têm receptores de estradiol nos lábios vulvares, razão pela qual não manifestam edema vulvar ou hiperemia. O inchaço acentuado e o alargamento da vulva na cadela são característicos da fase de proestro, devido às peculiaridades hormonais do seu ciclo. Na tabela 2 são mostradas as alterações mais comuns que ocorrem na genitália das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Figura 9: aparência vulvar em porcas. Esquerda: vulva normal. À direita: hiperemia e edema típicos da fase de estro. Tabela 2: Mudanças características na genitália interna e externa, que ocorrem durante o estro em diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Genitais externos Genitais internos Bovina Secreção abundante de muco cristalino. Pouco edema vulvar aparente e hiperemia. Turgor uterino Ovina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Caprina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Suína Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Hiperemia e edema vulvar muito aparente. Turgor uterino Equina Edema vulvar; as dobras dos lábios são frouxas. Vulva hiperêmica e com muco. Útero flácido e edematoso. Colo do útero macio e relaxado Canina Pode haver secreção com sangue. Edema vulvar muito aparente, lábios mais macios e alongados. Útero edematoso Felina Não há sinais evidentes. Turgor uterino Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Mudanças comportamentais Foi demonstrado que o comportamento sexual nas fêmeas é determinado pela secreção de estrogênios, principalmente 17β-estradiol, que percorre a corrente sanguínea como um sinal humoral e atinge o sistema nervoso central ao nível do hipotálamo, que possui um grupo de células entre o quiasma óptico e a região pré-óptica anterior, denominado centro sexual. Esses neurônios são responsáveis por transformar o estímulo humoral em um estímulo nervoso, que por sua vez induz o comportamento sexual. Em espécies como ovinos, e em menor grau os bovinos, observou-se que para a manifestação do comportamento estral ocorrer, o cérebro requer uma exposição prévia à progesterona que o sensibiliza para a ação dos estrogênios, que se dá pelas concentrações do ciclo anterior. Por isso, constatou-se que a primeira ovulação da estação reprodutiva ou puberdade (no caso dos bovinos a primeira ovulação pós-parto) ocorre sem manifestação de estro. É até a segunda ovulação que o comportamento normal do estro será observado. Esta condição é conhecida como ovulação silenciosa ou estro silencioso, e é indetectável para o trabalhador, o produtor e o veterinário, e que possui como principal causa os distúrbios nutricionais. Devido nas fêmeas o comportamento sexual se limitar a um curto período de horas ou dias, enquanto nos machos há poucas variações em seu comportamento sexual, aparentemente é ela quem inicia o comportamento de cortejo. Aparentemente, isso se deve ao fato de que, nos machos, o padrão de secreção de testosterona é constante e mostra apenas leves diminuições fora da estação reprodutiva em espécies sazonais. Nos machos, a testosterona é transformada no cérebro em estradiol para produzir o comportamento reprodutivo. Durante a fase de estro ocorrem manifestações comportamentais comuns a todas as espécies, como as seguintes:  Aumento geral da atividade física, isso se reflete no aumento da locomoção e que é direcionado à busca do macho;  Inquietação e movimento ao menor estímulo;  Ingestão diminuída;  Diminuição da produção de leite;  Aumento gradual da temperatura corporal;  Micção frequente na presença do macho: isso é importante, pois os feromônios responsáveis pela atração do macho estão presentes na urina;  Vocalizações frequentes, típicas de cada espécie;  Atração do macho. Na tabela 3 são apresentadas as características comportamentais mais comuns das fêmeas das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Tabela 3: Comportamentos característicos durante o estro em diferentes espécies Espécie Conduta Bovina Monta entre fêmeas (conduta homossexual). Batidas antes da monta (figura 10). Aumento nas vocalizações. Ovina Movimentação da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Caprina Movimento característico da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Suína Grunhido característico (grunhido de estro). Falsas lutas. Pode haver pequena conduta homossexual. Orelhas eretas e projetadas para trás. Equina Diminuição da agressividade com o macho. Sem conduta homossexual. Mostra a área genital ante o macho e everte o clitóris. Espelhamento: contrações rítmicas dos lábios vulvares. Canina Reflexos contráteis na vulva e levantamento da cauda, inclinando-se para o lado, na presença do macho. Lambidas frequentes da região vulvar. Felina Inquietação. Chafurdamento. Miados característicos. Esfrega-se contra os objetos. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. O comportamento homossexual em fêmeas foi extensivamente estudado em bovinos (figura 10), por ser um dos sinais mais evidentes e importantes da manifestação do estro; ocorre em cerca de 70% dos animais e sua expressão é altamente influenciada pela hierarquia social do rebanho. Deve-se levar em consideração que os animais que estão em estro precisam interagir uns com os outros para expressar esse comportamento, sendo observada maior atividade quando há cerca de 20 fêmeas em estro. Sabe-se também que o tipo de instalações é imprescindível para a manifestação do comportamento homossexual, visto que os animais encontrados nos piquetes montam mais do que os alojados em instalações intensivas, isto fica ainda mais evidente quando o piso destas últimas é escorregadio. As montas entre fêmeas são observadas com maior frequência à noite, ocorrendo cerca de 70% das montas entre as sete da noite e as sete da manhã, o que se explica pelo fato de que durante estas horas os animais não são submetidos a nenhum manejo rotineiro, como ordenha, alimentação ou limpeza das instalações, além disso, acredita-se que os animais preferem montar nos períodos mais frios do dia, principal-mente em criações tropicais. Em bovinos de corte, sugere-se que tanto a fêmea que monta quanto a que é montada estejam em cio; ao contrário do gado leiteiro, em que se considera que o animal que monta está perto do cio, enquanto o que é montado está em cio. Figura 10: comportamento sexual em bovinos. À esquerda: batendo. À direita: comportamento homossexual. No caso de cadelas, deve-se levar em consideração que o comportamento homossexual está associado à hierarquia e dominância, mas não à manifestação do comportamento estral. Além disso, algumas fêmeas muito dominantes não permanecem imóveis na frente do macho, nem permitem que ele a monte, mesmo quando estão em estro. Na égua, uma característica do cio é o espelhamento, que consiste na abertura e fechamento dos lábios vulvares de forma rítmica, geralmente acompanhada pela eversão do clitóris (figura 11). Este último sempre ocorre durante a micção, mas neste caso a fêmea o faz na presença do macho, mesmo quando ela não está urinando. Uma vez que a fêmea no cio está na frente de um macho, ela exibe um comportamento receptivo; a atitude da fêmea é passiva e se caracteriza em todas as espécies pela imobilidade diante da monta do macho, considerada o sinal definitivo do estro. Em geral, a fêmea também adota uma postura diferenciada conhecida como lordose, pois arqueia as costas para baixo, ao mesmo tempo em que levanta a cauda e inclina-a, levantando também os lábios vulvares para promover a cópula. A descrição acima é muito típica dos ruminantes, da cadela e da gata. Na égua, ao contrário, a posição anterior à cópula implica em curvar a coluna para cima (cifose) e baixar a garupa ou inclinar a pelve. • ____COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS MACHOS O comportamento sexual do macho é muito importante, pois estima-se que o macho dominante pode ser responsável por até 80% dos nascimentos em um rebanho. Um fator a ser considerado é a libido, definida como a “disposição e entusiasmo” de um macho para tentar montar e servir a uma fêmea. No caso dos bovinos, estima-se que cerca de 21% dos machos em que a libido é avaliada não conseguem reproduzir. Isso se torna ainda mais crítico quando se leva em consideração que a libido baixa é hereditária e reproduzível, além de estar associada à puberdade tardia nas filhas. Figura 11: sinais feitos por éguas no cio. À esquerda: espelhamento. À direita: eversão do clitóris. Nos machos, as montas sem penetração e ejaculação durante a fase de cortejo (conhecidas como montas falsas) são muito importantes para estimular o desejo sexual e aumentar a quantidade e a qualidade do sêmen que mais tarde será ejaculado durante a cópula (figura 12). No caso dos touros, sabe-se que o macho monta na fêmea em média seis vezes antes de realizar a primeira cópula, embora o número de montas falsas seja reduzido nas ejaculações subsequentes. Figura 12: comportamento de um cachaço diante de uma fêmea no cio. À esquerda: olfateio dos flancos e salivação do macho. À direita: ereção e retirada do pênis. Na tabela 4 são listados os comportamentos típicos de machos de espécies de mamíferos domésticos durante o cortejo, detecção de fêmeas no cio e cópula. Tabela 4: Comportamentos característicos durante o cortejo e cópula em machos das diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Conduta pré-cópula Conduta copulatória Bovina Reflexo de Flehmen; cheira e lambe a vulva; inquietude; esfrega o pescoço ou o focinho na fêmea; tentativa de montas. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 3 segundos pós-penetração. Ovina Reflexo de Flehmen; empurram e monta a fêmea; vocalizações; tentativa de montas; inquietude; mantém-se com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea (figura 13). Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Caprina Cheira a urina da fêmea e realiza o reflexo de Flehmen; urina a barba e o peito; apalpa o chão em volta da fêmea; vocalizações; língua dentro e fora da boca; cheira e bate na área genital; se sustenta com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Suína Cheira a região genital e dos flancos (figura 12); tentativas de montas; contato naso-nasal ou naso-genital; vocalizações; range os dentes e move as mandíbulas lateralmente; salivação e micção frequente; morde suavemente as orelhas e a cabeça da fêmea. Ereção depois da monta; contrações testiculares muito aparentes durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 5 a 20 minutos pós-penetração. Equina Vocalizações; reflexo de Flehmen; morde o pescoço da fêmea. Sinalização; movimento lateral da cauda durante a ejaculação; movimentos de fricção; ejaculação média: 20 a 60 segundos pós-penetração. Canina Tentativas de montas; reprodução. O macho se vira e fica abotoado durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 10 a 30 minutos, mas pode chegas até 50 pós-penetração. Felina Morde o pescoço da fêmea. A fêmea realiza o “ronco pós-coito” quando o macho desmonta. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Depois de haver realizado com sucesso um serviço (um acasalamento acompanhado de ejaculação dentro do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea), os machos apresentam a fase pós-copulatória, também conhecida como período refratário, em que mostram desinteresse pela fêmea com quem acabam de realizar serviço. Esta fase tem duração variável entre os indivíduos, mas foi visto que eles podem retomar a atividade pré-copulatória e copulatória mais rapidamente se forem apresentados a uma fêmea diferente, fenômeno conhecido como “efeito Coolidge”. Os machos geralmente são capazes de realizar mais de uma cópula por dia antes de atingir a saciedade sexual. O número de cópulas varia entre espécies e indivíduos, portanto, suínos e equinos realizam em média três montas, enquanto pequenos ruminantes realizam 10 e bovinos até 20. Uma vez saciado, o macho pode parar de montar por um ou mais dias, mesmo que haja estímulo suficiente para induzir o comportamento sexual. Figura 13: monta em ovinos. É mostrado como o macho apoia os membros anteriores na garupa da fêmea. Nessa imagem o macho detectou o cio, por isso está usando um avental para impedir a penetração. • ____DETECÇÃO DE ESTROS (CIOS) A detecção adequada do estro é imprescindível para um bom manejo reprodutivo e produtivo dos animais do rebanho, pois é essencial determinar o momento ideal da monta ou inseminação artificial, que consequentemente atinge bons índices de fertilidade. A falha na detecção do estro (considerada uma das principais causas de perdas econômicas na pecuária), ocorre em função da baixa eficiência, bem como da precisão, dos métodos utilizados. A tabela 5 resume as consequências da falha na detecção do estro em vacas. Tabela 5: Consequências de falhas na eficiência e precisão dos testes utilizados para o diagnóstico de cio em bovinos Falha Eficiência (vacas não detectadas) Precisão (vacas mal detectadas) Aumenta-se Número de fêmeas vazias; Número de dias abertos; Intervalo entre partos. Números de serviços por concepção; Número de doses de sêmen. Diminui-se Número de crias por ano; Produção cárnea ou láctea. Fertilidade por serviço. Fonte: anotações de aulas na UFPB. Para implementar um programa de detecção de estro, é necessário ter alguns requisitos essenciais, como:  A identificação dos animais que deve ser realizada de forma clara de modo que o observador possa distingui-los claramente.  Os registros reprodutivos que permitem estimar a fase do ciclo estral em que os animais se encontram e ajudam a discernir os animais que sabemos que estão perto do cio daqueles que foram inseminados recentemente ou estão prenhes.  Um pessoal qualificado deve observar animais no cio; esse trabalho não pode ser confiado a qualquer pessoa; deve ser realizado por quem conheça bem os sinais de estro da espécie e que saiba considerá-los em conjunto; deve reconhecer, assim mesmo, a evidência da manifestação de comportamento sexual quando o animal estiver fora de seu campo visual. Outro ponto importante nos programas de detecção de estro é a escolha do método para o seu diagnóstico, que deve estar de acordo com aspectos como as características comportamentais da espécie, disponibilidade e facilidade de uso, custos, entre outros. Alguns dos métodos existentes para detecção de cio são descritos abaixo. Detecção visual Este tipo de detecção é baseado na observação a curtas e longas distâncias pela equipe da unidade de produção, em busca de mudanças genitais e comportamentais nas fêmeas; é amplamente utilizado no caso dos bovinos. Foi estudado que a eficiência na detecção visual do estro aumenta em paralelo com o número de observações realizadas por dia. Ou seja, se a observação for realizada apenas durante as atividades rotineiras da exploração, a eficiência será de 50%; quando se realizam duas observações com 12 h de intervalo, a eficiência aumenta para 70%; quando três observações são feitas por dia em intervalos de 8 h, a eficiência chega a 90% e quando a detecção visual é feita constantemente, a eficiência na detecção do estro chega a ficar entre 95 e 100%. No caso dos bovinos, a detecção visual se baseia, entre outros aspectos, na observação do comportamento homossexual, no aparecimento de muco cristalino pela vulva, bem como nas marcas de monta (culote e garupa sujos, direção dos pelos no sacro ao contrário); inquietação, busca pelo macho, inapetência e segregação. Deve-se levar em consideração que nem todas as espécies animais são passíveis de serem detectadas por esse método, pois há espécies em que não há alterações evidentes na genitália e seu comportamento não denota nenhum sinal característico e forte de estar em estro, como é o caso de ovinos, caprinos e equinos; no qual é necessário submetê-los à presença de um macho para poder saber adequadamente o seu estado reprodutivo. Teste de monta Este teste é utilizado especificamente em porcas e consiste em observar a reação à pressão que uma pessoa exerce sobre a garupa e a coluna do animal, considerando que as fêmeas que estão em estro permanecem estáticas, enquanto as que não se movem (figura 14). A eficiência desse teste pode variar consideravelmente, estando a fêmea submetida ou não a algum estímulo do macho. Isso significa que quando o teste é realizado apenas pelo experimentador sem nenhum contato com o macho, a eficiência fica em torno de 48%, ao passo que, se o realizarmos para que a fêmea possa cheirar e ouvir o macho, a eficiência pode chegar a 90%. Se a porca também vê e toca o macho, a porcentagem de eficiência pode ser aumentada em mais 3 a 7%, respectivamente; enquanto é 100% eficiente quando se aloja e interage com o macho. Figura 14: imobilidade durante a prova de monta em porcas. É importante considerar que embora o teste de monta seja usado principalmente em porcas, as fêmeas no cio de quase todas as espécies apresentam uma reação de imobilização quando a garupa é pressionada; elas também movem a cauda para o lado e podem levantar a vulva. Machos auxiliares e rufiões O macho é o mais eficiente em distinguir as fêmeas de sua espécie no cio, pois é capaz de detectar coisas imperceptíveis aos humanos. A utilização de machos auxiliares e/ou rufiões baseia-se na apresentação de um macho às fêmeas e na observação da resposta de todo o grupo. As fêmeas que permitem ser montadas pelo macho e permanecem imóveis são consideradas no cio. A “guarda” ou “auxílio” pode ser realizada duas vezes ao dia, com intervalos de 12 horas entre eles. Para se utilizar o método é fundamental que haja machos inteiros com boa libido, porém, bons reprodutores não devem ser usados para esse fim, pois podem se machucar por uma fêmea que não esteja no momento ideal ou podem ficar exaustos e recusam-se a montar quando seu uso como reprodutores for necessário. Nos equinos essa técnica diagnóstica é a mais utilizada e é conhecida como “provocação”, já que o macho auxiliar é denominado como provocador e deve ser feito diariamente ou em dias alternados durante o período de cio previsto; nesta espécie, as fêmeas podem ser muito agressivas, por isso é comum o uso de uma barreira protetora entre o macho e a fêmea (figura 15). Quando os machos auxiliares são usados, é interessante evitar que ocorra a cópula fértil com as fêmeas, então várias estratégias foram desenvolvidas, principalmente cirúrgicas, para que os machos utilizados possam ser:  Vestidos com um avental (figura 16);  Vasectomizados;  Epididectomizados;  Pênis desviado;  Com fixação peniana em forma de “S”;  Com obliteração do orifício prepucial;  Castrados e com tratamento androgênico. Os rufiões não são considerados machos auxiliares e sim como machos com capacidade de detectar uma fêmea apta para reprodução, porém sem a capacidade de fecundá-la. São utilizados na detecção de estros para monta natural ou inseminação artificial, já que sua presença estimula o cio e a ovulação na fêmea. Já que o animal não possui a capacidade de fecundar a fêmea, a obtenção de rufiões dá-se através de técnicas cirúrgicas como as citadas supra. Figura 15: provocação em equinos (método para instigar e/ou detectar a égua em cio). Figura 16: macho ovino vestido com avental para identificar a ovelha em cio. Fêmeas Em muitas unidades de produção, o uso de fêmeas (com certas características específicas) é preferível ao uso de machos para detecção de cio, pois seu manejo é mais simples e seguro, sua manutenção é menor e não há risco de ocorrência da penetração que pode ser uma fonte de transmissão de doenças. Por exemplo, fêmeas androgenizadas podem ser usadas, tanto tratadas exogenamente, quanto aquelas com pseudo-hermafroditismo ou freemartinismo. Palpação retal É um método muito útil no caso de bovinos e equinos, pois o estado reprodutivo em que o animal se encontra pode ser determinado de acordo com as estruturas ovarianas presentes, a tonicidade do tecido uterino e o tipo de corrimento vaginal que pode ser observado. Nessa técnica, a precisão e a eficiência dependem da experiência da sonda, bem como da correta subdivisão dos animais que são passados a ela para revisão. Ultrassonografia Com o uso do ultrassom em tempo real e sob o mesmo princípio da palpação retal, pode-se determinar o momento do ciclo estral; sua confiabilidade é maior quando comparada à palpação, pois os resultados são menos subjetivos. Medição de mudanças fisiológicas Toda fêmea em cio apresenta ligeiras mudanças fisiológicas nos seguintes aspec-tos:  Sua temperatura aumenta;  A frequência cardíaca aumenta;  A produção leiteira diminui. Essas mudanças, quando medidas repetidamente, são úteis para determinar o momento do estro. Quando as concentrações de progesterona no sangue estão abaixo de 1 ng/ml, indica que a fase lútea daquele animal terminou e que, portanto, está perto de apresentar estro ou que acabou de estar. No caso das cadelas, a dosagem da progesterona tem sido muito valiosa para determinar o momento do início do estro, mas sua interpretação é exatamente o inverso do resto das espécies, quando atinge o nível de 1 ng/ml, sabemos que está prestes a iniciar a receptividade sexual. A citologia vaginal esfoliativa realizada, sobretudo, nas cadelas e tem como princípio determinar o tipo de células presentes no esfregaço vaginal, de acordo com sua morfologia e número. Sua base é que as camadas celulares da mucosa vaginal se multiplicam à medida que o nível de estrogênio aumenta, fazendo com que as células da superfície, que estão em direção ao lúmen, morram e adquiram a aparência folheada ou floculada. Durante a fase estral, entre 80 e 100% das células observadas são superficiais e cornificadas ou escamosas. A confiabilidade do método é muito alta, mas são necessárias amostras seriadas, pois o padrão celular é cíclico e nem sempre uma amostra isolada indica com precisão o estágio do ciclo reprodutivo. Uma ferramenta útil em equinos é observar a tonicidade e coloração do colo do útero e vagina através de um vaginoscópio. As alterações observadas são consequência dos estrogênios e a aparência nos animais em estro é de uma estrutura com secreções, hiperêmicas e edematosas. Também é eficaz para uso em cabras. O aumento da atividade física pode ser medido com um pedômetro, que é um detector eletrônico que é colocado nas patas e mede a atividade motora das fêmeas; transmite um sinal para um computador que registra e representa graficamente os dados. Lembre-se de que os animais no cio apresentam maior mobilidade. Em geral, considera-se que uma fêmea no cio anda pelo menos duas vezes mais que as que não estão. A viscosidade do muco cervical pode ser medida com o estrón, que é um dispositivo usado em bovinos e cuja base é medir a resistência elétrica no fluido vaginal ou impedância, que é diminuída durante o proestro e o estro. Para aumentar a eficiência desta ferramenta é necessário realizar medições repetidas e manter registros individuais. Junto com os métodos descritos aqui, ajudas foram desenvolvidas para tornar a detecção do estro mais eficiente, entre as quais estão: Detectores de monta Esses dispositivos são muito diversificados, a maioria deles são colocados na linha média da garupa da fêmea, logo na frente da inserção da cauda, mas também podem ser colocados no peito ou abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho. Sua função é deixar uma marca distinguível ou registrar uma monta no animal que está no cio. Entre eles estão os seguintes. A pintura com giz de cera na altura da garupa, é comum usá-la para que quando uma vaca for montada por outra, a marca fique borrada ou desbotada, indicando que a fêmea está no cio (figura 17). O arnês de marcador que é colocado abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho (“Bola de queixo” figura 18) ou no peito, para que ao montar uma fêmea receptiva, pinte sua garupa deixando uma marca facilmente identificável. As manchas de tinta chamadas de patches “kamar” (figura 19), que são colocadas na garupa da fêmea e quando ela é montada por outro animal, o peso faz com que ela quebre o recipiente e libere uma tinta que podemos facilmente observar. O relógio de cio é um dispositivo eletrônico que se conecta à garupa da fêmea e registra o momento em que é montada (figura 20), quando pressionado pelo peso mantido por alguns segundos, emitindo um sinal que é recebido por um computador. Tem sido indicado que a precisão na detecção do estro com este método é muito alta, podendo chegar a 96%. Figura 17: vacas com pintura de giz de cera na linha dorsal, utilizada para diagnóstico do cio. À esquerda vaca não montada. À direita vaca que já foi montada, a qual a marca de giz aparece desbotada. Figura 18: uso do arnês marcador para diagnóstico de cio. À esquerda macho com marcador na barbela. À direita marca no dorso da fêmea realizada pela monta de um macho e que indica que o animal marcado está em cio. Figura 19: pastas de “kamar” para a identificação de fêmeas em cio. Figura 20: relógio de cio, dispositivo eletrônico para a detecção de montas À esquerda foto do dispositivo. À direita, vacas com o dispositivo na garupa. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS AURICH, Christine. Reproductive cycles of horses. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 220-228, 2011. AISEN, Eduardo G. Reprodução ovina e caprina. MedVet, 2008. BARTLEWSKI, Pawel M.; BABY, Tanya E.; GIFFIN, Jennifer L. Reproductive cycles in sheep. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 259-268, 2011. BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Reproducción animal aplicada. México: Manual Moderno, 1982. CHRISTIANSEN, I. J. Reprodução no cão e no gato. São Paulo: Manole, 1988. CONCANNON, Patrick W. Reproductive cycles of the domestic bitch. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 200-210, 2011. COLAZO, Marcos Germán; MAPLETOFT, Reuben. Fisiología del ciclo estral bovino. Ciencia Veterinaria, v. 16, n. 2, p. 31-46, 2017. CUPPS, Perry T. (Ed.). Reproduction in domestic animals. Elsevier, 1991. Fisiologia Clínica do Ciclo Estral de Vacas Leiteiras: Desenvolvimento Folicular, Corpo Lúteo e Etapas do Estro. Fisiologia do Ciclo Estral dos Animais Domésticos. Fisiologia do Estro e do Serviço na Reprodução Bovina. Relação e Efeitos Bioquímico-nutricionais Sobre os Cios ou Estros Silenciosos em Vacas. DERIVAUX, Jules; BARNABÉ, Renato Campanarut. Reprodução dos animais domésticos. Acribia, 1980. DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Editora Guanabara Koogan, 1996. DYCE, Keith M. Tratado de anatomia veterinária. Elsevier Brasil, 2004. FATET, Alice; PELLICER-RUBIO, Maria-Teresa; LEBOEUF, Bernard. Reproductive cycle of goats. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 211-219, 2011. FERREIRA, A. de M. Reprodução da fêmea bovina: fisiologia aplicada e problemas mais comuns (causas e tratamentos). Juiz de Fora: Minas Gerais–Brasil, p. 422, 2010. FORDE, N. et al. Oestrous cycles in Bos taurus cattle. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 163-169, 2011. HAFEZ, Elsayed Saad Eldin; HAFEZ, Bahaa. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. HIDALGO, Galina et al. Reproducción de animales domésticos. México: Limusa, 2008. HOPPER, Richard M. (Ed.). Bovine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2014. MCKINNON, Angus O. et al. (Ed.). Equine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. MEIDAN, R. et al. Intraovarian regulation of luteolysis. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 217-228, 1999. NETT, T. M. et al. Pituitary receptors for GnRH and estradiol, and pituitary content of gonadotropins in beef cows. I. Changes during the estrous cycle. Domestic Animal Endocrinology, v. 4, n. 2, p. 123-132, 1987. NISWENDER, Gordon D. et al. Mechanisms controlling the function and life span of the corpus luteum. Physiological reviews, v. 80, n. 1, p. 1-29, 2000. NORMAN, Anthony W.; LITWACK, Gerald. Hormones. Academic Press, 1997. PATTERSON, David J. et al. Control of estrus and ovulation in beef heifers. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, v. 29, n. 3, p. 591-617, 2013. PLANT, Tony M.; ZELEZNIK, Anthony J. (Ed.). Knobil and Neill's physiology of reproduction. New York: Academic Press, 2014. RANGEL, L. Ciclo estral. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. REKAWIECKI, R. et al. Regulation of progesterone synthesis and action in bovine corpus luteum. J Physiol Pharmacol, v. 59, n. suppl 9, p. 75-89, 2008. REYNOLDS, L. P.; REDMER, D. A. Growth and development of the corpus luteum. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 181-191, 1999. RIPPE, Christian A. El ciclo estral. In: Dairy Cattle Reproduction Conference. 2009. p. 111-116. SANGHA, G. K.; SHARMA, R. K.; GURAYA, S. S. Biology of corpus luteum in small ruminants. Small Ruminant Research, v. 43, n. 1, p. 53-64, 2002. SARTORI, R.; BARROS, C. M. Reproductive cycles in Bos indicus cattle. Animal Reproduction Science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 244-250, 2011. SENGER, Phillip L. et al. Pathways to pregnancy and parturition. Current Conceptions, Inc., 1615 NE Eastgate Blvd., 1997. SMITH, Matthew J.; JENNES, Lothar. Neural signals that regulate GnRH neurones directly during the oestrous cycle. Reproduction (Cambridge, England), v. 122, n. 1, p. 1-10, 2001. SOEDE, N. M.; LANGENDIJK, P.; KEMP, B. Reproductive cycles in pigs. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 251-258, 2011. WEBB, R. et al. Mechanisms regulating follicular development and selection of the dominant follicle. REPRODUCTION-CAMBRIDGE-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 71-90, 2003. WHITTEMORE, Colin et al. The science and practice of pig production. Blackwell Science Ltd, 1998. FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO 1. O comportamento sexual dos animais é uma particularidade de cada espécie na iniciação da perpetuação da vida e que deve-se a quais fatores e por quê? 2. O que é anestro? É possível revertê-lo? 3. Defina e explique os estágios comportamentais de machos e fêmeas antes, durante e depois da cópula. 4. Defina e diferencia efeito fêmea e efeito macho. 5. Define e explique a estimulação sexual dos animais e como podemos induzi-la? 6. Defina e caracterize o estro das espécies zootécnicas. 7. Quais são os fatores que retardam ou adiantam a manifestação do cio e por quê? 8. Qual a relação direta ou indireta da duração do estro com o momento da ovulação? 9. Quais os mecanismos de atração dos machos? 10. Que mudanças ocorrem nas partes reprodutivas das fêmeas para a atração do macho? 11. Cite o comportamento característico das fêmeas durante o estro que visam a atração do macho para a cópula. 12. Disserte sobre a importância do macho e sobre seu comportamento sexual para o manejo reprodutivo. 13. Qual a importância e quais os meios de detecção do estro nas fêmeas. Como hipótese, você como criador utilizaria qual método de identificação e por quê? 14. Explique as principais diferenças entre machos reprodutores e machos rufiões. Como obter um rufião? (shrink)

Le présent travail s'inscrit à l'intersection de deux problèmes épistémologiques majeurs. D'une part, le problème de la démarcation scientifique, qui consiste à identifier ce qui distingue intrinsèquement un système (un énoncé, une théorie, ...) scientifique d'un système non scientifique ou pseudo-scientifique. D'autre part, le problème de l'unité épistémologique des sciences, qui consiste à se demander si toutes les disciplines à vocation scientifique peuvent être vues comme des instanciations d'une notion unique de la scientificité. Ces deux problèmes ont soulevé de (...) nombreux débats ayant mis en évidence un ensemble important de difficultés. Le terme « scientifique » désigne en effet des méthodes empiriques, des constructions théoriques et des pratiques de recherche si hétérogènes qu’il semble voué à l’échec d’en chercher une définition aisée à circonscrire. De plus, les objets des disciplines scientifiques sont eux-mêmes de natures très diverses, ce qui semble rendre pareillement caduque toute recherche d’un concept unique de science qui pourrait s’appliquer indépendamment de la discipline en question. Dans cette thèse, je me propose de prendre à contre-pied cet état de fait en soutenant la possibilité et la pertinence d'un modèle unitaire de la scientificité, tout en me restreignant à une approche épistémologique comparée entre les sciences physiques et les sciences sociales. Pour défendre mon propos, j’ai mobilisé deux types de réponses pouvant être opposées au constat présenté plus haut. D’une part, des réponses de principe, où j’examine et m’oppose à des arguments théoriques soutenant l’impossibilité ou en tout cas la difficulté de définir la scientificité en général, et la nécessité pour les sciences sociales de jouir d’une définition à part. D’autre part, je mobilise également des réponses par l’exemple. J’étudie alors plus en détail l’approche dite « analytique » en sociologie. Ce courant a cela d’intéressant pour mon propos qu’il ne semble pas nécessiter d’épistémologie alternative à celle ayant cours, par exemple, en physique ou en biologie, tout en prétendant bien produire des connaissances sur le monde social. Il s’agit donc d’un contre-exemple concret et manifeste de la thèse soutenant que la sociologie ne peut pas jouir du même type d’épistémologie que les autres disciplines. Plus concrètement, j’élabore un (méta-)modèle unitaire de la scientificité en me concentrant sur une unité d’analyse bien circonscrite : les modèles. Je distingue chez ses derniers, classiquement, deux composantes principales : une composante empirique, qui a pour vocation à identifier des régularités dans le réel auquel on a accès à travers des données, et une composante théorique, à visée explicative et classificatoire. Je propose alors de construire formellement un degré de scientificité global dans lequel se combinent la maximisation d’une certaine quantité d’information définie sur la composante empirique et un critère d’invariance structurelle défini sur la composante théorique. Ces diverses constructions, bien que formelles, permettent d’éclairer efficacement les questions épistémologiques que je me suis données au départ de mon travail, ce dernier ayant vocation à constituer une étape supplémentaire vers un modèle unitaire de la scientificité. (shrink)

The human soul has been believed to be immaterial and immortal element which exclusively inheres in the human body. Ukpugho ukpong (soul transplant) is an ancient meta-medical science of the Annang and Ibibio people, which is hinged on the belief that the human soul is transcendent and it exclusively inheres in proxy animal; that the soul is mortal, and can be surgically transplanted in the likeness of somatic tissue transplant. This study aimed at carrying out a philosophical critique of this (...) belief in order to determine its significance as a metaphysical concept. It also aimed at critically examining the philosophical as well as sociological discussions on the subject of ukpuho ukpong. The study was discussed on the framework of African concept of mind which holds that the soul has dual nature, namely – the Active Principle and the Quiescent Counterpart. The paper debunks the doctrines of metempsychosis and transmigration as alien to African metaphysics. The method of ordinary language analysis was employed to analyze the concepts ukpong and mbukpong. In conclusion, the paper made the following observations that: the soul is transcendent but perishable substance, the mind has dual nature, the soul does not transmigrate and the science of ukpuho ukpong is not a pseudo-metaphysical concept but was founded on African logic of dualistic mind. The paper notes that the science of ukpuho ukpong is bugged with a number of unresolved philosophical problems. Despite that the paper discovered that the science of ukpuho ukpong can contribute significantly to meta-medicine and sustainable environmental values. (shrink)

The purpose of this article is to introduce an innovative approach to the theoretical debate of the last two centuries on how to appropriately conceptualize modern democracy. The main argument that is being put forward by the analysis is that the common reliance on the assumption of pre-modern political philosophy, that democracy is a certain type of political regime or at least a form of rule, has become insufficient to cover the influence and scope of its modern meaning and practical (...) use. Political theory faces the risk of becoming misguided and prejudiced, if the problem of re-conceptualizing democracy is not taken seriously into account. The article tends to offer new insights on the ongoing democratic debate by focusing on one simple question: can modern democracy be understood in terms of a political regime or should it be viewed as a distinct entity? The field of study relevant to our analysis of democracy ranges from Enlightenment thinkers, such as J. J. Rousseau and Voltaire, to XIX–XX century political philosophers (like A. de Tocqueville and C. Schmitt) and some contemporary theorists, like P. Manent. The article starts with explanations, why it is important to look deeper into the conceptual difficulties of modern democracy and why political philosophy and its theories on political regimes are crucial for such a task. Parts 3–5 of the analysis tend to prove that the only way to appropriately understand modern democracy is to identify and question its basic assumptions: the sovereignty of the people and social equality. The final part of the article – part 6 – offers a critique of understanding modern democracy as a political regime. The critique identifies three main theoretical problems, inherent to the discussion on modern democracy, which make it difficult to avoid contradictions when applying the name “democratic” to various political regimes. The article concludes that: First, democracy is not a political regime in a pre-modern sense of the term, which is an assumption still widely taken for granted in political theory. Democracy should be seen as a universal principle of legitimization of power, which can be applied by various regimes. Second, political philosophy faces the danger of adopting an oversimplified understanding of democracy as merely an institutional form of rule (a view perpetuated by social sciences); as well as the danger of conceptualizing democracy as a substance-free and abstract ideal, applicable to all forms of government. Both of these concepts fail to acknowledge the scope of democracy and thus should not be seen as satisfactory. Third, theoretical discussions on democracy suffer from three conceptual shortcomings, which make it impossible to speak about democracy as a political regime. The three problems are: 1. a tendency to see democracy as an ideal concept with no need of practical grounding; 2. making democracy a formal concept with no need of references to its normative nor positive substance; 3. making democracy a pseudo-religious entity by imitating structural elements of Christian religion: faith in a universal nature of humans, an all-powerful sovereign (the people), messianic mission. Lastly, the article generalizes that political philosophy has an obligation to demystify the concept of democracy in order to re-emerge discussions about the substance of different political regimes. For this purpose the concept of loyalty should be taken into account. If we want to prove that a certain state corresponds to a certain political regime, we must try to understand why its subjects maintain loyalty to a specific form of rule. Only unprejudiced political philosophy is capable of such a task, that’s why it should avoid taking the concept of democracy for granted. (shrink)

In the present paper, I try to shed some light on the Munich-Göttingen conception of essences, laws of essence, and ideal objects. I first start with a preliminary account of their conception of the synthetic a priori at the basis of their conception of essence (§2); I then offer a first characterization of this conception, which I label as metaphysical realism (§3), highlighting its key concept: foundation (§4). In the last four sections (§§5-8), I discuss different outcomes of this (...) conception of essences: the nature of laws of essences (§5), different categories of essences (§6) and anumericity (§7). (shrink)