We discuss potential biorisks from large language models (LLMs). AI assistants based on LLMs such as ChatGPT have been shown to significantly reduce barriers to entry for actors wishing to synthesize dangerous, potentially novel pathogens and chemical weapons. The harms from deploying such bioagents could be further magnified by AI-assisted misinformation. We endorse several policy responses to these dangers, including prerelease evaluations of biomedical AIs by subject-matter experts, enhanced surveillance and lab screening procedures, restrictions on AI training data, and access (...) controls on biomedical AI. We conclude with a suggestion about future research directions in bioethics. (shrink)

Psychopaths routinely disregard social norms by engaging in selfish, antisocial, often violent behavior. Commonly characterized as mentally disordered, recent evidence suggests that psychopaths are executing a well-functioning, if unscrupulous strategy that historically increased reproductive success at the expense of others. Natural selection ought to have favored strategies that spared close kin from harm, however, because actions affecting the fitness of genetic relatives contribute to an individual’s inclusive fitness. Conversely, there is evidence that mental disorders can disrupt psychological mechanisms designed to (...) protect relatives. Thus, mental disorder and adaptation accounts of psychopathy generate opposing hypotheses: psychopathy should be associated with an increase in the victimization of kin in the former account but not in the latter. Contrary to the mental disorder hypothesis, we show here in a sample of 289 violent offenders that variation in psychopathy predicts a decrease in the genetic relatedness of victims to offenders; that is, psychopathy predicts an increased likelihood of harming non-relatives. Because nepotistic inhibition in violence may be caused by dispersal or kin discrimination, we examined the effects of psychopathy on (1) the dispersal of offenders and their kin and (2) sexual assault frequency (as a window on kin discrimination). Although psychopathy was negatively associated with coresidence with kin and positively associated with the commission of sexual assault, it remained negatively associated with the genetic relatedness of victims to offenders after removing cases of offenders who had coresided with kin and cases of sexual assault from the analyses. These results stand in contrast to models positing psychopathy as a pathology, and provide support for the hypothesis that psychopathy reflects an evolutionary strategy largely favoring the exploitation of non-relatives. (shrink)

Transoral laser microsurgery applies to the piecemeal removal of malignant tumours of the upper aerodigestive tract using the CO2 laser under the operating microscope. This method of surgery is being increasingly popularised as a single modality treatment of choice in early laryngeal cancers (T1 and T2) and occasionally in the more advanced forms of the disease (T3 and T4), predomi- nantly within the supraglottis. Thomas Kuhn, the American physicist turned philosopher and historian of science, coined the phrase ‘paradigm shift’ in (...) his groundbreaking book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. He argued that the arrival of the new and often incompatible idea forms the core of a new paradigm, the birth of an entirely new way of thinking. This article discusses whether Steiner and col- leagues truly brought about a paradigm shift in oncological surgery. By rejecting the principle of en block resection and by replacing it with the belief that not only is it oncologically safe to cut through the substance of the tumour but in doing so one can actually achieve better results, Steiner was able to truly revolutionise the man- agement of laryngeal cancer. Even though within this article the repercussions of his insight are limited to the upper aerodigestive tract oncological surgery, his willingness to question other peoples’ dogma makes his contribution truly a genuine paradigm shift. (shrink)

Biological ontologies are used to organize, curate, and interpret the vast quantities of data arising from biological experiments. While this works well when using a single ontology, integrating multiple ontologies can be problematic, as they are developed independently, which can lead to incompatibilities. The Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies Foundry was created to address this by facilitating the development, harmonization, application, and sharing of ontologies, guided by a set of overarching principles. One challenge in reaching these goals was that the (...) OBO principles were not originally encoded in a precise fashion, and interpretation was subjective. Here we show how we have addressed this by formally encoding the OBO principles as operational rules and implementing a suite of automated validation checks and a dashboard for objectively evaluating each ontology’s compliance with each principle. This entailed a substantial effort to curate metadata across all ontologies and to coordinate with individual stakeholders. We have applied these checks across the full OBO suite of ontologies, revealing areas where individual ontologies require changes to conform to our principles. Our work demonstrates how a sizable federated community can be organized and evaluated on objective criteria that help improve overall quality and interoperability, which is vital for the sustenance of the OBO project and towards the overall goals of making data FAIR. Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest. (shrink)

This research investigates the primary constraint causing the low competitiveness of Indonesian footwear exports compared to Vietnam with new information from a number of the latest studies. This study uses Reveal Comparative Advantage (RCA) and the Trade Specialization Index (TSI). Differences in culture, economic structure, and firm rivalry all contribute to Indonesia’s power competitiveness. This research adds a competitive advantage to study the factors that hamper the low competitiveness of Indonesian footwear against Vietnam. The results show that Indonesia’s comparative advantage (...) is more moderate than Vietnam, with an average RCA of 4, while Vietnam is 9. The average value of TSI is Indonesia close to 1 and Vietnam 1. The primary constraints are workers’ wages higher than Vietnam, and business services such as R & D have not utilized. The development of the footwear industry policy must identify from upstream to downstream. The affirmative system made must be used to overcome short-medium term problems. (shrink)

Sam Harris, in his book The Moral Landscape, argues that "science can determine human values." Against this view, I argue that while secular moral philosophy can certainly help us to determine our values, science must play a subservient role. To the extent that science can what we ought to do, it is only by providing us with empirical information, which can then be slotted into a chain of deductive reasoning. The premises of such reasoning, however, can in no way be (...) derived from the scientific method: they come, instead, from philosophy – and common sense. (shrink)

Fifty years have passed since Norwood Russell Hanson's unexpected death, yet he remains an important voice in philosophy of science. This book is a revised and expanded edition of a collection of Hanson's essays originally published in 1971, edited by Stephen Toulmin and Harry Woolf. The new volume features a comprehensive introduction by Matthew Lund (Rowan University) and two new essays. The first is "Observation and Explanation: A Guide to Philosophy of Science", originally published as a posthumous book by (...) Harper and Row. This essay, written near the end of Hanson’s life, represents his mature philosophy of science. The second new addition, Hanson's essay "The Trial of Galileo", is something of a "lost" work – it was only published in a small run collection on famous trials and was left out of the published lists of Hanson’s works. Ever the outspoken firebrand, Hanson found many lessons and warnings from Galileo's trial that were relevant to Cold War America. -/- This volume not only contains Hanson's best-known work in history and philosophy of science, but also highlights the breadth of his philosophical thought. Hanson balanced extreme versatility with a unified approach to conceptual and philosophical problems. Hanson's central insight is that philosophy and science both strive to render the world intelligible -- the various concepts central to our attempts to make sense of the world are interdependent, and cannot operate, or even be fully understood, independently. The essays included in this collection present Hanson's thinking on religious belief, theory, observation, meaning, cosmology, modality, logic, and philosophy of mind. This collection also includes Hanson's lectures on the theory of flight, Hanson's greatest passion. (shrink)

In his article, “Equality as a Moral Ideal”, Harry Frankfurt argues against economic egalitarianism and presents what he calls the “doctrine of sufficiency.” According to the doctrine of sufficiency, what is morally important is not relative economic equality, but rather, whether somebody has enough, where “having enough” is a non-comparative standard of reasonable contentment that may differ from person to person given his/her aims and circumstances. The purpose of this paper is to show that Frankfurt’s original arguments in support (...) for his doctrine of sufficiency have critical problems that Frankfurt himself does not properly recognize. In the end, I will argue that in order to solve these problems the doctrine of sufficiency cannot help but to incorporate certain prioritarian commitments – commitments which many would view as implying economic egalitarianism. This is embarrassing for a doctrine whose raison d’être was mainly to defeat economic egalitarianism. (shrink)

이것은 행동에 유전자/환경 상호 작용의 훌륭한 검토 이며, 조금 일자 임에도 불구 하 고, 쉽고 가치 있는 읽기. 그(것)들은 행동에 유전학의 압도적인 충격을 보여주는 쌍둥이 연구 결과로 시작합니다. 그들은 공유 가정 환경이 행동에 거의 영향을 미치지 않으며 입양 된 자녀가 무작위로 선택된 사람들처럼 의붓 형제 자매와 다르게 자라는 사실을 확장하고 요약하는 주디스 해리스 (Judith Harris)의 점점 더 잘 알려진 연구에 주목합니다. 그들 (그리고 행동 유전학을 토론하는 거의 모든 사람들이) 주의하지 못하는 한 가지 기본 포인트는 우리의 성격의 모든 기초를 포함하여 인간의 (...) 행동 보편적 인 수백 (수천)이 정상의 변화가없는 유전자에 의해 100 % 결정된다는 것입니다. 모든 사람은 나무를 돌이 아닌 나무로 보고, 음식을 찾고 먹고, 화가 나고 질투합니다. 그래서, 그들은 주로 여기에 대해 이야기하는 것은 얼마나 많은 환경 (문화)가 자신의 외모보다는 다양한 특성이 표시되는 정도에 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다. 마지막으로, 그들은 우리와 모든 유기체가 자연의 우생학의 산물이며 의학, 농업 및 문명 전체와 자연 선택을 물리 치려는 시도가 이 일을계속하는 모든 사회에 재앙이라는 것을 주목하지 못하고, 일반적인 정치적으로 올바른 방식으로 우생학에 대해논의합니다. 모든 개념의 50%, 또는 약 1억 년 동안, 어머니가 인식하지 못하고 거의 모든 조기 자발적 낙태로 끝납니다. 결함이 있는 유전자의 이 자연적인 컬링은 진화를 유도하고, 상대적으로 유전적으로 건전하게 유지하고, 사회를 가능하게 합니다. 이형성은 문명을 파괴하기에 충분하지만 인구 과잉은먼저그것을 o것입니다. 현대 의 두 시스템 보기에서인간의 행동에 대한 포괄적 인 최신 프레임 워크를 원하는 사람들은 내 책을 참조 할 수 있습니다'철학의 논리적 구조, 심리학, 민d와 루드비히 비트겐슈타인과 존 Searle의 언어' 그리고 언어 2nd ed (2019). 내 글의 더 많은 관심있는 사람들은 '이야기 원숭이를 볼 수 있습니다 -철학, 심리학, 과학, 운명 행성에 종교와 정치 - 기사 및 리뷰 2006-2017' 3rd ed (2019) 및 기타. (shrink)

Wie wäre es mit einer anderen Ausg. der Reichen und Berühmten? Zuerst das Offensichtliche – die Harry-Potter-Romane sind primitiver Aberglaube, der Kinder dazu ermutigt, an Fantasie zu glauben, anstatt Verantwortung für die Welt zu übernehmen – natürlich die Norm. JKR ist genauso ahnungslos über sich und die Welt wie die meisten Menschen,aber etwa 200 Mal so destruktiv wie der durchschnittliche Amerikaner und etwa 800 Mal mehr als der durchschnittliche Chinese. Sie war verantwortlich für die Zerstörung von vielleicht 30.000 Hektar (...) Wald, um diese Müllromane zu produzieren, und die ganze Erosion, die sich daraus ergibt (nicht trivial, da esmindestens 6 und vielleicht 12 Tonnen/Jahr Boden in den Ozean für alle auf der Erde oder vielleicht 100 Tonnen pro Amerikaner ist, und so etwa 5000 Tonnen/Jahr für Rowlings Bücher und Bewegungenundihre 3 Kinder). Die Erde verliert jedes Jahr mindestens 1% ihres Oberbodens, so dass der größte Teil ihrer Nahrungsmittelanbaukapazität weg sein wird, wenn sie sich dem Jahr 2100 nähert. Dann gibt es die riesige Menge an verbranntem Brennstoff und Abfall, die gemacht werden, um die Bücher und Filme, Plastikpuppen usw. herzustellen und zu vertreiben. Sie zeigt ihren Mangel an sozialer Verantwortung, indem sie Kinder hervorbringt, anstatt ihre Millionen zu verwenden, um familienplanerisch zu sein oder den Regenwald aufzukaufen, und indem sie die konventionelle liberale Dummheit der Vorherrschaft der Dritten Welt fördert, die Großbritannien, Amerika, die Welt und die Zukunft ihres Nachkommen zerstört. Natürlich unterscheidet sie sich nicht so sehr von den anderen 7. 8 Milliarden ahnungslos - nur noiser und zerstörerischer.. Es ist das keine kostenlose Mittagessen Problem schreiben groß. Der Mob kann einfach nicht sehen, dass es nichts gibt, wie einer Person zu helfen, ohne anderen zu schaden. Rechte oder Privilegien, die Neuankömmlingen in einer überfüllten Welt gewährt werden, können die Rechte anderer nurvereist enden. Trotz der massiven ökologischen Katastrophen, die sich jeden Tag überall vor ihnen abspielen, können sie sie nicht an die hemmungslose Mutterschaft der "Vielfalt" heften, die für den größten Teil des Bevölkerungszuwachses des letzten Jahrhunderts und all das in diesem jahr erklärt. Ihnen fehlt eine Kombination aus Intelligenz, Bildung, Erfahrung und Gesunden, die erforderlich sind, um die täglichen Angriffe auf die Ressourcen und das Funktionieren der Gesellschaft auf den letztendlichen Zusammenbruch der industriellen Zivilisation zu extrapolieren. Jede Mahlzeit, jede Fahrt mit dem Auto oder Bus, jedes Paar Schuhe ist ein weiterer Nagel im Sarg der Erde. Es ist ihr wahrscheinlich nie in den Sinn gekommen, dass ein Sitz in einem Flugzeug von London nach San Francisco etwa eine Tonne Kohlenstoff produziert, der etwa 3 Quadratmeter Meereis schmilzt, und als eine der Überprivilegierten hat sie wahrscheinlich Hunderte solcher Flüge geflogen. Nicht nur die Reichen und Berühmten, sondern fast jede öffentliche Persönlichkeit überhaupt, einschließlich praktisch aller Lehrer, werden unter Druck gesetzt, politisch korrekt zu sein, was in den westlichen Demokratien heute sozialdemokratisch(neomarxistisch – d.h. verwässerte Kommunisten) bedeutet, dass die Supremacisten der Dritten Welt für die Zerstörung ihrer eigenen Gesellschaften und ihrer eigenen Nachkommen arbeiten. Diejenigen also, deren Bildung,Erfahrung, Intelligenz (und der grundlegende gesunde Menschenverstand), die ihnen verbieten sollten, überhaupt öffentliche Erklärungen abzugeben, völlig alle Medien beherrschen und den Eindruck erwecken, dass die Intelligenten und Zivilisierten Demokratie, Vielfalt und Gleichheit begünstigen müssen, während die Wahrheit ist, dass dies die Probleme und nicht die Lösungen sind und dass sie selbst die Hauptfeinde der Zivilisation sind. Siehe my Suicide by Democracy 2nd ed (2019) und andere. (shrink)

Il s’agit d’un excellent examen des interactions génétiques / environnement sur le comportement et, en dépit d’être un peu daté, est une lecture facile et utile. Ils commencent par des études jumelles qui montrent l’impact écrasant de la génétique sur le comportement. Ils notent les études de plus en plus connues de Judith Harris qui étendent et résument les faits que l’environnement familial partagé n’a presque aucun effet sur le comportement et que les enfants adoptés grandissent pour être aussi différents (...) de leurs demi-frères et soeurs que les personnes choisies au hasard. Un point fondamental qu’ils (et presque tous ceux qui discutent de la génétique comportementale) ne parviennent pas à noter est que les centaines (des milliers selon votre point de vue) des universels comportementaux humains, y compris toutes les bases de nos personnalités, sont 100% déterminés par nos gènes, sans aucune variation dans les normales. Tout le monde voit un arbre comme un arbre et non une pierre, cherche et mange de la nourriture, se met en colère et jaloux, etc. Donc, ce dont ils parlent surtout ici, c’est de la quantité d’environnement (culture) qui peut influer sur la mesure dans laquelle les divers traits sont montrés, plutôt que leur apparence. Enfin, ils discutent de l’eugénisme de la manière politiquement correcte habituelle, à défaut de noter que nous et tous les organismes sommes les produits de l’eugénisme de la nature et que les tentatives de vaincre la sélection naturelle avec la médecine, l’agriculture, et la civilisation dans son ensemble, sont désastreuses pour toute société qui persiste à le faire. Jusqu’à 50% de toutes les conceptions, soit environ 100 millions par an, se terminent par un avortement spontané précoce, presque tous sans que la mère soit au courant. Cet abattage naturel de gènes défectueux stimule l’évolution, nous maintient relativement génétiquement sains et rend la société possible. Dysgenics est suffisant pour détruire la civilisation, mais la surpopulation sera do ild’abord. Ceux qui souhaitent un cadre complet à jour pour le comportement humain de la vue moderne de deuxemssyst peuvent consulter mon livre 'The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein et John Searle' 2nd ed (2019). Ceux qui s’intéressent à plus de mes écrits peuvent voir «Talking Monkeys --Philosophie, Psychologie, Science, Religion et Politique sur une planète condamnée --Articles et revues 2006-2017' 3rd ed (2019) et autres. (shrink)

Wall, G. Locke's attack on innate knowledge.--Harris, J. Leibniz and Locke on innate ideas.--Greenlee, D. Locke's idea of idea.--Aspelin, G. Idea and perception in Locke's essay.--Greenlee, D. Idea and object in the essay.--Mathews, H. E. Locke, Malebranche and the representative theory.--Alexander, P. Boyle and Locke on primary and secondary qualities.--Ayers, M. R. The ideas of power and substance in Locke's philosophy.--Allison, H. E. Locke's theory of personal identity.--Kretzmann, N. The main thesis of Locke's semantic theory.--Woozley, A. D. Some remarks on (...) Locke's account of knowledge.--Laudan, L. The nature and sources of Locke's views on hypotheses. (shrink)

In the current “second reception” of Althusser, the concept of the capitalist mode of production as explored in Reading Capital and On the Reproduction of Capitalism has been relatively underdiscussed. The concept, however, remains an important component of larger discussions in Marxist theory. This paper rereads Althusser and Balibar’s early contributions to the concept of the mode of production alongside Marx and contemporary thinkers such as Jairus Banaji. In so doing, preliminary connections are made between Althusser’s second reception and important (...) recent interdisciplinary work on subsumption and heterogenous development. (shrink)

Concentrados e Rações Para Cabras em Lactação -/- ___________________________________________________________________________ De um modo geral, há grande dificuldade nas criações zootécnicas nacionais para a formulação e uso racional de concentrados nas rações dos animais, neste caso, de caprinos, em especial, para cabras em lactação. O problema torna-se real e complexo em função das particularidades apresentadas pelos animais relativas ao seu trato digestivo, além de seus hábitos alimentares. Uma séria dificuldade relacionada com a tomada de decisão no momento da formulação da ração concentrada (...) reside na qualidade do volumoso utilizado. Esse volumoso possui uma qualidade bromatológica variável, na maioria das vezes, seja pelo manejo inadequado da forrageira ou do próprio ciclo vegetativo da planta utilizada. O solo também possui grande impacto nas características químicas da forrageira disponibilizada para os animais. Dada a variabilidade da qualidade da ração volumosa, o concentrado torna-se mal balanceado, sendo fornecido em quantidades inadequadas, favorecendo uma sub ou super alimentação, o que acarreta níveis de produção insatisfatórios e grande prejuízo para a indústria caprina, uma vez que afetará diretamente as características químicas e físicas do leite da cabra, mudando seus teores de sólidos totais etc. -/- OS NUTRIENTES E SUA IMPORT NCIA Muitos nutrientes são necessários na dieta da cabra para a realização do metabolismo normal, para a manutenção das funções corporais e para a produção que inclui acréscimo de tecido (animal em crescimento), para a reprodução e sua manutenção e, por fim, para a produção dos produtos como carne, leite e fibra. As classes específicas de nutrientes incluem carboidratos e lipídeos que fornecem energia; nitrogênio proteico ou não proteico que fornecem aminoácidos e energia; vitaminas; minerais e água. Embora seja ignorada por muitos autores, a água é um nutriente necessário para a digestão, metabolismo e produção. -/- Energia -/- A eficiência da utilização dos alimentos depende de um suprimento adequado de energia, uma vez que o processo de utilização dos alimentos requer gasto energético, sendo, portanto, de grande importância o suprimento energético para a produtividade dos caprinos. A deficiência energética retarda o crescimento e desenvolvimento de cabritos, aumenta a idade à puberdade, reduz a fertilidade e diminui a produção leiteira. Uma deficiência persistente acarreta redução na resistência a doenças infecciosas e parasitárias. A baixa resistência imunológica associada a deficiência energética ainda pode ser agravada mediante o déficit de outros princípios nutritivos como proteínas, vitaminas e minerais. O consumo inapropriado de energia resulta na inadequada ingestão de alimentos ou na baixa qualidade da dieta fornecida para o caprino. A baixa ingestão de energia também pode ser causada pelas altas quantidades de água presentes em algumas forrageiras in natura, por isso o ideal é o fornecimento de volumosos na sua matéria seca, onde será disponibilizado somente os nutrientes, segundo suas características bromatológicas. Segundo DA SILVA & FONTAIN, 2021 a base de qualquer ração é a energia, e se houver uma deficiência existente, os demais nutrientes e os aditivos serão subutilizados pelos animais. Os ruminantes possuem a capacidade de utilização energética através dos carboidratos complexos como celulose, hemicelulose, pectina etc., que estão presentes nas forragens, essa utilização acontece graças ao processo de fermentação que ocorre no rúmen. Entretanto, assim como ocorre em monogástricos, também possuem a capacidade de utilização de demais carboidratos como amido e açúcares. Os ruminantes exigem determinada quantidade de fibra, mas dependendo do animal, do nível de produção e dos ingredientes da ração, há necessidade de incluir na ração os denominados concentrados energéticos. Por exemplo as rações ricas em volumosos (alimentos fibrosos) não podem atender os requisitos energéticos em razão das limitações físicas do animal para ingerir uma quantidade suficiente de alimento, isto é, para atender suas exigências seria necessário grandes quantidades de ração volumosa ingerida, o que é impossível devido a capacidade do rúmen. Neste caso, para se reduzir o volume de ração ingerida, há necessidade de substituir parte dos alimentos fibrosos por concentrados energéticos de boa qualidade. Tais considerações são suficientes para aclarar a importância do aporte de energia no balanceamento de rações para cabras em lactação. -/- Proteínas -/- As proteínas exercem várias funções no organismo do animal e, desse modo, tornam- -se essenciais à alimentação. Elas são necessárias, por exemplo, para a manutenção do organismo, para reparos e formação dos tecidos que são continuamente desgastados, na manutenção dos processos fisiológicos, no crescimento de fetos e dos animais jovens e na síntese do leite. Os ruminantes, assim como outros animais, necessitam de vários componentes na dieta para desempenharem suas funções produtivas e reprodutivas. Esses componentes são chamados essenciais, do qual sem a sua presença os animais não poderiam sobreviver. Entre eles estão as fontes de nitrogênio proteico e não proteico que, após transformações fisiológicas e metabólicas, dão origem a proteínas que são digeridas, absorvidas e utilizadas pelos ruminantes (FERREIRA, 1983). As proteínas destacam-se, dentro das substâncias essenciais, pela amplitude de funções que desempenham no organismo. Estas participam desde a estruturação do corpo (músculos, cartilagens, unhas, pele e pelos), até mecanismos complexos de transporte e metabolismo. Portanto, dentre o supracitado, é essencial conhecer os principais concentrados proteicos e seus limites de utilização, visando o melhor aproveitamento destes, desde a esfera econômica até o impacto positivo sobre a produção de produtos caprinos. -/- Minerais -/- Existem pelo menos 15 minerais essenciais para a nutrição dos ruminantes, dentre os macronutrientes, isto é, os exigidos em maior quantidade na dieta, estão o cálcio, fósforo, sódio, cloro, magnésio, potássio e enxofre, e dentre os micronutrientes, ou seja, exigidos em menor quantidade, porém essenciais a sua presença, estão o ferro, iodo, zinco, cobre, manganês, cobalto, molibdênio e selênio. Em qualquer região, concentrações tóxicas de minerais como cobre, flúor, manganês, molibdênio ou selênio causam redução na produção e produtividade animal. As deficiências minerais ou desequilíbrio destes no solo e nas forrageiras cultivadas neste, têm sido responsáveis pelos baixos índices reprodutivos, ou seja, tais déficits ocasionam perdas nos processos reprodutivos normais, além de causar inadequada produtividade em diversas regiões do Brasil. Segundo dados apresentados por SOUSA, 1983 os caprinos sob pastagens, com elevados déficits de fósforo, cobalto ou cobre, podem apresentar perdas superiores relativas a produção cárnea e láctea em relação aos animais criados sob pastagens com déficits de energia e/ou proteína. Os macrominerais presentes na ração (volumosa ou concentrada) chegam ao rúmen e são dissolvidos, desempenhando uma série de funções importantes, além das específicas nas células e nos tecidos. Dentre elas incluem-se a mantença de um pH constante através da formação da solução tamponante, mantença de um potencial de redução e da pressão osmótica no rúmen. Os micronutrientes, por sua vez, possuem mais funções específicas na célula e no tecido, atuando como constituintes de coenzimas, catalizadores etc. (COELHO DA SILVA & LEÃO, 1979). Assim, torna-se indispensável conhecer as fontes dos minerais e a melhor maneira de utilizá-los durante o preparo de concentrados para cabras em lactação. -/- Vitaminas -/- Os caprinos necessitam fontes alimentares de vitaminas lipossolúveis (A, D, E e K), entretanto os microrganismos do rúmen, através do metabolismo e fermentação, produzem quantidades suficientes de vitaminas hidrossolúveis. Os animais em pastejo somente obtém suficientes quantidades de vitaminas ou precursores de vitaminas para satisfazer as necessidades, porém pode ser necessário a adição complementar de suplementos vitamínicos aos animais alimentados em confinamento ou com altas produções leiteiras. Os ruminantes exigem todas as vitaminas que são metabolicamente essenciais para os monogástricos. Essa indicação tem sido obtida através de estudos sobre as exigências vitamínicas em animais jovens, antes do desenvolvimento completo e funcionamento adequado do rúmen, ou com o emprego de inibidores da vitamina em estudo e observando-se a consequente manifestação do sintoma de deficiência. O suprimento de vitaminas do complexo B e da vitamina K para o ruminante é feito em decorrência das fermentações que ocorrem no aparelho digestivo. Entretanto, existem algumas dúvidas se a síntese de algumas vitaminas do complexo B é adequada para manter altos níveis de produção e uma alta taxa de crescimento. Como supracitado, existem inúmeras informações de que a maioria das vitaminas possam ser sintetizadas ou no trato gastrointestinal ou nos tecidos. Entretanto, as vitaminas A, D e E devem ser fornecidas ao animal (ARAÚJO & ZANETTI, 2019). As principais funções das vitaminas do complexo B estão relacionadas com o eficiente aproveitamento dos açúcares, gorduras e proteínas dos alimentos. A vitamina C possui papel imprescindível no metabolismo geral dos nutrientes. Quanto à vitamina K, sua função mais relatada é como fator anti-hemorrágico, agindo na coagulação do sangue (VELLOSO, 1983). Quanto à vitamina A, sabemos que não existe nos vegetais, entretanto o caroteno presente é um precursor desta, onde este sofre metabolismo e se transforma em vitamina A no organismo do animal, por isso, muitas vezes é relatado como pró-vitamina A. Os ruminantes são excelentes animais quando se fala na transformação de ß-carotenos em vitamina A. A coloração verde das plantas forrageiras é uma garantia da presença de pigmentos carotenoides nelas. Assim, durante a época das águas (chuvas), quando as forrageiras consumidas estão verdes, não há qualquer problema quanto ao suprimento de pró-vitamina A. Por sua vez, quando as pastagens estão amareladas e secas, pode aumentar a possibilidade do aparecimento de sintomas de deficiência de vitamina A, e esse problema pode ser agravado conforme aumenta-se o período de estiagem (VELLOSO, 1983). Deve-se dar especial atenção às cabras em lactação que, na maioria dos casos, recebem ração à base de fenos, que muitas vezes são mal conservados e apresentam pequeno conteúdo de ß-caroteno. As dietas típicas para caprinos contêm quantidades de caroteno suficientes para prevenir possíveis deficiências de vitamina A. O hábito alimentar dos caprinos sob pastejo, isto é, sua tendência de selecionar as partes mais verdes da planta coloca-os em vantagem em relação a outros ruminantes, entretanto, na ausência de partes verdes essa vantagem não possui importância. A deficiência de vitamina A em caprinos criados nos trópicos é rara, exceto nas condições supracitadas (DA SILVA et. al., 2021). A vitamina E apresenta uma deficiência ocasional em caprinos, embora essa vitamina, que é transferida através do leite, seja considerada essencial em função de suas propriedades antioxidantes (DA SILVA et. al., 2021). A vitamina D é relatada como fator anti-raquítico, dada sua propriedade em prevenir o raquitismo através de duas vias conhecidas, seja pelo aumento da absorção de cálcio dietético pelo intestino delgado ou pela mobilização deste, presente nos ossos. Além de evitar o raquitismo em animais jovens, a vitamina D também atua na integridade corporal dos adultos. Os caprinos expostos à luz solar por alguns minutos diariamente conseguem receber vitamina D em quantidades suficientes para suas necessidades fisiológicas, esse recebimento de vitamina D acontece através da conversão do 7-dehidrocolesterol da pele em vitamina D3, portanto a vitamina D3 é uma pró-vitamina. Assim, em animais mantidos em regime de pastejo, nas condições brasileiras, não há maior preocupação quanto ao suprimento de vitamina D3 (VELLOSO, 1983). Entretanto, os animais em regime de confinamento total, onde não possuem acesso à luz solar, devem receber atenção especial, uma vez que podem ocorrer deficiência desta vitamina, esta que pode ser evitada mediante o fornecimento da vitamina na mistura concentrada. -/- Água -/- Muitos autores da área de nutrição animal, seja em artigos ou livros, desconsideram a água como nutriente essencial para os animais, entretanto ela é imprescindível para inúmeras funções metabólicas. Além da água de bebida, os caprinos obtêm água através dos alimentos consumidos na matéria natural, da neve derretida e através do orvalho. A necessidade de água se deve a três motivos, primeiro pela excreção de água nas fezes e na urina ligada à utilização digestiva e metabólica dos alimentos; segundo pela fixação e exportação de água nas produções (carne, leite, pele e fibra); e, por fim, pelas perdas de vapor de água pelos pulmões e através da pele. O total de água requerida varia segundo o tamanho e condição fisiológica do animal, a temperatura ambiental e o nível de ingestão de matéria seca do animal. A ingestão de água é expressa em kg de água necessária por kg de matéria seca ingerida. Nas condições brasileiras, onde a temperatura fica acima dos 30 ºC, normalmente, o ideal de fornecimento é de 6-10 kg de água/kg de IMS. O consumo total é estimado em 3,5 kg de água/kg de leite produzido. Segundo DA SILVA & AIRES, 2018 as recomendações são de 145,6 g de água/kg de peso metabólico (kg0,75) para mantença e 1,43 kg/kg de leite produzido. Para aclarar os dados, suponhamos uma cabra em lactação com 40 kg de PV e produção de 5 kg de leite/dia, seu consumo será de 145,6 g x 400,75 = 2,32 kg de água para mantença + 1,43 x 5 = 7,15 kg de água, seu consumo total será 9,47 kg de água/dia. É necessário enfatizar que, à medida que a temperatura ambiental aumenta, os requisitos de água também aumentam. Em condições semidesérticas os caprinos adaptam-se, bebendo água apenas duas vezes por semana. A equação de necessidade de água, segundo DA SILVA & AIRES, 2018, é: ingestão total de água (L/dia) = 3,86 x IMS - 0,99. REQUISITOS NUTRICIONAIS -/- Para que possamos formular uma dieta balanceada e que os concentrados possam ser utilizados eficazmente e racionalmente, primeiramente é necessário conhecer as exigências nutricionais das cabras em lactação. Esses requerimentos são, na verdade, aproximações dos valores reais das exigências dos animais. Normalmente, os requisitos são tabulados, visando a facilidade no manejo de informações, entendimento e utilização dos dados na prática. Infelizmente, no Brasil não existem tabelas das exigências nutricionais dos caprinos e, com isso, é imperativo a utilização de dados obtidos em outros países e que possuem condições climáticas e animais diferentes, o que nem sempre corresponde à realidade brasileira. Os dados mais utilizados para estabelecimento das exigências são os do NRC nos Estados Unidos, AFRC na Inglaterra, CSIRO na Austrália, INRA na França e FEDNA na Espanha. A tabela 1 apresenta os requisitos nutricionais de ingestão de matéria seca de cabras leiteiras segundo a equação proposta pelo AFRC. É importante levar em consideração todos os fatores que afetam as exigências das cabras, tais como exigências de mantença, gestação, crescimento, atividade física, lactação, clima, raça etc. Os valores apresentados na tabela 2 devem ser incluídos aos valores de mantença. Os requerimentos completos dos caprinos podem ser tomados nas tabelas 3 a 19 do livro Formulação de Ração Para Caprinos. Como supracitado, os valores das exigências para produção de leite devem ser adicionados aos de mantença, por sua vez a tabela 3 apresenta os valores de produção que devem ser múltiplos dos requisitos de mantença. Existem formulações que levam em consideração a porcentagem de nutrientes no conteúdo total do concentrado. Diversos autores publicam quantidades de proteína, nutrientes digestíveis totais, cálcio e fósforo com base na matéria seca da ração. DA SILVA, 2021 sugere que para cabras em lactação com uma ou duas crias é ideal um concentrado com 14 a 16% de proteína bruta. Uma formulação para cabras em lactação, segundo DA SILVA, 2021, pode obedecer a ordem de 3 a 5% de IMS, 16 a 24% de proteína bruta, 65% de nutrientes digestíveis totais e minerais na ordem de 0,75% Ca e 0,3% P. O teor de nutrientes na mistura concentrada é importante para saber se a ração irá atender às exigências das cabras em lactação (tabela 8). O conhecimento dos níveis de nutrientes na mistura é essencial para elaborar uma ração balanceada que atenda aos requisitos de mantença e de produção. É importante, também, saber as observações quanto a relação entre energia/proteína e entre os minerais para que não haja um mau aproveitamento dos nutrientes e possíveis distúrbios metabólicos. ALIMENTOS CONCENTRADOS -/- Por definição, são aqueles que possuem conteúdo de fibra bruta inferior a 18%. Eles são divididos em concentrados proteicos e energéticos, quando possuem mais ou menos de 20% de proteína bruta, respectivamente. Um grande número de alimentos pode ser usado no balanceamento das misturas de concentrados na propriedade e deve permitir uma formulação equilibrada nutricionalmente, economicamente e de boa qualidade. As tabelas 9 e 10 apresentam a composição de alguns alimentos concentrados considerados mais comuns na formulação de dietas e de maior disponibilidade no Brasil. As recomendações para utilização de concentrados nas rações de cabras leiteiras podem variar em função dos demais ingredientes da ração total. De modo geral, quanto aos concentrados energéticos, não existem restrições às quantidades usadas na ração, desde que as exigências nutricionais sejam atendidas. A tabela 11 apresenta as restrições de utilização dos ingredientes na ração de caprinos. De tal forma pode ser pensado para os concentrados proteicos, entretanto, nesse caso, exige-se mais cuidado por parte do formulador, uma vez que deve-se levar em consideração a carga energética presente no ingrediente proteico. Deve-se enfatizar sempre que a utilização de ingredientes de origem animal é expressamente proibida na alimentação de ruminantes. Deve-se, ainda, referenciar quanto ao uso de fontes de nitrogênio não proteico (NNP) (ureia, biureto etc.) que podem ser usadas com vantagens nas dietas com alta carga energética. O critério de uso de NNP, em até ⅓ da proteína total da dieta, ainda pode ser utilizado de forma generalizada. RECOMENDAÇÕES PARA USO DAS MISTURAS DE CONCENTRADOS -/- Qualquer tipo de alimento concentrado pode ser usado no preparo de uma mistura de boa qualidade, entretanto os requerimentos das cabras devem ser atendidos. Sendo assim, o preço e a disponibilidade dos alimentos básicos são fatores importantes na escolha dos ingredientes. Conforme supracitado, a composição da mistura concentrada depende da qualidade do volumoso. Para que o produtor tenha garantia e controle de que as exigências estão sendo supridas, é recomendável o ajuste periódico das quantidades de concentrados que serão fornecidas. Esse ajuste é necessário em função da mudança da composição química das forrageiras com o avanço da maturidade fisiológica da planta. Essa composição normalmente existe em tabelas, entretanto as melhores aproximações são obtidas quando se faz a análise destas forrageiras em laboratórios especializados. É difícil fazer uma recomendação única para fornecimento de concentrado para cabras em lactação. Cada propriedade dispõe de recursos forrageiros peculiares, com variações na qualidade nutricional. Não obstante, os valores apresentados na tabela 12 podem servir de guia quando há impossibilidade de realização de um balanceamento específico para cada propriedade. É essencial a verificação dos níveis de outros nutrientes, tais como energia e minerais. Em geral, a preocupação é dada somente à proteína e, muitas vezes, a energia é negligenciada. O conteúdo de energia da ração (EM, EL ou NDT) muitas vezes se apresenta deficiente, o que possui relação direta com os índices de produção e produtividade insatisfatórios. Este é um dos pontos de limitação da produção leiteira, principalmente porque escapa à capacidade de observação do criador. Quando alimentadas com forrageiras de média ou baixa qualidade, é necessário completar os requerimentos de mantença das cabras e, dependendo da qualidade da forrageira disponível, recomenda-se de 200 a 500 g de concentrado/cabeça/dia. As fontes de NNP também podem ser utilizadas para cabras em lactação, desde que não ultrapasse ⅓ do nitrogênio total da dieta. Em termos práticos, a ureia deve constituir até 1% da matéria seca total da dieta ou, aproximadamente, 3% da mistura de concentrados. Uma adaptação gradativa é necessária para que os caprinos possam aproveitar eficazmente a ureia sem distúrbios. Essa adaptação é feita com níveis crescentes de ureia adicionados ao concentrado na base de 0,5% por semana até a limitação. Desta forma, na sexta semana, as cabras estarão recebendo concentrado contendo 3% do elemento. No caso de cabras de alta produção leiteira, é essencial dar atenção aos minerais, uma vez que elas não conseguem ingerir as quantidades exigidas para sua mantença e produção. Para mitigar o problema, recomenda-se adicionar ao concentrado ou à mistura concentrada um premix, isto é, uma mistura vitamínico-mineral completa ao nível de 3%. As rações comerciais também podem ser utilizadas, desde que se verifiquem os níveis de garantia, tanto de qualidade como de composição. É importante que se evite rações com altos níveis de proteína, onde, normalmente, não possuem boa relação energia/proteína. Essas rações, em geral, não são bem aproveitadas pelas cabras, onerando o custo de produção de leite. É importante sempre frisar que um máximo cuidado deve ser dado ao estado de conservação dos ingredientes. As condições de armazenamento devem ser as melhores possíveis, procurando-se locais secos e com boa ventilação. Alimentos rancificados, de uma forma geral, são rejeitados pelas cabras. No caso de utilização de alimentos com alto conteúdo de matéria graxa, que se rancificam facilmente, deve-se ter cuidados especiais, evitando-se preparar grandes quantidades de uma só vez. Outro ponto que merece destaque é a presença de bolores. Os alimentos mofados devem ser sistematicamente eliminados, pois além de causar danos à saúde do animal, podem também ocasionar problemas para a saúde humana. Intoxicações por aflatoxina são frequentemente relatadas em caprinos. Assim, o uso de ingredientes suscetíveis ao fungo (Aspergillus flavus) que produz aflatoxina, deve ser feito com ressalvas. É imprescindível salientar que essas toxinas também podem ser produzidas por outros fungos e podem estar presentes em uma série de alimentos em más condições de armazenamento. O local de armazenamento dos ingredientes ou da mistura concentrada deve possuir boa vedação para não permitir a entrada de insetos e/ou roedores. A proliferação de insetos, além de causar danos físicos aos alimentos, uma vez que se alimentam de alguns princípios nutritivos, produz um aquecimento em função dos processos metabólicos dos insetos, o que reduz as características do alimento e seu valor nutritivo. É essencial que o local seja à prova de roedores, pois além do grande desperdício de ração, causado pelo consumo e danos às embalagens, os roedores também são vetores de doenças que causam sérios prejuízos e perdas ao criatório. Na maioria dos casos, essas doenças escapam à capacidade de observação do criador. As cabras devem ser alimentadas segundo sua produção. Neste caso, é importante que a alimentação seja individual. Pode-se fornecer a ração durante a ordenha ou no intervalo do fornecimento da ração volumosa, porém sempre em horário previamente estabelecido. A mistura concentrada pode ser fornecida em cochos coletivos, mas é necessário a instalação de canzis para a contenção dos animais. É essencial que, antes do fornecimento, os cochos estejam limpos para permitir um melhor aproveitamento. Os concentrados muito farelados devem ser evitados durante a ordenha, uma vez que podem afetar a qualidade do leite pelo aumento da possibilidade de contaminação com poeira. As cabras de alta produção devem receber a ração concentrada dividida em duas ou três refeições no dia para permitir melhor aproveitamento. O fornecimento da mistura concentrada juntamente com a ração volumosa não é recomendável, mesmo que esta seja de baixa qualidade, porque de forma geral causam desperdício. No caso de cabras semi-confinadas, a prática da mistura de concentrados com os volumosos pode facilitar e agilizar o arraçoamento. Neste caso, também se faz recomendável a disposição de canzis nos comedouros para evitar a competição entre os animais. -/- RAÇÕES PARA CABRAS EM LACTAÇÃO -/- As rações de cabras em produção de leite devem ser de boa qualidade, produzidas em ambiente higienizado e com normas de segurança, além de, no caso de armazenamento, serem armazenadas em ambiente limpo, arejado e fora do alcance de insetos e roedores. Além das condições de fabricação e armazenagem, a ração, quando formulada, deverá obedecer os requisitos nutricionais das cabras para sua mantença e para a produção de leite. Sabemos que quanto maior a produção mais nutritiva deverá ser a ração. O fornecimento de ração volumosa também é essencial para o funcionamento normal do rúmen, além de fornecer uma carga nutricional. A relação entre volumoso e concentrado é importante, um não pode se sobressair em excesso sobre o outro, caso aconteça, haverá um desbalanceamento e consequente baixa na produção e produtividade. O limite de utilização dos ingredientes concentrados também é importante, caso haja uma incorporação maior de um dado ingrediente, poderá haver perdas significativas; por exemplo, se houver maior incorporação de ureia poderá haver intoxicação do animal. Na sequência, são apresentadas rações para cabras em lactação formuladas e disponíveis no livro sobre formulação de ração para caprinos do mesmo autor, exemplos 2 e seção rações prontas para caprinos números 2, 3, 4 e 21. A primeira ração formulada é para uma cabra da raça Saanen com 50 kg de PV e produção leiteira de 5 kg/dia com teor de gordura de 3,5%. A ração é composta por volumoso e concentrado, conforme tabela 13. Tomando os requerimentos da cabra em questão e a composição química da dieta, observamos que a dieta volumosa e concentrada supre todas as exigências nutricionais do animal (tabela 13.1). A seguir, são apresentadas misturas de volumosos e concentrados para cabras em lactação, conforme as recomendações dadas por DA SILVA, 2021 sobre os níveis nutricionais de rações para a categoria. Segundo o autor, a composição industrial de um concentrado deve ser de 16 a 24% de proteína bruta, 65% de nutrientes digestíveis totais, 0,75% de Ca e 0,3% de P, seguindo um CMS de 3 a 5% do peso vivo. Tais valores são genéricos, o ideal é consultar as tabelas de exigências das cabras. Os valores das misturas supracitadas, tanto de quantidade como de composição, são genéricos e podem variar em função de alguns fatores, os mais importantes são composição bromatológica dos ingredientes e das exigências nutricionais das cabras. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ARAÚJO, L. F.; ZANETTI, M. A. (Eds.). Nutrição Animal, 1ª ed. Barueri: Manole, 2019. COELHO DA SILVA, J. F. Concentrados energéticos para ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 37-42, 1983. COELHO DA SILVA, J. F.; LEÃO, M. I. Fundamentos de nutrição dos ruminantes. Piracicaba: Livroceres, 1979. 380 p. CRAMPTON, Earle W.; HARRIS, Lorin E. Nutrición animal aplicada: el uso de los alimentos en la formulación de raciones para el ganado. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1979. AIRES, P. R. R. Água na nutrição de caprinos e ovinos. In: Seminário da disciplina de Caprino-ovinocultura da professora Drª. Alcilene Maria Andrade Tavares Samay. Curso Técnico em Agropecuária. Belo Jardim: IFPE, 2018. DA SILVA, A. T. M. Rações para cabritos, caprinos a pasto, em mantença, reprodutores e cabras gestantes e em lactação. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. DA SILVA, C. L.; ALVES, A. A. A.; DA SILVA, S. R. P. Minerais e vitaminas na formulação de dietas para ruminantes. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. FONTAIN, E. C. da S. Energia e proteína na formulação de dietas para ruminantes. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. Formulação de Ração Para Caprinos. Belo Jardim, 2021. 97p. FERREIRA, J. J. Proteína e concentrados proteicos na alimentação de ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 43-48, 1983. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL et al. Nutrient requirements of small ruminants: sheep, goats, cervids, and new world camelids. 中国法制出版社, 2007. SAMPAIO, J. M. C. et al. Criação de cabras leiteiras. Brasília: EMBRATER, 1984. 243p. Nutrição e Suplementação Mineral de Bovinos de Corte. Curso de Técnico em Agropecuária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Pernambuco, Belo Jardim, PE. SOLAIMAN, Sandra G. (Ed.). Goat science and production. John Wiley & Sons, 2010. SOUSA, J. C. Os minerais na alimentação dos ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 49-57, 1983. VELLOSO, L. Importância das vitaminas para os bovinos. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 63-66, 1983. (shrink)

RIGHT TO SILENCE-UK, U.S, FRANCE, and GERMANY SALLY RAMAGE (TRADE MARK REGISTERED) WIPO Orchid ID 0000-0002-8854-4293 Pages 2-30 Current Criminal Law, Volume 1, Issue 2, -/- Sally Ramage, BA (Hons), MBA, LLM, MPhil, MCIJ, MCMI, DA., ASLS, BAWP. Orchid ID 0000-0002-8854-4293 Publisher & Managing Editor Criminal Lawyer series [1980-2022](ISSN 2049-8047) Current Criminal Law series [2008-2022] (ISSN 1758-8405) and Criminal Law News series [2008-2022] (ISSN 1758-8421). Sweet & Maxwell (Thomson Reuters) (Licensed Annotator of UK Statutes) in annual law books Current Law (...) Statutes Annotated, (2006, 2009, 2010 editions) (sole and separate S&M contracts) for 7 UK Criminal Justice Statutes: UK Safeguarding Vulnerable Persons Act 2006; UK International Development Act 2006; UK Fraud Act 2006; UK Policing and Crime Act 2009, UK Local Democracy Act 2009; UK Bribery Act 2010; and UK Crime and Security Act 2010. TradeMark SALLY RAMAGE ® (2005-2025) in the UK, 2401827; WIPO TradeMark SALLY RAMAGE® 900614; USA TradeMark 3,440,910) (2008-2028). WARNING: The doing of an unauthorized act in relation to a copyright work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution. -/- ABSTRACT The privilege of the right to silence can be traced back to the 12th century, becoming more developed in later centuries. -/- Table of cases European Court of Human Rights Deweer v Belgium [1980], Eckle v Germany [1982], DN v The Netherlands [1975], Funke v France [1993] 16 EHRR 297, JP v Austria [1989], Kansal v UK [2003] Application No 21413/02 Khan v UK [2000] 31 EHRR 45, Saunders v UK [1997] 23 EHRR 313, Schenk v Switzerland [1991] 13 EHRR 242, and Tora Tolmos v Spain [1995] Table of Cases United Kingdom Brown v Procurator Fiscal, Dunfermline, [2000] , The Times, Feb 14, High Ct Scot.; HM Advocate v Friel [1978] SLT; Lambe v Munster [1882] 10 QBD 110.; Pearse v Pearse [1846] Eng Rep 950 (on truth); Re Pantmaenog Timber Co Ltd [2003] HL; R v Bryce [1992] 95 Cr App Rep 320; R v Canale [1990] 2 All ER 187; R v Fitzpatrick [1995] 4 SCR 154; R v Herbert [1990] 2 SCR 151; R V Hertfordshire County Council, ex parte Green Environmental Industries and another [2000] 1 All ER 773; R v Keenan [1989] Crim LR 720; R v Maguire [1990] Cr App Rep 115; R v Pound, Green and ors [2004]; R v Sang [1979] Crim LR 655; R v Saunders [1986] unreported; R v Seelig, R v Spens [1991] CA; R v Smith [1992] 95 Cr App. R. 191; R v Steen and ors [2003] unreported; R v Walsh [1981] CrimLR 822; R V Ward 96 Cr App R [1993]; R v Weekes [1993] Crim LR 211; R v White [1999] 2 SCR 417; R v Young [2003] unreported; Thompson Newspaper v Canada [1990] 1 SCR 425; Walsh Automation (Europe) Ltd v Bridgeman and ors [2002] EWHC 1344 QB France-Law France 1789 Declaration des driots de l‟homme et du citoyen 1808 Code d ‟instruction criminelle 1946 Constitution 1958 Code de procedure penale 2000 Penal Code Germany-Law Germany 1871 Criminal Code 1877 Criminal Procedure Code (St PO) 1877 Judicial Organisation Law 1949 Constitution 1975 Criminal Code 1998 Criminal Code Table of Cases Germany Germany BGH Admissibility of secret tape recordings judgement 14 June 1960, in BGHSt 14, 358 BGH Lie detector judgement 16 Feb 1954, in BGHSt 5, 332. BberfG Decision concerning the applicability of ne bis in idem 31 March 1987, in BberfGE 75,1; BGH Sweeping deception of suspect judgement 24 August 1988, in BGHSt 36, 328. BGH Judgement 24 August 1993, in BGHSt 39, 305 Table of Cases United States United States of America California v Byres [1971] 402 U.S. 424; Fisher v United States 475 U.S. 391 [1986]; Griffin v California [1965] 380 US 609 [; Hoffman v United States [1950] 341 U.S. 479; Supreme Court Baldwin v NY, 399 US 143 [1970]; Supreme Court Chavez v Martinez , U.S. 123 [2003]; Supreme Court Doyle v Ohio, 426 U.S. 610 [1976]; Supreme Court Escobedo v Illinois, 378 U.S. 478 [1964]; Supreme Court Giglio v US, 405 U.S. 150 [1972] Supreme Court Harris v NY, 401 U.S. 222 [1971]; Supreme Court Kirby v Illinois, 406 U.S. 682 [1972]; Supreme Court Miranda v Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 [1966]; Supreme Court Moore v Illinois, 408 U.S. 768 [1972]; Supreme Court Moran v Burbine, 475 U.S. [1986]; Supreme Court Orzoco v Texas, 324 U.S.24 [1969]; Supreme Court US v Hale [1975] 422 US 17; Supreme Court US v Leon, 468 U.S. 897 [1984]; Supreme Court US v Salerno, 481 U.S. 739 [1987]; Twining v New Jersey 211 US 78 113 -/- . (shrink)

One of the most frequently voiced criticisms of free will skepticism is that it is unable to adequately deal with criminal behavior and that the responses it would permit as justified are insufficient for acceptable social policy. This concern is fueled by two factors. The first is that one of the most prominent justifications for punishing criminals, retributivism, is incompatible with free will skepticism. The second concern is that alternative justifications that are not ruled out by the skeptical view per (...) se face significant independent moral objections (Pereboom 2014: 153). Despite these concerns, I maintain that free will skepticism leaves intact other ways to respond to criminal behavior—in particular incapacitation, rehabilitation, and alteration of relevant social conditions—and that these methods are both morally justifiable and sufficient for good social policy. The position I defend is similar to Derk Pereboom’s (2001, 2013, 2014), taking as its starting point his quarantine analogy, but it sets out to develop the quarantine model within a broader justificatory framework drawn from public health ethics. The resulting model—which I call the public health-quarantine model (Caruso 2016, 2017a)—provides a framework for justifying quarantine and criminal sanctions that is more humane than retributivism and preferable to other non-retributive alternatives. It also provides a broader approach to criminal behavior than Pereboom’s quarantine analogy does on its own since it prioritizes prevention and social justice. -/- In Section 1, I begin by (very) briefly summarizing my arguments against free will and basic desert moral responsibility. In Section 2, I then introduce and defend my public health-quarantine model, which is a non-retributive alternative to criminal punishment that prioritizes prevention and social justice. In Sections 3 and 4, I take up and respond to two general objections to the public health-quarantine model. Since objections by Michael Corrado (2016), John Lemos (2016), Saul Smilanksy (2011, 2017), and Victor Tadros (2017) have been addressed in detail elsewhere (see Pereboom 2017a; Pereboom and Caruso 2018), I will here focus on objections that have not yet been addressed. In particular, I will respond to concerns about proportionality, human dignity, and victims’ rights. I will argue that each of these concerns can be met and that in the end the public health-quarantine model offers a superior alternative to retributive punishment and other non-retributive accounts. (shrink)

The paper points out that the modern formulation of Bohm’s quantum theory known as Bohmian mechanics is committed only to particles’ positions and a law of motion. We explain how this view can avoid the open questions that the traditional view faces according to which Bohm’s theory is committed to a wave-function that is a physical entity over and above the particles, although it is defined on configuration space instead of three-dimensional space. We then enquire into the status of the (...) law of motion, elaborating on how the main philosophical options to ground a law of motion, namely Humeanism and dispositionalism, can be applied to Bohmian mechanics. In conclusion, we sketch out how these options apply to primitive ontology approaches to quantum mechanics in general. (shrink)

Many philosophers are impressed by the progress achieved by physical sciences. This has had an especially deep effect on their ontological views: it has made many of them physicalists. Physicalists believe that everything is physical: more precisely, that all entities, properties, relations, and facts are those which are studied by physics or other physical sciences. They may not all agree with the spirit of Rutherford's quoted remark that 'there is physics; and there is stamp-collecting',' but they all grant physical science (...) a unique ontological authority: the authority to tell us what there is. Physicalism is now almost orthodox in much philosophy, notably in much recent philosophy of mind. But although often invoked, it is rarely explicitly defined. It should be. The claim that everything is physical is not as clear as it seems. In this paper, we examine a number of proposed definitions of physicalism and reasons for being a physicalist. We will argue both that physicalism lacks a clear and credible definition, and that in no non-vacuous interpretation is it true. We are concerned here only with physicalism as a doctrine about the empirical world. In particular, it should not be confused with nominalism, the doctrine that there are no universals.2 Nominalism and physicalism are quite independent doctrines. Believers in universals may as consistently assert as deny that the only properties and relations are those studied by physical science. And nominalists may with equal consistency assert or deny that physical science could provide enough predicates to describe the world. That is the question which concerns physicalists, not whether physical predicates name real universals. (We will for brevity write as if they do, but we do not need that assumption.). (shrink)

“Love hurts”—as the saying goes—and a certain amount of pain and difficulty in intimate relationships is unavoidable. Sometimes it may even be beneficial, since adversity can lead to personal growth, self-discovery, and a range of other components of a life well-lived. But other times, love can be downright dangerous. It may bind a spouse to her domestic abuser, draw an unscrupulous adult toward sexual involvement with a child, put someone under the insidious spell of a cult leader, and even inspire (...) jealousy-fueled homicide. How might these perilous devotions be diminished? The ancients thought that treatments such as phlebotomy, exercise, or bloodletting could “cure” an individual of love. But modern neuroscience and emerging developments in psychopharmacology open up a range of possible interventions that might actually work. These developments raise profound moral questions about the potential uses—and misuses—of such anti-love biotechnology. In this article, we describe a number of prospective love-diminishing interventions, and offer a preliminary ethical framework for dealing with them responsibly should they arise. (shrink)

Understanding the nature of pain depends, at least partly, on recognizing its subjectivity (thus, its first-person epistemology). This in turn requires using a first-person experiential method in addition to third-person experimental approaches to study it. This paper is an attempt to spell out what the former approach is and how it can be integrated with the latter. We start our discussion by examining some foundational issues raised by the use of introspection. We argue that such a first-person method in the (...) scientific study of pain (as in the study of any experience) is in fact indispensable by demonstrating that it has in fact been consistently used in conjunction with conventional third-person methodologies, and this for good reasons. We show that, contrary to what appears to be a widespread opinion, there is absolutely no reason to think that the use of such a first-person approach is scientifically and methodologically suspect. We distinguish between two uses of introspective methods in scientific experiments: one draws on the subjects’ introspective reports where any investigator has equal and objective access. The other is where the investigator becomes a subject of his own study and draws on the introspection of his own experiences. We give examples using and/or approximating both strategies that include studies of second pain summation and its relationship to neural activities, and brain imaging- psychophysical studies wherein sensory and affective qualities of pain are correlated with cerebral cortical activity. We explain what we call the experiential or phenomenological approach that has its origins in the work of Price and Barrell (1980). This approach capitalizes on the scientific prospects and benefits of using the introspection of the investigator. We distinguish between its vertical and horizontal applications. Finally, we conclude that integrating such an approach to standard third-person methodologies can only help us in having a fuller understanding of pain and of conscious experience in general. (shrink)

This paper engages critically with anti-representationalist arguments pressed by prominent enactivists and their allies. The arguments in question are meant to show that the “as-such” and “job-description” problems constitute insurmountable challenges to causal-informational theories of mental content. In response to these challenges, a positive account of what makes a physical or computational structure a mental representation is proposed; the positive account is inspired partly by Dretske’s views about content and partly by the role of mental representations in contemporary cognitive scientific (...) modeling. (shrink)

Pharmaceuticals or other emerging technologies could be used to enhance (or diminish) feelings of lust, attraction, and attachment in adult romantic partnerships. While such interventions could conceivably be used to promote individual (and couple) well-being, their widespread development and/or adoption might lead to “medicalization” of human love and heartache—for some, a source of serious concern. In this essay, we argue that the “medicalization of love” need not necessarily be problematic, on balance, but could plausibly be expected to have either good (...) or bad consequences depending upon how it unfolds. By anticipating some of the specific ways in which these technologies could yield unwanted outcomes, bioethicists and others can help direct the course of love’s “medicalization”—should it happen to occur—more toward the “good” side than the “bad.”. (shrink)

One of the most frequently voiced criticisms of free will skepticism is that it is unable to adequately deal with criminal behavior and that the responses it would permit as justified are insufficient for acceptable social policy. This concern is fueled by two factors. The first is that one of the most prominent justifications for punishing criminals, retributivism, is incompatible with free will skepticism. The second concern is that alternative justifications that are not ruled out by the skeptical view per (...) se face significant independent moral objections. Yet despite these concerns, I maintain that free will skepticism leaves intact other ways to respond to criminal behavior—in particular preventive detention, rehabilitation, and alteration of relevant social conditions—and that these methods are both morally justifiable and sufficient for good social policy. The position I defend is similar to Derk Pereboom’s, taking as its starting point his quarantine analogy, but it sets out to develop the quarantine model within a broader justificatory framework drawn from public health ethics. The resulting model—which I call the public health -quarantine model—provides a framework for justifying quarantine and criminal sanctions that is more humane than retributivism and preferable to other non-retributive alternatives. It also provides a broader approach to criminal behavior than Pereboom’s quarantine analogy does on its own. (shrink)

The idea that there could be spatially extended mereological simples has recently been defended by a number of metaphysicians (Markosian 1998, 2004; Simons 2004; Parsons (2000) also takes the idea seriously). Peter Simons (2004) goes further, arguing not only that spatially extended mereological simples (henceforth just extended simples) are possible, but that it is more plausible that our world is composed of such simples, than that it is composed of either point-sized simples, or of atomless gunk. The difficulty for these (...) views lies in explaining why it is that the various sub-volumes of space occupied by such simples, are not occupied by proper parts of those simples. Intuitively at least, many of us find compelling the idea that spatially extended objects have proper parts at every sub-volume of the region they occupy. It seems that the defender of extended simples must reject a seemingly plausible claim, what Simons calls the geometric correspondence principle (GCP): that any (spatially) extended object has parts that correspond to the parts of the region that it occupies (Simons 2004: 371). We disagree. We think that GCP is a plausible principle. We also think it is plausible that our world is composed of extended simples. We reconcile these two notions by two means. On the one hand we pay closer attention to the physics of our world. On the other hand, we consider what happens when our concept of something—in this case space—contains elements not all of which are realized in anything, but instead key components are realized in different features of the world. (shrink)

The use of the symbol ∨for disjunction in formal logic is ubiquitous. Where did it come from? The paper details the evolution of the symbol ∨ in its historical and logical context. Some sources say that disjunction in its use as connecting propositions or formulas was introduced by Peano; others suggest that it originated as an abbreviation of the Latin word for “or,” vel. We show that the origin of the symbol ∨ for disjunction can be traced to Whitehead and (...) Russell’s pre-Principia work in formal logic. Because of Principia’s influence, its notation was widely adopted by philosophers working in logic (the logical empiricists in the 1920s and 1930s, especially Carnap and early Quine). Hilbert’s adoption of ∨ in his Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik guaranteed its widespread use by mathematical logicians. The origins of other logical symbols are also discussed. (shrink)

This volume offers a collection of in-depth explorations of pragmatism as a framework for discussions in philosophy of science and metaphysics. Each chapter involves explicit reflection on what it means to be pragmatist, and how to use pragmatism as a guiding framework in addressing topics such as realism, unification, fundamentality, truth, laws, reduction, and more. -/- .

Much of the recent philosophical discussion about free will has been focused on whether compatibilists can adequately defend how a determined agent could exercise the type of free will that would enable the agent to be morally responsible in what has been called the basic desert sense :5–24, 1994; Fischer in Four views on free will, Wiley, Hoboken, 2007; Vargas in Four views on free will, Wiley, Hoboken, 2007; Vargas in Philos Stud, 144:45–62, 2009). While we agree with Derk Pereboom (...) and others that the compatibilist’s burden should be properly understood as providing a compelling account of how a determined agent could be morally responsible in the basic desert sense, the exact nature of this burden has been rendered somewhat unclear by the fact that there has been no definitive account given as to what the basic desert sense of moral responsibility amounts to. In Sect. 1 we set out to clarify the compatibilist’s burden by presenting our account of basic desert moral responsibility—which we call retributivist desert moral responsibility for purposes of clarity—and explain why it is of central philosophical and practical importance to the free will debate. In Sect. 2 we employ a thought experiment to illustrate the kind of difficulty that compatibilists of any stripe are likely to encounter in attempting to explain how determined agents can exercise the kind of free will needed for retributivist desert moral responsibility. (shrink)

This essay challenges the widely accepted principle that a person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done otherwise. The author considers situations in which there are sufficient conditions for a certain choice or action to be performed by someone, So that it is impossible for the person to choose or to do otherwise, But in which these conditions do not in any way bring it about that the person chooses or acts as he (...) does. In such situations the person may well be morally responsible for what he chooses or does despite his inability to choose or to do otherwise. Finally the author considers certain suggestions for revising the principle he rejects or for replacing it with a principle of an altogether different kind. (shrink)

This chapter proposes a radically enactive account of remembering that casts it as creative, dynamic, and wide-reaching. It paints a picture of remembering that no longer conceives of it as involving passive recollections – always occurring wholly and solely inside heads. Integrating empirical findings from various sources, the chapter puts pressure on familiar cognitivist visions of remembering. Pivotally, it is argued, that we achieve a stronger and more elegant account of remembering by abandoning the widely held assumption that it is (...) rooted in the retrieval of stored information or content in order to represent past events. We demonstrate how a radically enactive account of the roots of remembering can successfully handle classic cases discussed in the extended memory literature while, at same time, accommodating experientially rich forms of episodic memory. (shrink)

Within the United States, the most prominent justification for criminal punishment is retributivism. This retributivist justification for punishment maintains that punishment of a wrongdoer is justified for the reason that she deserves something bad to happen to her just because she has knowingly done wrong—this could include pain, deprivation, or death. For the retributivist, it is the basic desert attached to the criminal’s immoral action alone that provides the justification for punishment. This means that the retributivist position is not reducible (...) to consequentialist considerations nor in justifying punishment does it appeal to wider goods such as the safety of society or the moral improvement of those being punished. A number of sentencing guidelines in the U.S. have adopted desert as their distributive principle, and it is increasingly given deference in the “purposes” section of state criminal codes, where it can be the guiding principle in the interpretation and application of the code’s provisions. Indeed, the American Law Institute recently revised the Model Penal Code so as to set desert as the official dominate principle for sentencing. And courts have identified desert as the guiding principle in a variety of contexts, as with the Supreme Court’s enthroning retributivism as the “primary justification for the death penalty.” While retributivism provides one of the main sources of justification for punishment within the criminal justice system, there are good philosophical and practical reasons for rejecting it. One such reason is that it is unclear that agents truly deserve to suffer for the wrongs they have done in the sense required by retributivism. In the first section, I explore the retributivist justification of punishment and explain why it is inconsistent with free will skepticism. In the second section, I then argue that even if one is not convinced by the arguments for free will skepticism, there remains a strong epistemic argument against causing harm on retributivist grounds that undermines both libertarian and compatibilist attempts to justify it. I maintain that this argument provides sufficient reason for rejecting the retributive justification of criminal punishment. I conclude in the third section by briefly sketching my public health-quarantine model, a non-retributive alternative for addressing criminal behavior that draws on the public health framework and prioritizes prevention and social justice. I argue that the model is not only consistent with free will skepticism and the epistemic argument against retributivism, it also provides the most justified, humane, and effective way of dealing with criminal behavior. (shrink)

The mainstream view in cognitive science is that computation lies at the basis of and explains cognition. Our analysis reveals that there is no compelling evidence or argument for thinking that brains compute. It makes the case for inverting the explanatory order proposed by the computational basis of cognition thesis. We give reasons to reverse the polarity of standard thinking on this topic, and ask how it is possible that computation, natural and artificial, might be based on cognition and not (...) the other way around. (shrink)

Several physicists, among them Hawking, Page, Coule, and Carroll, have argued against the probabilistic intuitions underlying fine-tuning arguments in cosmology and instead propose that the canonical measure on the phase space of Friedman-Robertson-Walker space-times should be used to evaluate fine-tuning. They claim that flat space-times in this set are actually typical on this natural measure and that therefore the flatness problem is illusory. I argue that they misinterpret typicality in this phase space and, moreover, that no conclusion can be drawn (...) at all about the flatness problem by using the canonical measure alone. (shrink)

Scepticism about ought simpliciter is the view that there is no such thing as what one ought simpliciter to do. Instead, practical deliberation is governed by a plurality of normative standpoints, each authoritative from their own perspective but none authoritative simpliciter. This paper aims to resist such scepticism. After setting out the challenge in general terms, I argue that scepticism can be resisted by rejecting a key assumption in the sceptic’s argument. This is the assumption that standpoint-relative ought judgments bring (...) with them a commitment to act in accordance with those judgments. Instead, I propose an alternative account of our normative concepts according to which only ought simpliciter judgments commit one to acting in accordance with those judgments. In addition to answering the sceptical challenge, the proposal offers an independently motivated account of what makes a concept normatively authoritative. (shrink)

How does one formalize the structure of structures necessary for the foundations of physics? This work is an attempt at conceptualizing the metaphysics of pregeometric structures, upon which new and existing notions of quantum geometry may find a foundation. We discuss the philosophy of pregeometric structures due to Wheeler, Leibniz as well as modern manifestations in topos theory. We draw attention to evidence suggesting that the framework of formal language, in particular, homotopy type theory, provides the conceptual building blocks for (...) a theory of pregeometry. This work is largely a synthesis of ideas that serve as a precursor for conceptualizing the notion of space in physical theories. In particular, the approach we espouse is based on a constructivist philosophy, wherein ``structureless structures'' are syntactic types realizing formal proofs and programs. Spaces and algebras relevant to physical theories are modeled as type-theoretic routines constructed from compositional rules of a formal language. This offers the remarkable possibility of taxonomizing distinct notions of geometry using a common theoretical framework. In particular, this perspective addresses the crucial issue of how spatiality may be realized in models that link formal computation to physics, such as the Wolfram model. (shrink)

In this paper I propose an interpretation of classical statistical mechanics that centers on taking seriously the idea that probability measures represent complete states of statistical mechanical systems. I show how this leads naturally to the idea that the stochasticity of statistical mechanics is associated directly with the observables of the theory rather than with the microstates (as traditional accounts would have it). The usual assumption that microstates are representationally significant in the theory is therefore dispensable, a consequence which suggests (...) interesting possibilities for developing non-equilibrium statistical mechanics and investigating inter-theoretic answers to the foundational questions of statistical mechanics. (shrink)

In this paper, I argue that David Lewis’s possible world semantics for counterfactual discourse and for fictional discourse are apparently inconsistent and in need of revision. The problem emerges for Lewis’s account once one considers how to evaluate ambifictional counterfactuals. Since this is likely not a concept familiar to most, and since it does not appear that the problem has been previously recognized in the critical literature, I will begin by rehearsing Lewis’s possible worlds semantics for counterfactuals and fiction. Then (...) I will explicate the distinction between intrafictional, extrafictional, interfictional, and ambifictional propositions. Next, I will state what an ambifictional counterfactual proposition is, and explain why this kind of discourse confounds Lewis’s system. I will conclude, finally, with a brief discussion of how the Lewisian would be best advised to resolve the paradox. (shrink)

The conspicuous similarities between interpretive strategies in classical statistical mechanics and in quantum mechanics may be grounded on their employment of common implementations of probability. The objective probabilities which represent the underlying stochasticity of these theories can be naturally associated with three of their common formal features: initial conditions, dynamics, and observables. Various well-known interpretations of the two theories line up with particular choices among these three ways of implementing probability. This perspective has significant application to debates on primitive ontology (...) and to the quantum measurement problem. (shrink)

In recent years, Duncan Pritchard has developed a position in religious epistemology called quasi‐fideism that he claims traces back to John Henry Newman's treatment of the rationality of religious belief. In this paper, we give three reasons to think that Pritchard's reading of Newman as a quasi‐fideist is mistaken. First, Newman's parity argument does not claim that religious and non‐religious beliefs are on a par because both are groundless; instead, for Newman, they are on a par because both often stem (...) from implicit rather than explicit reasoning. Second, pace Pritchard, Newman's distinction between simple and complex assent does not map onto the Wittgensteinian distinction between groundless hinge commitments and beliefs that flow from these hinges. For Newman, simple and complex assent differ in terms of the believer's level of awareness of their grounds. Third, and finally, Newman does not reject Locke's evidentialism in toto. Instead, he argues that certitude is not restricted to beliefs stemming from intuition and demonstration but often rightly includes probabilistically supported (or fallibly evidenced) beliefs. (shrink)

In this chapter, we introduce the notion of “moral neuroenhancement,” offering a novel definition as well as spelling out three conditions under which we expect that such neuroenhancement would be most likely to be permissible (or even desirable). Furthermore, we draw a distinction between first-order moral capacities, which we suggest are less promising targets for neurointervention, and second-order moral capacities, which we suggest are more promising. We conclude by discussing concerns that moral neuroenhancement might restrict freedom or otherwise “misfire,” and (...) argue that these concerns are not as damning as they may seem at first. (shrink)

Building upon the role values take in Walton’s theory of practical reasoning, this paper will frame the question of how values should be evaluated into the broader question of what reasonable practical argumentation is. The thesis argued for is that if a positive evaluation of practical reasoning argumentation requires that the argument avoid a morally negative conclusion, then the role of values should be given a central, rather than supportive, position in practical argument evaluation.

In this issue, Ahmadi1 reports on the practice of hymenoplasty—a surgical intervention meant to restore a presumed physical marker of virginity prior to a woman's marriage. As Mehri and Sills2 have stated, these women ‘want to ensure that blood is spilled on their wedding night sheets.’ Although Ahmadi's research was carried out in Iran specifically, this surgery is becoming increasingly popular in a number of Western countries as well, especially among Muslim populations.3 What are the ethics of hymen restoration?Consider the (...) role of the physician. Two of the doctors interviewed by Ahmadi reported being in ‘a perpetual state of guilt because of the surgery's inherent aim at deceiving the groom’ and noted their ‘personal conflict’ at being involved in this deception. Yet: "None of the doctors believed that the surgery was unethical, arguing that the girl could be ‘abused’ and ‘can even die’ if she is discovered not … ". (shrink)

The natural evolution of consciousness in different animal species mandates that conscious experiences are causally potent in order to confer any advantage in the struggle for survival. Any endeavor to construct a physical theory of consciousness based on emergence within the framework of classical physics, however, leads to causally impotent conscious experiences in direct contradiction to evolutionary theory since epiphenomenal consciousness cannot evolve through natural selection. Here, we review recent theoretical advances in describing sentience and free will as fundamental aspects (...) of reality granted by quantum physical laws. Modern quantum information theory considers quantum states as a physical resource that endows quantum systems with the capacity to perform physical tasks that are classically impossible. Reductive identification of conscious experiences with the quantum information comprised in quantum brain states allows for causally potent consciousness that is capable of performing genuine choices for future courses of physical action. The consequent evolution of brain cortical networks contributes to increased computational power, memory capacity, and cognitive intelligence of the living organisms. (shrink)

Philosophers of language have drawn on metamathematical results in varied ways. Extensionalist philosophers have been particularly impressed with two, not unrelated, facts: the existence, due to Frege/Tarski, of a certain sort of semantics, and the seeming absence of intensional contexts from mathematical discourse. The philosophical import of these facts is at best murky. Extensionalists will emphasize the success and clarity of the model theoretic semantics; others will emphasize the relative poverty of the mathematical idiom; still others will question the aptness (...) of the standard extensional semantics for mathematics. In this paper I investigate some implications of the Gödel Second Incompleteness Theorem for these positions. I argue that the realm of mathematics, proof theory in particular, has been a breeding ground for intensionality and that satisfactory intensional semantic theories are implicit in certain rigorous technical accounts. (shrink)

I investigate the role of stability in cosmology through two episodes from the recent history of cosmology: Einstein’s static universe and Eddington’s demonstration of its instability, and the flatness problem of the hot big bang model and its claimed solution by inflationary theory. These episodes illustrate differing reactions to instability in cosmological models, both positive ones and negative ones. To provide some context to these reactions, I also situate them in relation to perspectives on stability from dynamical systems theory and (...) its epistemology. This reveals, for example, an insistence on stability as an extreme position in relation to the spectrum of physical systems which exhibit degrees of stability and fragility, one which has a pragmatic rationale, but not any deeper one. (shrink)

It is sometimes argued that the non-therapeutic, non-consensual alteration of children‘s genitals should be discussed in two separate ethical discourses: one for girls (in which such alterations should be termed 'female genital mutilation' or FGM), and one for boys (in which such alterations should be termed 'male circumcision‘). In this article, I call into question the moral and empirical basis for such a distinction, and argue that all children - whether female, male, or indeed intersex - should be free from (...) having parts of their genitals removed unless there is a pressing medical indication. (shrink)

What are the effects of circumcision on sexual function and experience? And what does sex—in the sense related to gender—have to do with the ethics of circumcision? Jacobs and Arora (2015) give short shrift to the first of these questions; and they do not seem to have considered the second. In this commentary, I explore the relationship between sex (in both senses) and infant male circumcision, and draw some conclusions about the ongoing debate regarding this controversial practice.

Job motivation remains an area of concern among researchers due to the rising issues of poor or lack of motivation among workers. This refers to one’s personal will or drives to perform a task at work. Meanwhile, job satisfaction refers to an employee’s sense of fulfillment with his or her work experience. Therefore, the current study utilized the descriptive- correlational research design to investigate the impact of job motivation on the job satisfaction of accountants. To gather essential data and achieve (...) the objectives of the study, Multidimensional Work Motivational Scale (MWMS) and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) were administered to the target respondents. The collected data were then analyzed using a Multiple Regression Analysis; findings revealed that job motivation has a significant impact on the job satisfaction of accountants. Additionally, the results of this study were carefully evaluated and discussed, and recommendations were made to benefit the stakeholders of the study and contribute to the existing body of knowledge. (shrink)

The badness of having conflicting emotions is a familiar theme in academic ethics, clinical psychology, and commercial self-help, where emotional harmony is often put forward as an ideal. Many philosophers give emotional harmony pride of place in their theories of practical reason.1 Here we offer a defense of a particular species of emotional conflict, namely, ambivalence. We articulate an conception of ambivalence, on which ambivalence is unresolved inconsistent desire (§1) and present a case of appropriate ambivalence (§2), before considering two (...) alternative defenses of emotional conflict (§3). We then argue that inconsistent desires can be fitting (§4) and that it can be reasonable not to resolve inconsistent desires (§5), before considering an objection (§6) and concluding the discussion (§7). (shrink)

The article proceeds upon the assumption that the beliefs and degrees of belief of rational agents satisfy a number of constraints, including: consistency and deductive closure for belief sets, conformity to the axioms of probability for degrees of belief, and the Lockean Thesis concerning the relationship between belief and degree of belief. Assuming that the beliefs and degrees of belief of both individuals and collectives satisfy the preceding three constraints, I discuss what further constraints may be imposed on the aggregation (...) of beliefs and degrees of belief. Some possibility and impossibility results are presented. The possibility results suggest that the three proposed rationality constraints are compatible with reasonable aggregation procedures for belief and degree of belief. (shrink)