It seems that no philosopher these days wants a theory of truth which can be accused of being metaphysical. But even if we agree that grandiose metaphysics is to be spurned, even if we agree that our theory of truth should be a deflated one, the controversy does not die down. A variety of deflationist options present themselves. Some, with Richard Rorty, take the notion of truth to be so wedded to metaphysics that we are advised to drop it altogether. (...) Others, with Paul Horwich, take the disquotational or equivalence schema—'p' is T if and only if p—to completely capture the content of the predicate 'is true'. And others argue that there is a conception of truth to be had which is non-metaphysical but which goes beyond the triviality expressed by the disquotational schema. (shrink)
CARACTERÍSTICAS GERAIS DO GADO BOVINO -/- GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CATTLE BOVINE -/- CARACTERÍSTICAS GENERALES DEL GANADO BOVINO -/- 1 TAXONOMIA DOS BOVINOS -/- Consideramos, nesse primeiro tópico, a taxonomia (ordenação e classificação das espécies animais e vegetais, onde também pode-se encontrar a relação de familiaridade entre organismos distintos e/ou iguais, bem como sua evolução em diversos aspectos: físico, motor, locomoção, anatomia, etc.) dos bovinos. É levado em consideração os itens mais relevantes e mais estudados em Zootecnia, Biologia, Medicina Veterinária, etc. (...) Observe o quadro a seguir: -/- Phylum -/- Chordata/Cordados (com espinha dorsal) -/- Subphylum -/- Vertebrata/Vertebrados -/- Classe -/- Mammalia/Mamíferos (pelos na pele e glândulas mamárias desenvolvidas) -/- Subclasse -/- Theria -/- Infraclasse -/- Eutheria -/- Ordem -/- Artrioctyla/Artiodátilos (dois dedos; 3 e 4 falanges) -/- Subordem -/- Ruminantia/Ruminantes (sem incisivos superiores e quatro compartimentos) -/- Infraordem -/- Pecora -/- Família -/- Bovidae -/- Gênero -/- Bos -/- Espécie -/- Taurus -/- Subespécie -/- Taurus ou Indicus -/- 2 CARACTERÍSTICAS ANATÔMICAS, BIOLÓGICAS E ZOOTÉCNICAS -/- Apresento as principais características quanto ao regime alimentar, à anatomia estomacal que faz com que o animal seja denominado de ruminante e a dentição dos bovinos. Observe o quadro que se segue: -/- Estômago -/- Composto por quatro compartimentos, em ordem: Rúmen, Retículo, Omaso e Abomaso -/- Regime alimentício -/- Herbívoros (alimentam-se de gramíneas e forrageiras) -/- Dentição -/- Incompleta; ausência de pinças superiores e caninos -/- 3 PARÂMETROS PRODUTIVOS E REPRODUTIVOS IDEAIS -/- Na bovinocultura é comum trabalhar com parâmetros de produção e reprodução que devem ser respeitados e atingidos em uma propriedade, tanto para o produtor obtiver lucros e investir em seu plantel quanto visando à saúde e o bem-estar dos animais. Observe alguns padrões mais relevantes no quadro: -/- Lactância -/- 305 dias (10 meses, segundo a raça trabalhada) -/- Intervalo entre partos (IEP) -/- 11.5 – 12.5 meses e até 18 meses -/- Idade ao primeiro parto -/- 24 – 25 meses (raças europeias) -/- Dias abertos2 (período de serviço) -/- 50 – 150 dias -/- Serviços por concepção -/- 1 – 2 -/- % de concepção ao primeiro serviço -/- 60% -/- % de concepção ao segundo serviço -/- 80% -/- % de concepção ao terceiro serviço -/- 90% -/- % de vacas paridas por ano -/- 90% -/- Substituições -/- 18 – 30% -/- % máxima de mortalidade fetal -/- < 5% -/- % máxima de mortalidade em vacas -/- 2% -/- % de resíduos não-genéticos -/- Até 10% -/- 4 CARACTERÍSTICAS REPRODUTIVAS FISIOLÓGICAS DO MACHO (BOI) -/- Na bovinocultura, seja de corte ou leiteira, é necessário entender os animais quanto as suas principais características reprodutivas para que o produtor possa tomar as devidas providências na hora da estação de monta, no período de concepção, de gestação e pós-gestação visando uma melhor eficiência reprodutiva, bem como aos lucros provindos do rebanho. Observe o quadro abaixo: -/- Volume por ejaculação -/- 4 ml (variando entre 2 – 10 ml) -/- Número de espermatozoides -/- 4000 – 5000 milhões -/- Local da inseminação -/- Vagina da vaca -/- Tempo de chegada do sêmen ao oviduto -/- 2 – 13 minutos -/- Número de espermatozoides que chegam ao oviduto -/- 4200 - 27500 -/- Vida fértil do espermatozoide -/- 30 – 48 horas -/- Tempo da ejaculação -/- 1 segundo -/- Porcentagem ideal de motilidade -/- 75% -/- Porcentagem ideal de células normais -/- 95% -/- pH do sêmen -/- 6,7 – 6,9 (6,8 de média) -/- Idade à puberdade -/- 10 meses (podendo haver variações entre 6 – 10 meses) -/- Idade à primeira monta/uso do sêmen (inseminação artificial) -/- 18 – 24 meses -/- 5 CARACTERÍSTICAS REPRODUTIVAS FISIOLÓGICAS DA FÊMEA (VACA) -/- Se é importante atentar-se as informações acerca do sistema reprodutivo e andrológico do macho, com a fêmea esse cuidado e atenção deve ser ainda maior, uma vez que é ela que gerará o futuro do rebanho do produtor. É necessário atentar-se e dar ênfase à uma série de procedimentos pré e pós-parto. Observe o quadro a seguir: -/- Tipo de reprodução -/- Poliéstrico contínuo -/- Idade à puberdade -/- 7 – 18 meses (11 meses no gado europeu) -/- Maturidade sexual -/- 14 – 18 meses no gado europeu -/- Peso à puberdade -/- 300 kg (200 – 450 kg para a classe de grandes raças) -/- Duração do ciclo estral -/- 21 dias (18 – 24 de variação) -/- Momento da ovulação -/- 12 horas após a finalização do estro -/- Vida fértil do óvulo -/- 20 – 24 horas -/- Óvulos liberados -/- 1 – 2 (a poliovulação é possível) -/- Implantação3 do embrião -/- 40 dias -/- 6 ALTERAÇÕES OCORRIDAS DURANTE O PERÍODO DE GESTAÇÃO -/- É necessário dar ênfase à alguns aspectos relevantes na bovinocultura como a duração da gestação de uma vaca, em média, o total de crias que ela favorece ao produtor, etc. todos esses apontamentos deverão ser colocados em um documento para que se possa manter a qualidade e a boa produção e produtividade do plantel. Os aspectos no quadro abaixo são os mais primordiais para o conhecimento de leigos e até mesmo de trabalhadores da área veterinária e/ou zootécnica. Todos os dados obtidos são uma média, que foi obtida por meio de pesquisas e práticas com os animais. -/- Duração da gestação -/- 283 dias -/- Número de crias ao parto -/- 1 – 2 (sendo que 2 são em raras ocasiões) -/- Tipo de placenta -/- Epiteliocorial/Cotiledonária -/- Tempo de implantação -/- 30 – 40 dias após a cópula -/- Início do período seco4 -/- Aos 10 meses de lactação e aos 7 meses de gestação -/- Duração do período seco -/- 2 meses -/- 7 SINAIS PRÉVIOS AO PARTO -/- Antes do parto das vacas, é necessário que a atenção seja redobrada, temos que observar a anatomia exterior de certas compartições como a vagina, a mudança comportamental também deve ser observada, todos esses cuidados visam a sanidade tanto da vaca quanto do neonato. Por isso, é viável que todo e qualquer parto seja observado à distância seja pelo criador ou o trabalhador da propriedade, visando a possível ajuda no parto do animal caso o neonato passe por complicações na hora do nascimento. Um dos grandes vilões que aumentam o percentual de mortalidade de neonatos é as possíveis complicações na hora do nascimento, o animal pode ficar preso e morrer, como denomina-se de distorcia. Observe os fatores a serem levados em consideração no quadro abaixo. -/- Edema vulvar -/- Acúmulo anormal de muco na vagina -/- Distensão de ligamentos -/- O primeiro compartimento a se distender é a vagina para a facilitação da passagem do neonato -/- Edema abdominal e mamário -/- Acumulação de líquidos anormal no abdômen e no úbere -/- Gotejamento do colostro -/- 12 – 24 horas antes do parto -/- Inquietações -/- As vacas prontas pra parir ficam inquietas, hiperativas -/- Inapetência -/- As vacas cortam a alimentação por conta própria -/- Isolamento -/- As vacas que, normalmente andam em rebanho, se isolam em um determinado lugar para que possa parir -/- 8 CONSTANTES FISIOLÓGICAS -/- Essas constantes de temperatura, frequência cardíaca e respiratória além dos movimentos ruminais, servem de base para que o produtor mantenha seu rebanho sob controle veterinário e que, mediante quaisquer alterações nos dados apresentados, o produtor deverá comunicar ao médico veterinário da propriedade para que possam ser tomadas as devidas providências. Observe o quadro: -/- Temperatura -/- 37,5 – 38,5 °C (adultos) -/- 38,5 – 39,5 °C (jovens) -/- Frequência cardíaca -/- 40 – 80 batimentos/minuto (adultos) -/- 80 – 110 batimentos/minuto (jovens) -/- Frequência respiratória -/- 10 – 30 respirações/minuto (adultos) -/- 15 – 45 respirações/minuto (jovens) -/- Movimentos ruminais -/- 2 – 3 movimentos/2 minutos -/- 9 pH (POTENCIAL HIDROGENIÔNICO) DE ALGUMAS SECREÇÕES CORPORAIS -/- Fator importante para discernir os líquidos dos bovinos e dividi-los em ácidos ou básicos, isto é, se são ácidos ou alcalinos. O pH varia entre 0 – 14 e sua média é 7 (neutro), pHs acima de 7 são considerados alcalinos, porventura, pHs abaixo de 7 são considerados ácidos. Observe o quadro: -/- Leite -/- 6,5 – 7 (neutro) -/- Urina -/- 7,4 – 8,4 (alcalina) -/- Sangue -/- 7,3 – 7,5 (neutro) -/- Líquido ruminal -/- 5,5 – 7 (ácido) -/- Líquido abomasal -/- 2 – 3 (ácido) -/- Saliva -/- 7,9 – 8,5 (alcalina) -/- 10 VALORES SANGUÍNEOS NORMAIS DOS BOVINOS -/- Esses valores são utilizados como padrão principalmente para pesquisas no ramo da Ciência Animal. Todavia, são imprescindíveis para atentar-se à saúde e ao bem-estar dos animais, uma vez que, possíveis alterações anormais, ocasionam complicações futuras que, por sua vez, implicará em gastos ao produtor com assistência veterinária constante e medicamentos. Observe o padrão dos valores no quadro seus valores e, em notas de rodapé, as significações biológicas e médicas dos mesmos. -/- Hemoglobinas5 -/- 8,15 gramas/decilitro (g/dl) -/- Hematócritos6 -/- 24,5% (precisamente 24,46%) -/- Eritrócitos/hemácias/glóbulos vermelhos7 -/- 5 – 10 milhões/milímetro cúbico (mm3) -/- Reticulócitos8 -/- 0 -/- Plaquetas9 -/- 100 mm3 -/- Leucócitos/glóbulos brancos10 -/- 4000 – 12000 mm3 -/- Neutrófilos segmentados11 -/- 15 – 45% -/- Neutrófilos banda -/- 0 – 2% -/- Linfócitos12 -/- 45 – 75% -/- Monócitos13 -/- 2 – 7% -/- Eosinófilos14 -/- 2 – 20% -/- Basófilos15 -/- 0,2 -/- 11 QUÍMICA SANGUÍNEA DOS BOVINOS -/- Quantidade de micro e macronutrientes existentes no sangue, pode não parecer importante, mas esses padrões quando, porventura, esses números alterem-se implicará em patologias interiores e exteriores necessitando-se, assim, de mão de obra especializada, ou seja, um médico veterinário. Observe o quadro a seguir: -/- pH sanguíneo (venoso) -/- 7,4 (precisamente 7,38) -/- Proteínas plasmáticas -/- 6,8 g/dl -/- Cálcio (Ca) -/- 9 – 11 miligramas/decilitro (mg/dl) -/- Fósforo (P) -/- 5 – 9 mg/dl -/- Magnésio (Mg) -/- 2 – 3 mg/dl -/- Sódio (Na) -/- 132 – 245 miliequivalentes/litro (mEq/L) -/- Potássio (K) -/- 4,1 – 5,1 mEq/L -/- Glicose -/- 50 – 70 mg/dl -/- Nitrogênio (N) urético no sangue -/- 5 – 20% -/- Creatinina16 -/- 1,5 mg/dl -/- Cobre (Cu) -/- 0,7 – 1,3 partes por milhão (ppm) -/- Chumbo (Pb) -/- 0 – 0,15 ppm -/- Fibrinogênio17 -/- 300 – 800 mg/dl -/- Bilirrubina18 total -/- 0,1 – 1,6 mg/dl -/- Bilirrubina livre -/- 0 – 1 mg/dl -/- Bilirrubina conjugada -/- 0,6 mg/dl -/- Ferro (Fe) -/- 100 – 200 mg/dl -/- TGO (transaminase glutâmico oxalacética)19 -/- 100 – 50 UI -/- TGP (transaminase glutâmico pirúvica) -/- 3 – 15 UI -/- FA (fosfatase alcalina) -/- 30 – 50 UI -/- CPK (creatinofosfoquinase)20 -/- 30 – 50 UI -/- LDH (lactato desidrogenase)21 -/- 300 – 600 UI -/- GGT (gama glutamil transferase) -/- 4,9 – 26 UI -/- HCO (bicarbonato) -/- 28 mEq/L -/- Nota: Atualmente, a medicação da TGO está caindo em desuso, em seu lugar mede-se AST (aspartato aminotransferase). Da mesma forma, utiliza-se a ALT (alanina aminotransferase) no lugar da TGP. -/- 12 CONSTANTES FISIOLÓGICAS DO APARELHO DIGESTIVO -/- Esses padrões servem para que o produtor possa ter um alicerce da quantidade de água e de alimentos (feno, silagem, palhas, etc.) que o animal deverá consumir para que possa produzir de forma eficiente e gerar lucros futuros para a propriedade. Observe o quadro abaixo: -/- Consumo de alimentos à livre acesso -/- 3% do peso vivo (PV) – (feno de ótima qualidade) -/- 2,2% do PV – (silagem) -/- 1% do PV – (palhas) -/- Consumo de água -/- 10% do PV dividido em 4 períodos: -/- 3,6 – 4,3 litros de água/kg de matéria seca (MS) -/- 50 – 80 litros de água/dia (alimentos secos) -/- 24 – 40 litros de água/dia (alimentos verdes) -/- 14 – 16 % do PV (mais de 5 litros/L de leite) -/- pH ideal da água deverá estar entre 6 – 9. -/- 13 CARACTERÍSTICAS DA RUMINAÇÃO -/- Os bovinos são animais de produção peculiares, isto é, é um dos animais com uma capacidade completamente enorme para um criador, estamos falando do fato de digerir alimentos fibrosos, especialmente os volumosos, e transformá-los em carne, leite, etc. Isso ocorre porque nos bovinos, como em caprinos, ovinos, etc. há a presença do rúmen em seu aparelho estomaco-digestivo. A ruminação consiste, basicamente, na regurgitação do alimento semi-digerido, o alimento primeiramente é consumido e vai para o primeiro compartimento, o rúmen, lá às bactérias e os protozoários começam a desagregação das fibras existentes no alimento, depois o alimento volta a boca do animal em que o mesmo agrega saliva e o mastiga novamente para ir ao retículo. Observe as características peculiares da ruminação no quadro: -/- Início e regularização (1° arroto) -/- 2 – 3 semanas de idade -/- Início (depois do alimento ingerido) -/- 5 – 15 horas após a ingestão -/- Número de períodos da ruminação -/- 4 – 24 períodos/dia (segundo a quantidade da frequência cardíaca (FC) e do tamanho das partículas -/- Total de regurgitações -/- 15 – 20 -/- Volume ruminado -/- 40 – 60 kg ao dia -/- Duração por período de ruminação -/- 10 – 60 minutos cada uma -/- Número dos bolos alimentares regurgitados -/- 360 - 790 -/- Peso dos bolos alimentares ruminados -/- 80 – 120 g -/- Movimentos mastigatórios e tempo de mastigação por bolo alimentar -/- 40 – 70 movimentos e o tempo de 45 – 60 segundos -/- Tempo da ruminação -/- 7 horas (variação conforme raça: 3 – 8 horas) -/- 14 COR NORMAL DAS FEZES -/- Na bovinocultura, de corte ou leite, é sumamente imprescindível atentar-se à todos os tipos de detalhes no animal, por exemplo, se está associado ao grupo, se está alimentando-se regularmente e normalmente, se está ruminando de forma normal e, até mesmo, a cor e a consistência das fezes exoneradas. Esse fator de coloração e consistência implica na sanidade do animal. Observe o quadro elaborado, segundo quantidades de clorofila, bílis, tipo de alimentação, etc. -/- Bezerro (período de amamentação) -/- Cor amarelada para o cinza -/- Bovino adulto (ruminante) -/- Verde escuro (pastagens) -/- Amarronzado (estábulo) -/- Amarelo pardo (engorda com concentrado/grãos) -/- Consistência: pastosa -/- Odor: ligeiramente desagradável -/- 15 CARACTERÍSTICAS DAS ESTRUTURAS DIGESTIVAS/COMPARTIMENTOS -/- Nos bovinos há a presença de 4 aparelhos estomacais, sendo o último, o abomaso, o estômago verdadeiro, isto é, o estômago químico do animal, antes disso, há a presença do rúmen que é o compartimento que faz dos animais ruminantes peculiares na pecuária, o retículo e o omaso. Observe o quadro abaixo: -/- Rúmen (Pança) -/- Proporção ocupada ante os compartimentos -/- 80% do lado esquerdo da cavidade abdominal -/- Capacidade -/- 200 – 250 litros ou 135 kg de material alimentício (adultos de raças pesadas) -/- pH do líquido -/- 5,5 – 7 -/- Movimentos ruminais -/- 2 – 3 movimentos/2 min. -/- Cor normal do líquido ruminal -/- Geralmente verde acinzentado -/- Consistência -/- Ligeiramente viscosa -/- Odor -/- Aromático e pouco repulsivo -/- Proporção bacteriana -/- 1 x 109 a 1 x 1010 /ml -/- Proporção protozoária -/- 1 x 102 a 1 x 106 /ml -/- Função -/- Digestão de celulose, hemicelulose e amido. -/- Fermentação de açúcar a acetato, propionato e butirato. Oxidação e absorção de acetato, propionato e butirato. -/- Assimilação de açúcares, minerais e nitrogênio no corpo microbiano. Bem como a absorção de outros íons. Produção de gases, ácidos graxos voláteis e massa microbiana -/- Retículo (bonete, coifa, barrete, crespina) -/- Tamanho -/- 5% de todo compartimento estomacal -/- Projeção -/- 6° à 8° costelas esquerdas -/- Função -/- Regurgitação na -/- ruminação e eructação. Também participa na fermentação -/- Omaso (saltério, filho, folhoso) -/- Tamanho -/- 7% de todo o compartimento -/- Projeção -/- 7° à 9° costelas esquerdas -/- Função -/- O omaso permite a reciclagem da água e de alguns minerais como o fósforo e o sódio que retornam ao rúmen pela saliva. Serve como objeto de transição entre as distintas fermentações do rúmen e do retículo. Grande capacidade de absorção de água, sódio, fósforo e ácidos graxos residuais e voláteis -/- Abomaso (coagulador, coalheira, estômago verdadeiro) -/- Tamanho -/- 7 – 9% de todo o compartimento -/- Projeção -/- Sobre o piso da cavidade ligeiramente à direita da linha média, desde o apêndice xifoide até o umbigo -/- Função -/- Digestão ácida. Secreção de enzimas digestivas e do ácido clorídrico (HCl) que mata os microrganismos. Digere alimentos não fermentados no rúmen (algumas proteínas e lipídeos). Digestão peptídica de microrganismos. -/- REFERENCIAL TEÓRICO -/- JARDIM, V. R. Bovinocultura. 1ª ed. Campinas: Instituto Campineiro de Ensino Agrícola, 1973. -/- _____________.; JARDIM, L. M. B. F.; TORRES, A. di P. Manual de Zootecnia: raças que interessam ao Brasil. 1ª ed. São Paulo: Agronômica Ceres, 1982. -/- ROSENBERGER, G. et al. Exame clínico dos bovinos. 1ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 1993. (shrink)
Because factory-farmed meat production inflicts gratuitous suffering upon animals and wreaks havoc on the environment, there are morally compelling reasons to become vegetarian. Yet industrial plant agriculture causes the death of many field animals, and this leads some to question whether consumers ought to get some of their protein from certain kinds of non factory-farmed meat. Donald Bruckner, for instance, boldly argues that the harm principle implies an obligation to collect and consume roadkill and that strict vegetarianism is thus immoral. (...) But this argument works only if the following claims are true: all humans have access to roadkill, roadkill would go to waste if those who happen upon it don’t themselves consume it, it’s impossible to harvest vegetables without killing animals, the animals who are killed in plant production are all-things-considered harmed by crop farming, and the best arguments for vegetarianism all endorse the harm principle. As I will argue in this paper, each claim is deeply problematic. Consequently, in most cases, humans ought to strictly eat plants and save the roadkill for cats. (shrink)
In The Case for Animal Rights, Tom Regan argues that, in addition to the negative duty not to harm nonhuman animals, moral agents have a positive duty to assist nonhuman animals who are victims of injustice. This claim is not unproblematic because, in many cases, assisting a victim of injustice requires that we harm some other nonhuman animal(s). For instance, in order to feed victims of injustice who are obligate carnivores, we must kill some other animal(s). It seems, then, that (...) sometimes the duty to assist nonhuman animals who are victims of injustice conflicts with the prima facie duty not to harm nonhuman animals. In defense of Regan’s theory against this apparent inconsistency, I introduce an additional principle, the “guardianship principle,” which can be used to illustrate how we can be justified, under certain conditions, in overriding our prima facie duty not to harm nonhuman animals in order to fulfill our duty to assist nonhuman animals who are victims of injustice. (shrink)
In this paper we track the ‘body positivity’ movement from its origins, promoting radical acceptance of marginalized bodies, to its co-optation as a push for self-love for all bodies, including those bodies belonging to socially dominant groups. We argue that the new focus on the ‘body positivity’ movement involves a single-minded emphasis on beauty and aesthetic adornment, and that this undermines the original focus of social and political equality, pandering instead to capitalism and failing to rectify unjust institutions and policies. (...) As such, we argue that the ‘body positivity’ movement ultimately marginalises further the bodies for which it initially sought justice and acceptance. (shrink)
In response to my argument against Aristotle’s claim that humans are more political than other animals, Edward Jacobs counters that the evidence I use from cognitive ethology and my application of evolutionary principles fail to demonstrate that other animals are as political as humans. Jacobs furthermore suggests that humans are more political than other animals by pointing to the political variation in human communities. In this article, I defend my use of evolutionary principles and my interpretation of anecdotes from cognitive (...) ethology, while challenging Jacobs’s assertion that human political variation implies that humans are more political than other animals. (shrink)
This is a transcript of a conversation between P F Strawson and Gareth Evans in 1973, filmed for The Open University. Under the title 'Truth', Strawson and Evans discuss the question as to whether the distinction between genuinely fact-stating uses of language and other uses can be grounded on a theory of truth, especially a 'thin' notion of truth in the tradition of F P Ramsey.
In this paper we track the ‘body positivity’ movement from its origins, promoting radical acceptance of marginalized bodies, to its co-optation as a push for self-love for all bodies, including those bodies belonging to socially dominant groups. We argue that the new focus on the ‘body positivity’ movement involves a single-minded emphasis on beauty and aesthetic adornment, and that this undermines the original focus of social and political equality, pandering instead to capitalism and failing to rectify unjust institutions and policies. (...) As such, we argue that the ‘body positivity’ movement ultimately marginalises further the bodies for which it initially sought justice and acceptance. (shrink)
While theories of animal rights maintain that nonhuman animals possess prima facie rights, such as the right to life, the dominant philosophies of animal rights permit the killing of nonhuman animals for reasons of self-defense. I argue that the animal rights discourse on defensive killing is problematic because it seems to entail that any nonhuman animal who poses a threat to human beings can be justifiably harmed without question. To avoid this human-privileged conclusion, I argue that the animal rights position (...) needs to both (1) deploy a new criterion of liability to defensive harm, and (2) seriously consider whether human beings themselves are liable to defensive harm in human-animal conflicts. By shifting the focus to whether humans are liable to defensive harm, we will find that in many situations of human-animal conflict, human beings are actually the ones liable to be harmed because they are often culpable or, to some degree, morally responsible for posing an unjust threat to nonhuman animals. (shrink)
The discourses of Antillanité and Créolité are both based on the absence of women. This is more important in the discourse of Créolité since it silences the grandmothers, great aunts and village midwives who are the transmitters of folk tales, folk medicines and oral culture. In the struggle for recognition between Caribbean males and western males folk medicine may be too closely associated with the denigrated female role to be considered a suitable inclusion into modern development.
Necessity is a touchstone issue in the thought of Charles Peirce, not least because his pragmatist account of meaning relies upon modal terms. We here offer an overview of Peirce’s highly original and multi-faceted take on the matter. We begin by considering how a self-avowed pragmatist and fallibilist can even talk about necessary truth. We then outline the source of Peirce’s theory of representation in his three categories of Firstness, Secondness and Thirdness, (monadic, dyadic and triadic relations). These have modal (...) purport insofar as the first category corresponds to possibility, the second to mechanical necessity and the third to a kind of semantic or intentional necessity. We then turn to Peirce’s explicit modal epistemology and show how it began as information-relative, with different modalities (e.g. logical, physical, practical) distinguished in terms of respective ‘designated states of information’, and shifted later in his life towards a more robust realism founded in direct perception of ideas in their relations. We then turn to Peirce’s formal logic, focusing on his diagrammatic system of Existential Graphs where he did his most serious logical research. Finally we discuss Peirce’s modal metaphysics and its implications for determinism and realism about universals. (shrink)
This paper examines a variety of social scientific studies purporting to demonstrate that transracial adoption is in the best interests of children. Finding flaws in these studies and the ethical and political arguments based upon such scientific findings, we argue for adoption practices and policies that respect the racial and ethnic identities of children of color and their communities of origin.
The Identity principle says that conditionals with the form 'If p, then p' are logical truths. Identity is overwhelmingly plausible, and has rarely been explicitly challenged. But a wide range of conditionals nonetheless invalidate it. I explain the problem, and argue that the culprit is the principle known as Import-Export, which we must thus reject. I then explore how we can reject Import-Export in a way that still makes sense of the intuitions that support it, arguing that the differences between (...) indicative and subjunctive conditionals play a key role in solving this puzzle. (shrink)
Some scientific categories seem to correspond to genuine features of the world and are indispensable for successful science in some domain; in short, they are natural kinds. This book gives a general account of what it is to be a natural kind and puts the account to work illuminating numerous specific examples.
The no-miracles argument and the pessimistic induction are arguably the main considerations for and against scientific realism. Recently these arguments have been accused of embodying a familiar, seductive fallacy. In each case, we are tricked by a base rate fallacy, one much-discussed in the psychological literature. In this paper we consider this accusation and use it as an explanation for why the two most prominent `wholesale' arguments in the literature seem irresolvable. Framed probabilistically, we can see very clearly why realists (...) and anti-realists have been talking past one another. We then formulate a dilemma for advocates of either argument, answer potential objections to our criticism, discuss what remains (if anything) of these two major arguments, and then speculate about a future philosophy of science freed from these two arguments. In so doing, we connect the point about base rates to the wholesale/retail distinction; we believe it hints at an answer of how to distinguish profitable from unprofitable realism debates. In short, we offer a probabilistic analysis of the feeling of ennui afflicting contemporary philosophy of science. (shrink)
Several researchers have recently argued that p values lose their meaning in exploratory analyses due to an unknown inflation of the alpha level (e.g., Nosek & Lakens, 2014; Wagenmakers, 2016). For this argument to be tenable, the familywise error rate must be defined in relation to the number of hypotheses that are tested in the same study or article. Under this conceptualization, the familywise error rate is usually unknowable in exploratory analyses because it is usually unclear how many hypotheses have (...) been tested on a spontaneous basis and then omitted from the final research report. In the present article, I argue that it is inappropriate to conceptualize the familywise error rate in relation to the number of hypotheses that are tested. Instead, it is more appropriate to conceptualize familywise error in relation to the number of different tests that are conducted on the same null hypothesis in the same study. Under this conceptualization, alpha level adjustments in exploratory analyses are (a) less necessary and (b) objectively verifiable. As a result, p values do not lose their meaning in exploratory analyses. (shrink)
Unlike first-person Moorean sentences, it’s not always awkward to assert, “p, but you don’t know that p.” This can seem puzzling: after all, one can never get one’s audience to know the asserted content by speaking thus. Nevertheless, such assertions can be conversationally useful, for instance, by helping speaker and addressee agree on where to disagree. I will argue that such assertions also make trouble for the growing family of views about the norm of assertion that what licenses proper assertion (...) is not the initiating epistemic position of the speaker but the resulting epistemic position of the audience. (shrink)
Review of G.P. Baker and P.M.S. Hacker's Wittgenstein: Rules, Grammar and Necessity, the second volume of their analytical commentary on Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations.
Standard accounts of civil disobedience include nonviolence as a necessary condition. Here I argue that such accounts are mistaken and that civil disobedience can include violence in many aspects, primarily excepting violence directed at other persons. I base this argument on a novel understanding of civil disobedience: the special character of the practice comes from its combination of condemnation of a political practice with an expressed commitment to the political. The commitment to the political is a commitment to engaging with (...) others as co-members in the on-going political project of living together. I show how such an understanding of civil disobedience is superior to the Rawlsian strain of thought, which focuses on fidelity to law. Rawls was concerned with civil disobedience solely in the context of overriding political obligation. The project of characterizing a contestatory political practice that can be distinguished and used in a wider variety of contexts than Rawls is concerned with, including under illegitimate regimes, beyond the nation-state, or on behalf of anarchism, requires a different understanding of civil disobedience. (shrink)
Political legitimacy is best understood as one type of a broader notion, which I call institutional legitimacy. An institution is legitimate in my sense when it has the right to function. The right to function correlates to a duty of non-interference. Understanding legitimacy in this way favorably contrasts with legitimacy understood in the traditional way, as the right to rule correlating to a duty of obedience. It helps unify our discourses of legitimacy across a wider range of practices, especially including (...) the many evaluations we increasingly make of international institutions of various sorts, but also including domestic institutions. (shrink)
In this paper, I reply to 18 of the essays on panpsychism in this issue. Along the way, I sketch out what a post-Galilean science of consciousness, one in which consciousness is taken to be a fundamental feature of reality, might look like.
When we ask what natural kinds are, there are two different things we might have in mind. The first, which I’ll call the taxonomy question, is what distinguishes a category which is a natural kind from an arbitrary class. The second, which I’ll call the ontology question, is what manner of stuff there is that realizes the category. Many philosophers have systematically conflated the two questions. The confusion is exhibited both by essentialists and by philosophers who pose their accounts in (...) terms of similarity. It also leads to misreading philosophers who do make the distinction. Distinguishing the questions allows for a more subtle understanding of both natural kinds and their underlying metaphysics. (shrink)
Huey P. Newton, founder of the Black Panther Party, is perhaps one of the most interesting and intriguing American intellectuals from the last half of the 20th century. Newton’s genius rested in his ability to amalgamate and synthesize others’ thinking, and then reinterpreting and making it relevant to the situation that existed in the United States in his time, particularly for African-Americans in the densely populated urban centers in the North and West. Newton saw himself continuing the Marxist-Leninist tradition and (...) one of the most important aspects of his thought was his reinterpretation of Marxist class structure. This paper presents Newton’s position that it is the urban poor—who Newton identifies with the lumpenproletariat—that act as the revolutionary class that will bring about a change in the socio-economic order. To that end, there is first a discussion of Newton’s view of the lumpenproletariat and how it differs from the traditional Marxist understanding. Then there is an explanation of the role of the vanguard and its relationship to the lumpenproletariat. The paper concludes with a comparison of Frantz Fanon’s and Newton’s understanding of the lumpenproletariat, and responds to the “problem of lumpenization” in the Black Panther Party. (shrink)
NK≠HPC.P. D. Magnus - 2014 - Philosophical Quarterly 64 (256):471-477.details
The Homeostatic Property Cluster (HPC) account of natural kinds has become popular since it was proposed by Richard Boyd in the late 1980s. Although it is often taken as a defining natural kinds as such, it is easy enough to see that something's being a natural kind is neither necessary nor sufficient for its being an HPC. This paper argues that it is better not to understand HPCs as defining what it is to be a natural kind but instead as (...) providing the ontological realization of (some) natural kinds. (shrink)
Most epistemologists hold that knowledge entails belief. However, proponents of this claim rarely offer a positive argument in support of it. Rather, they tend to treat the view as obvious and assert that there are no convincing counterexamples. We find this strategy to be problematic. We do not find the standard view obvious, and moreover, we think there are cases in which it is intuitively plausible that a subject knows some proposition P without—or at least without determinately—believing that P. Accordingly, (...) we present five plausible examples of knowledge without (determinate) belief, and we present empirical evidence suggesting that our intuitions about these scenarios are not atypical. (shrink)
Kyle Stanford has recently claimed to offer a new challenge to scientific realism. Taking his inspiration from the familiar Pessimistic Induction (PI), Stanford proposes a New Induction (NI). Contra Anjan Chakravartty’s suggestion that the NI is a ‘red herring’, I argue that it reveals something deep and important about science. The Problem of Unconceived Alternatives, which lies at the heart of the NI, yields a richer anti-realism than the PI. It explains why science falls short when it falls short, and (...) so it might figure in the most coherent account of scientific practice. However, this best account will be antirealist in some respects and about some theories. It will not be a sweeping antirealism about all or most of science. (shrink)
Tradução para o português do ensaio "Freedom and Resentment”, de P. F. Strawson. Publicado originalmente em Proceedings of the British Academy, v. 48, 1960. Republicado em Freedom and Resentment and Other Essays. Londres: Methuen, 1974. [Routledge, 2008, p. 2-28]. Publicado na coletânea: Ensaios sobre a filosofia de Strawson: com a tradução de Liberdade e ressentimento & Moralidade social e ideal individual. Organizadores: Jaimir Conte & Itamar Luís Gelain. Editora da UFSC, 2015. ISBN: 9788532807250.
Imperatives cannot be true, but they can be obeyed or binding: `Surrender!' is obeyed if you surrender and is binding if you have a reason to surrender. A pure declarative argument — whose premisses and conclusion are declaratives — is valid exactly if, necessarily, its conclusion is true if the conjunction of its premisses is true; similarly, I suggest, a pure imperative argument — whose premisses and conclusion are imperatives — is obedience-valid (alternatively: bindingness-valid) exactly if, necessarily, its conclusion is (...) obeyed (alternatively: binding) if the conjunction of its premisses is. I argue that there are two kinds of bindingness, and that a vacillation between two corresponding variants of bindingness-validity largely explains conflicting intuitions concerning the validity of some pure imperative arguments. I prove that for each of those two variants of bindingness-validity there is an equivalent variant of obedience-validity. Finally, I address alternative accounts of pure imperative inference. (shrink)
Tradução para o português do ensaio "Social Morality and Individual Ideal”. Publicado originalmente em Philosophy: The Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy, vol. XXXVI, n. 136, p. 1-17, Jan. 1961. Republicado em: STRAWSON, P. F. Freedom and Resentment and Other Essays. Londres: Methuen, 1974. [Routledge, 2008, p. 26-44]. ]. Publicado na coletânea: Ensaios sobre a filosofia de Strawson: com a tradução de Liberdade e ressentimento & Moralidade social e ideal individual. Organizadores: Jaimir Conte & Itamar Luís Gelain. Editora da (...) UFSC, 2015. ISBN: 9788532807250. (shrink)
There are two senses of ‘what scientists know’: An individual sense (the separate opinions of individual scientists) and a collective sense (the state of the discipline). The latter is what matters for policy and planning, but it is not something that can be directly observed or reported. A function can be defined to map individual judgments onto an aggregate judgment. I argue that such a function cannot effectively capture community opinion, especially in cases that matter to us.
The accepted narrative treats John Stuart Mill’s Kinds as the historical prototype for our natural kinds, but Mill actually employs two separate notions: Kinds and natural groups. Considering these, along with the accounts of Mill’s nineteenth-century interlocutors, forces us to recognize two distinct questions. First, what marks a natural kind as worthy of inclusion in taxonomy? Second, what exists in the world that makes a category meet that criterion? Mill’s two notions offer separate answers to the two questions: natural groups (...) for taxonomy and Kinds for ontology. This distinction is ignored in many contemporary debates about natural kinds and is obscured by the standard narrative that treats our natural kinds just as a development of Mill’s Kinds. (shrink)
Homeostatic property clusters (HPCs) are offered as a way of understanding natural kinds, especially biological species. I review the HPC approach and then discuss an objection by Ereshefsky and Matthen, to the effect that an HPC qua cluster seems ill-fitted as a description of a polymorphic species. The standard response by champions of the HPC approach is to say that all members of a polymorphic species have things in common, namely dispositions or conditional properties. I argue that this response fails. (...) Instances of an HPC kind need not all be similar in their exhibited properties. Instead, HPCs should instead be understood as unified by the underlying causal mechanism that maintains them. The causal mechanism can both produce and explain some systematic differences between a kind’s members. An HPC kind is best understood not as a single cluster of properties maintained in stasis by causal forces, but as a complex of related property clusters kept in relation by an underlying causal process. This approach requires recognizing that taxonomic systems serve both explanatory and inductive purposes. (shrink)
In a recent reply to our article, “What is Interpretability?,” Prasetya argues against our position that artificial neural networks are explainable. It is claimed that our indefeasibility thesis—that adding complexity to an explanation of a phenomenon does not make the phenomenon any less explainable—is false. More precisely, Prasetya argues that unificationist explanations are defeasible to increasing complexity, and thus, we may not be able to provide such explanations of highly complex AI models. The reply highlights an important lacuna in our (...) original paper, the omission of the unificationist account of explanation, and affords us the opportunity to respond. Here, we argue that artificial neural networks are explainable in a way that should satisfy unificationists and that interpretability methods present ways in which ML theories can achieve unification. (shrink)
The problem of underdetermination is thought to hold important lessons for philosophy of science. Yet, as Kyle Stanford has recently argued, typical treatments of it offer only restatements of familiar philosophical problems. Following suggestions in Duhem and Sklar, Stanford calls for a New Induction from the history of science. It will provide proof, he thinks, of "the kind of underdetermination that the history of science reveals to be a distinctive and genuine threat to even our best scientific theories" . This (...) paper examines Stanford's New Induction and argues that it -- like the other forms of underdetermination that he criticizes -- merely recapitulates familiar philosophical conundra. (shrink)
forall x: Calgary is a full-featured textbook on formal logic. It covers key notions of logic such as consequence and validity of arguments, the syntax of truth-functional propositional logic TFL and truth-table semantics, the syntax of first-order (predicate) logic FOL with identity (first-order interpretations), translating (formalizing) English in TFL and FOL, and Fitch-style natural deduction proof systems for both TFL and FOL. It also deals with some advanced topics such as truth-functional completeness and modal logic. Exercises with solutions are available. (...) It is provided in PDF (for screen reading, printing, and a special version for dyslexics) and in LaTeX source code. (shrink)
Given the fact that many people use Wikipedia, we should ask: Can we trust it? The empirical evidence suggests that Wikipedia articles are sometimes quite good but that they vary a great deal. As such, it is wrong to ask for a monolithic verdict on Wikipedia. Interacting with Wikipedia involves assessing where it is likely to be reliable and where not. I identify five strategies that we use to assess claims from other sources and argue that, to a greater of (...) lesser degree, Wikipedia frustrates all of them. Interacting responsibly with something like Wikipedia requires new epistemic methods and strategies. (shrink)
It is now commonly held that values play a role in scientific judgment, but many arguments for that conclusion are limited. First, many arguments do not show that values are, strictly speaking, indispensable. The role of values could in principle be filled by a random or arbitrary decision. Second, many arguments concern scientific theories and concepts which have obvious practical consequences, thus suggesting or at least leaving open the possibility that abstruse sciences without such a connection could be value-free. Third, (...) many arguments concern the role values play in inferring from evidence, thus taking evidence as given. This paper argues that these limitations do not hold in general. There are values involved in every scientific judgment. They cannot even conceivably be replaced by a coin toss, they arise as much for exotic as for practical sciences, and they are at issue as much for observation as for explicit inference. (shrink)
The underdetermination of theory by evidence is supposed to be a reason to rethink science. It is not. Many authors claim that underdetermination has momentous consequences for the status of scientific claims, but such claims are hidden in an umbra of obscurity and a penumbra of equivocation. So many various phenomena pass for `underdetermination' that it's tempting to think that it is no unified phenomenon at all, so I begin by providing a framework within which all these worries can be (...) seen as species of one genus: A claim of underdetermination involves (at least implicitly) a set of rival theories, a standard of responsible judgment, and a scope of circumstances in which responsible choice between the rivals is impossible. Within this framework, I show that one variety of underdetermination motivated modern scepticism and thus is a familiar problem at the heart of epistemology. I survey arguments that infer from underdetermination to some reëvaluation of science: top-down arguments infer a priori from the ubiquity of underdetermination to some conclusion about science; bottom-up arguments infer from specific instances of underdetermination, to the claim that underdetermination is widespread, and then to some conclusion about science. The top-down arguments either fail to deliver underdetermination of any great significance or (as with modern scepticism) deliver some well-worn epistemic concern. The bottom-up arguments must rely on cases. I consider several promising cases and find them to either be so specialized that they cannot underwrite conclusions about science in general or not be underdetermined at all. Neither top-down nor bottom-up arguments can motivate any deep reconsideration of science. (shrink)
Tradução para o português do livro "Ceticismo e naturalismo: algumas variedades", Strawson, P. F. . São Leopoldo, RS: Editora da Unisinos, 2008, 114 p. Coleção: Ideias. ISBN: 9788574313214. Capítulo 1 - Ceticismo, naturalismo e argumentos transcendentais 1. Notas introdutórias; 2. Ceticismo tradicional; 3. Hume: Razão e Natureza; 4. Hume e Wittgenstein; 5. “Apenas relacionar”: O papel dos argumentos transcendentais; 6. Três citações; 7. Historicismo: e o passado.
According to the standard narrative, natural kind is a technical notion that was introduced by John Stuart Mill in the 1840s and the recent craze for natural kinds, launched by Putnam and Kripke, is a continuation of that tradition. I argue that the standard narrative is mistaken. The Millian tradition of kinds was not particularly influential in the 20th-century, and the Putnam-Kripke revolution did not clearly engage with even the remnants that were left of it. The presently active tradition of (...) natural kinds is less than half a century old. Recognizing this might help us better appreciate both Mill and natural kinds. (shrink)
Many of Margaret Cavendish’s criticisms of Thomas Hobbes in the Philosophical Letters (1664) relate to the disorder and damage that she holds would result if Hobbesian pressure were the cause of visual perception. In this paper, I argue that her “two men” thought experiment in Letter IV is aimed at a different goal: to show the explanatory potency of her account. First, I connect Cavendish’s view of visual perception as “patterning” to the “two men” thought experiment in Letter IV. Second, (...) I provide a potential reply on Hobbes’s behalf that appeals to physiological differences between perceivers’ sense organs, drawing upon Hobbes’s optics in De homine. Third, I argue that such a reply would misunderstand Cavendish’s objective of showing the limited explanatory resources available in understanding visual perception as pressing when compared to her view of visual perception as patterning. (shrink)
Many critics, Descartes himself included, have seen Hobbes as uncharitable or even incoherent in his Objections to the Meditations on First Philosophy. I argue that when understood within the wider context of his views of the late 1630s and early 1640s, Hobbes's Objections are coherent and reflect his goal of providing an epistemology consistent with a mechanical philosophy. I demonstrate the importance of this epistemology for understanding his Fourth Objection concerning the nature of the wax and contend that Hobbes's brief (...) claims in that Objection are best understood as a summary of the mechanism for scientific knowledge found in his broader work. Far from displaying his confusion, Hobbes's Fourth Objection in fact pinpoints a key weakness of Descartes's faculty psychology: its unintelligibility within a mechanical philosophy. (shrink)
Philosophy in Africa has for more than a decade now been dominated by the discussion of one compound question, namely, is there an African philosophy, and if there is, what is it? The first part of the question has generally been unhesitatingly answered in the affirmative. Dispute has been primarily over the second part of the question as various specimens of African philosophy presented do not seem to pass muster. Those of us who refuse to accept certain specimens as philosophy (...) have generally been rather illogically said also to deny an affirmative answer to the first part of the question. In a paper presented at the International Symposium in Memory of Dr William Amo, the Ghanaian philosopher who taught in German universities in the early part of the eighteenth century, Professor Odera Oruka identified four trends, perhaps more appropriately approaches, in current African philosophy. (shrink)
William James’ argument against William Clifford in The Will to Believe is often understood in terms of doxastic efficacy, the power of belief to influence an outcome. Although that is one strand of James’ argument, there is another which is driven by ampliative risk. The second strand of James’ argument, when applied to scientific cases, is tantamount to what is now called the Argument from Inductive Risk. Either strand of James’ argument is sufficient to rebut Clifford's strong evidentialism and show (...) that it is sometimes permissible to believe in the absence of compelling evidence. However, the two considerations have different scope and force. Doxastic efficacy applies in only some cases but allows any values to play a role in determining belief; risk applies in all cases but only allows particular conditional values to play a role. (shrink)
Cover versions form a loose but identifiable category of tracks and performances. We distinguish four kinds of covers and argue that they mark important differences in the modes of evaluation that are possible or appropriate for each: mimic covers, which aim merely to echo the canonical track; rendition covers, which change the sound of the canonical track; transformative covers, which diverge so much as to instantiate a distinct, albeit derivative song; and referential covers, which not only instantiate a distinct song, (...) but for which the new song is in part about the original song. In order to allow for the very possibility of transformative and referential covers, we argue that a cover is characterized by relation to a canonical track rather than merely by being a new instance of a song that had been recorded previously. (shrink)
This paper offers a general characterization of underdetermination and gives a prima facie case for the underdetermination of the topology of the universe. A survey of several philosophical approaches to the problem fails to resolve the issue: the case involves the possibility of massive reduplication, but Strawson on massive reduplication provides no help here; it is not obvious that any of the rival theories are to be preferred on grounds of simplicity; and the usual talk of empirically equivalent theories misses (...) the point entirely. (If the choice is underdetermined, then the theories are not empirically equivalent!) Yet the thought experiment is analogous to a live scientific possibility, and actual astronomy faces underdetermination of this kind. This paper concludes by suggesting how the matter can be resolved, either by localizing the underdetermination or by defeating it entirely. Introduction A brief preliminary Around the universe in 80 days Some attempts at resolving the problem 4.1 Indexicality 4.2 Simplicity 4.3 Empirical equivalence 4.4 Is this just a philosophers' fantasy? Move along... ...nothing to see here 6.1 Rules of repetition 6.2 Some possible replies Conclusion. (shrink)
I offer an alternative account of the relationship of Hobbesian geometry to natural philosophy by arguing that mixed mathematics provided Hobbes with a model for thinking about it. In mixed mathematics, one may borrow causal principles from one science and use them in another science without there being a deductive relationship between those two sciences. Natural philosophy for Hobbes is mixed because an explanation may combine observations from experience (the ‘that’) with causal principles from geometry (the ‘why’). My argument shows (...) that Hobbesian natural philosophy relies upon suppositions that bodies plausibly behave according to these borrowed causal principles from geometry, acknowledging that bodies in the world may not actually behave this way. First, I consider Hobbes's relation to Aristotelian mixed mathematics and to Isaac Barrow's broadening of mixed mathematics in Mathematical Lectures (1683). I show that for Hobbes maker's knowledge from geometry provides the ‘why’ in mixed-mathematical explanations. Next, I examine two explanations from De corpore Part IV: (1) the explanation of sense in De corpore 25.1-2; and (2) the explanation of the swelling of parts of the body when they become warm in De corpore 27.3. In both explanations, I show Hobbes borrowing and citing geometrical principles and mixing these principles with appeals to experience. (shrink)
Institutions undertake a huge variety of constitutive purposes. One of the roles of legitimacy is to protect and promote an institution’s pursuit of its purpose; state legitimacy is generally understood as the right to rule, for example. When considering legitimacy beyond the state, we have to take account of how differences in purposes change legitimacy. I focus in particular on how differences in purpose matter for the stringency of the standards that an institution must meet in order to be legitimate. (...) An important characteristic of an institution’s purpose is its deontic status, i.e. whether it is morally impermissible, merely permissible, or mandatory. Although this matters, it does so in some non-obvious ways; the mere fact of a morally impermissible purpose is not necessarily delegitimating, for example. I also consider the problem of conflicting, multiple, and contested institutional purposes, and the different theoretical roles for institutional purpose. Understanding how differences in purpose matter for an institution’s legitimacy is one part of the broader project of theorizing institutional legitimacy in the many contexts beyond the traditional context of the state. (shrink)
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