This is a creative-commons licensed guide. Its purpose is to provide students with an understanding of some ways in which they might contribute to philosophical conversation. It is also available for free use via my website.

In this introductory essay, I articulate a puzzle that is central for our understanding of ourselves as minded beings bound to live finite lives. I argue that our finitude is not something that can be set aside for the purposes of the philosophical inquiry into the mind. Grappling with it is an essential component of this inquiry.

According to the sceptic Saul Kripke envisages in his celebrated book on Wittgenstein on rules and private language, there are no facts about an individual that determine what she means by any given expression. If there are no such facts, the question then is, what justifies the claim that she does use expressions meaningfully? Kripke’s answer, in a nutshell, is that she by and large uses her expressions in conformity with the linguistic standards of the community she belongs to. While (...) Kripke’s sceptical problem has gripped philosophers for over three decades, few, if any, have been satisfied by his proposed solution, and many have struggled to come up with one of their own. The purpose of this paper is to show that a more satisfactory answer to Kripke’s challenge can be developed on the basis of Donald Davidson’s writings on triangulation, the idea of two individuals interacting simultaneously with each other and the world they share. It follows from the triangulation argument that the facts that can be regarded as determining meaning are irreducible. Yet, contra Kripke, they are not mysterious, for the argument does spell out what is needed for an individual’s expressions to be meaningful. (shrink)

Psychology endeavors to develop theories of human capacities and behaviors on the basis of a variety of methodologies and dependent measures. We argue that one of the most divisive factors in psychological science is whether researchers choose to use computational modeling of theories (over and above data) during the scientific-inference process. Modeling is undervalued yet holds promise for advancing psychological science. The inherent demands of computational modeling guide us toward better science by forcing us to conceptually analyze, specify, and formalize (...) intuitions that otherwise remain unexamined—what we dub open theory. Constraining our inference process through modeling enables us to build explanatory and predictive theories. Here, we present scientific inference in psychology as a path function in which each step shapes the next. Computational modeling can constrain these steps, thus advancing scientific inference over and above the stewardship of experimental practice (e.g., preregistration). If psychology continues to eschew computational modeling, we predict more replicability crises and persistent failure at coherent theory building. This is because without formal modeling we lack open and transparent theorizing. We also explain how to formalize, specify, and implement a computational model, emphasizing that the advantages of modeling can be achieved by anyone with benefit to all. (shrink)

This article discusses the triage response to the COVID-19 delta variant surge of 2021. One issue that distinguishes the delta wave from earlier surges is that by the time it became the predominant strain in the USA in July 2021, safe and effective vaccines against COVID-19 had been available for all US adults for several months. We consider whether healthcare professionals and triage committees would have been justified in prioritising patients with COVID-19 who are vaccinated above those who are unvaccinated (...) in first-order or second-order triage. Given that lack of evidence for a correlation between short-term survival and vaccination, we argue that using vaccination status during first-order triage would be inconsistent with accepted triage standards. We then turn to notions of procedural fairness, equity and desert to argue that that there is also a lack of justification for using vaccination status in second-order triage. In planning for future surges, we recommend that medical institutions base their triage decisions on principles meant to save the most lives, minimise inequity and protect the public’s trust, which for the time being would not be served by the inclusion of vaccination status. (shrink)

A key strength of connectionist modelling is its ability to simulate both intact cognition and the behavioural effects of neural damage. We survey the literature, showing that models have been damaged in a variety of ways, e.g. by removing connections, by adding noise to connection weights, by scaling weights, by removing units and by adding noise to unit activations. While these different implementations of damage have often been assumed to be behaviourally equivalent, some theorists have made aetiological claims that rest (...) on nonequivalence. They suggest that related deficits with different aetiologies might be accounted for by different forms of damage within a single model. We present two case studies that explore the effects of different forms of damage in two influential connectionist models, each of which has been applied to explain neuropsychological deficits. Our results indicate that the effect of simulated damage can indeed be sensitive to the way in which damage is implemented, particularly when the environment comprises subsets of items that differ in their statistical properties, but such effects are sensitive to relatively subtle aspects of the model’s training environment. We argue that, as a consequence, substantial methodological care is required if aetiological claims about simulated neural damage are to be justified, and conclude more generally that implementation assumptions, including those concerning simulated damage, must be fully explored when evaluating models of neurological deficits, both to avoid over-extending the explanatory power of specific implementations and to ensure that reported results are replicable. (shrink)

In order to understand cognition, we often recruit analogies as building blocks of theories to aid us in this quest. One such attempt, originating in folklore and alchemy, is the homunculus: a miniature human who resides in the skull and performs cognition. Perhaps surprisingly, this appears indistinguishable from the implicit proposal of many neurocognitive theories, including that of the 'cognitive map,' which proposes a representational substrate for episodic memories and navigational capacities. In such 'small cakes' cases, neurocognitive representations are assumed (...) to be meaningful and about the world, though it is wholly unclear who is reading them, how they are interpreted, and how they come to mean what they do. We analyze the 'small cakes' problem in neurocognitive theories (including, but not limited to, the cognitive map) and find that such an approach a) causes infinite regress in the explanatory chain, requiring a human-in-the-loop to resolve, and b) results in a computationally inert account of representation, providing neither a function nor a mechanism. We caution against a 'small cakes' theoretical practice across computational cognitive modelling, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence, wherein the scientist inserts their (or other humans') cognition into models because otherwise the models neither perform as advertised, nor mean what they are purported to, without said 'cake insertion.' We argue that the solution is to tease apart explanandum and explanans for a given scientific investigation, with an eye towards avoiding van Rooij's (formal) or Ryle's (informal) infinite regresses. (shrink)

This chapter weighs a challenge to the attractive notion that by enabling empathy, fiction affords wide-ranging knowledge of what others’ experiences are like. It is commonly held that ‘seeing the world through others’ eyes’ often requires the empathizer to undergo an imaginative shift in sensibility, and we might naturally think that fiction helps us to effect that shift. However, some recent work on empathy and imagination encourages the conclusion that we are actually rigidly restricted to our own sensibilities even in (...) the wildest flights of imagination great literature can inspire. Drawing on the work of the novelist Zadie Smith, the chapter argues that while our imaginative capacities are not entirely unconstrained by our sensibilities, fiction can still help us to learn about a wide range of human experiences, including the experiences of people whose sensibilities substantially diverge from our own. Notably, fiction can work on our patterns of attention in such a way that we become temporarily ‘not ourselves.’. (shrink)

Staff reported paranormal experiences in connection with the outpatient Medical Assistance in Dying room at the hospital. This case study reports on staff experiences and illustrates how the Ethics team’s role expanded to deal with this novel situation by facilitating an interdisciplinary response.

The ethics of technology has primarily focused on what values are and how they can be embedded in technologies through design. In this context, some work has been done to show the efficacy of a number of design approaches. However, existing studies have not clearly pointed out the ways in which design-for-values approaches can be used by design team managers to properly organize and use technologies in practice. This chapter attempts to fill this gap by discussing the value sensitive design (...) (VSD) approach as a useful means of co-designing technologies as a toolkit for existing workflow management, in this case, Agile. It will be demonstrated that VSD shows promise as a way of democratically designing technologies as well as fostering democratic technology policy innovation. (shrink)

Contemporary AI models owe much of their success and discontents to connectionism, a framework in cognitive science that has been (and continues to be) highly influential. Herein, we analyze artificial neural networks (ANNs): a) when used as scientific instruments of study; and b) when functioning as emergent arbiters of the zeitgeist in the cognitive, computational, and neural sciences. Building on our previous work with respect to analogizing between ANNs and cognition, brains, or behaviour (Guest & Martin, 2023), we use metatheoretical (...) analysis techniques (Guest, 2024), including formal logic, to characterise two distinct tendencies within connectionism that we dub classical and modern, with divergent properties, e.g. goals, mechanisms, scientific questions. We also demonstrate how we, as a field, often fail to follow important lines of argument to their end --- this results in a paradoxical praxis. By engaging more deeply with (meta)theory surrounding ANNs, our field can obviate the cycle of AI winters and summers, which need not be inevitable. (shrink)

In the cognitive, computational, and neuro-sciences, practitioners often reason about what computational models represent or learn, as well as what algorithm is instantiated. The putative goal of such reasoning is to generalize claims about the model in question, to claims about the mind and brain, and the neurocognitive capacities of those systems. Such inference is often based on a model’s performance on a task, and whether that performance approximates human behavior or brain activity. Here we demonstrate how such argumentation problematizes (...) the relationship between models and their targets; we place emphasis on artificial neural networks (ANNs), though any theory-brain relationship that falls into the same schema of reasoning is at risk. In this paper, we model inferences from ANNs to brains and back within a formal framework — metatheoretical calculus — in order to initiate a dialogue on both how models are broadly understood and used, and on how to best formally characterize them and their functions. To these ends, we express claims from the published record about models’ successes and failures in first-order logic. Our proposed formalization describes the decision-making processes enacted by scientists to adjudicate over theories. We demonstrate that formalizing the argumentation in the literature can uncover potential deep issues about how theory is related to phenomena. We discuss what this means broadly for research in cognitive science, neuroscience, and psychology; what it means for models when they lose the ability to mediate between theory and data in a meaningful way; and what this means for the metatheoretical calculus our fields deploy when performing high-level scientific inference. (shrink)

I present an ontology of criteria for evaluating theory to answer the titular question from the perspective of a scientist practitioner. Set inside a formal account of our adjudication over theories, a metatheoretical calculus, this ontology comprises the following: (a) metaphysical commitment, the need to highlight what parts of theory are not under investigation, but are assumed, asserted, or essential; (b) discursive survival, the ability to be understood by interested non-bad actors, to withstand scrutiny within the intended (sub)field(s), and to (...) negotiate the dialectical landscape thereof; (c) empirical interface, the potential to explicate the relationship between theory and observation, i.e., how observations relate to, and affect, theory and vice versa; (d) minimising harm, the reckoning with how theory is forged in a fire of historical, if not ongoing, abuses—from past crimes against humanity, to current exploitation, turbocharged or hyped by machine learning, to historical and present internal academic marginalisation. This work hopes to serve as a possible beginning for scientists who want to examine the properties and characteristics of theories, to propose additional virtues and vices, and to engage in further dialogue. Finally, I appeal to practitioners to iterate frequently over such criteria, by building and sharing the metatheoretical calculi used to adjudicate over theories. (shrink)

Randomization is an integral part of well-designed statistical trials, and is also a required procedure in legal systems. Implementation of honest, unbiased, understandable, secure, traceable, auditable and collusion resistant randomization procedures is a mater of great legal, social and political importance. Given the juridical and social importance of randomization, it is important to develop procedures in full compliance with the following desiderata: (a) Statistical soundness and computational efficiency; (b) Procedural, cryptographical and computational security; (c) Complete auditability and traceability; (d) Any (...) attempt by participating parties or coalitions to spuriously influence the procedure should be either unsuccessful or be detected; (e) Open-source programming; (f) Multiple hardware platform and operating system implementation; (g) User friendliness and transparency; (h) Flexibility and adaptability for the needs and requirements of multiple application areas (like, for example, clinical trials, selection of jury or judges in legal proceedings, and draft lotteries). This paper presents a simple and easy to implement randomization protocol that assures, in a formal mathematical setting, full compliance to the aforementioned desiderata for randomization procedures. (shrink)

Contemporary methods of computational cognitive modeling have recently been criticized by Addyman and French (2012) on the grounds that they have not kept up with developments in computer technology and human–computer interaction. They present a manifesto for change according to which, it is argued, modelers should devote more effort to making their models accessible, both to non-modelers (with an appropriate easy-to-use user interface) and modelers alike. We agree that models, like data, should be freely available according to the normal standards (...) of science, but caution against confusing implementations with specifications. Models may embody theories, but they generally also include implementation assumptions. Cognitive modeling methodology needs to be sensitive to this. We argue that specification, replication and experimentation are methodological approaches that can address this issue. (shrink)

Since the early 1990's the value sensitive design (VSD) approach has been a continually burgeoning design methodology for technological innovation. VSD is commonly described as a "principled approach" to technology design, given that it is explicitly orientated towards designing technologies for human values, rather than sidelining them to ad hoc and/or ex post facto design. However, in much of its near three-decades-long development, the VSD approach has mostly been adopted as a conceptual framework to assess existing technologies and to explore (...) how the consequences of the technology's development could have been influenced positively if VSD was adopted early on and throughout the design process (Friedman et al. 2002). Similarly, VSD has been adopted as a conceptual framework for analysing how future speculative technologies like molecular manufacturing (Umbrello 2019) and advanced artificial intelligence systems can be directed towards positive futures (Umbrello and van de Poel 2021). Yet, despite the benefits of these endeavours and VSD being an approach that can be adapted to any given design domain, it has yet to be widely appropriated in existing design spaces as a primary design approach. In this short paper, we aim to fill this lacuna by framing VSD as a toolkit that can be adopted by existing design teams rather than a wholesale approach. In particular, we describe how VSD maps seamlessly onto agile workflows, an approach to project management that is widely adopted globally. By doing so, we hope that the VSD approach will likewise be more attractive and thus adopted more broadly. As a consequence, a more explicit orientation towards designing technologies for human values will follow. (shrink)

This chapter lays out what we take to be the main types of justice and ethical challenges concerning those adverse effects of climate change leading to climate-related Loss and Damage (L&D). We argue that it is essential to clearly differentiate between the challenges concerning mitigation and adaptation and those ethical issues exclusively relevant for L&D in order to address the ethical aspects pertaining to L&D in international climate policy. First, we show that depending on how mitigation and adaptation are distinguished (...) from L&D, the primary focus of policy measures and their ethical implications will vary. Second, we distinguish between a distributive justice framework and a compensatory justice scheme for delivering L&D measures. Third, in order to understand the differentiated remedial responsibilities concerning L&D, we categorise the measures and policy approaches available. Fourth, depending on the kind of L&D and which remedies are possible, we explain the difference between remedial and outcome responsibilities of different actors. [Open access]. (shrink)

The idea that human cognition is, or can be understood as, a form of computation is a useful conceptual tool for cognitive science. It was a foundational assumption during the birth of cognitive science as a multidisciplinary field, with Artificial Intelligence (AI) as one of its contributing fields. One conception of AI in this context is as a provider of computational tools (frameworks, concepts, formalisms, models, proofs, simulations, etc.) that support theory building in cognitive science. The contemporary field of AI, (...) however, has taken the theoretical possibility of explaining human cognition as a form of computation to imply the practical feasibility of realising human(-like or -level) cognition in factual computational systems, and the field frames this realisation as a short-term inevitability. Yet, as we formally prove herein, creating systems with human(-like or -level) cognition is intrinsically computationally intractable. This means that any factual AI systems created in the short-run are at best decoys. When we think these systems capture something deep about ourselves and our thinking, we induce distorted and impoverished images of ourselves and our cognition. In other words, AI in current practice is deteriorating our theoretical understanding of cognition rather than advancing and enhancing it. The situation could be remediated by releasing the grip of the currently dominant view on AI and by returning to the idea of AI as a theoretical tool for cognitive science. In reclaiming this older idea of AI, however, it is important not to repeat conceptual mistakes of the past (and present) that brought us to where we are today. (shrink)

Different sort of people are interested in personal identity. Philosophers frequently ask what it takes to remain oneself. Caregivers imagine their patients’ experience. But both philosophers and caregivers think from the armchair: they can only make assumptions about what it would be like to wake up with massive bodily changes. Patients with a locked-in syndrome (LIS) suffer a full body paralysis without cognitive impairment. They can tell us what it is like. Forty-four chronic LIS patients and 20 age-matched healthy medical (...) professionals answered a 15-items questionnaire targeting: (A) global evaluation of identity, (B) body representation and (C) experienced meaning in life. In patients, selfreported identity was correlated with B and C. Patients differed with controls in C. These results suggest that the paralyzed body remains a strong component of patients’ experienced identity, that patients can adjust to objectives changes perceived as meaningful and that caregivers fail in predicting patients’ experience. (shrink)

A letter to The Times of London, May 9, 1992 protesting the Cambridge University proposal to award an honorary degree to M. Jacques Derrida.

Monoclonal antibodies are essential biomedical research and clinical reagents that are produced by companies and research laboratories. The NIAID ImmPort (Immunology Database and Analysis Portal) resource provides a long-term, sustainable data warehouse for immunological data generated by NIAID, DAIT and DMID funded investigators for data archiving and re-use. A variety of immunological data is generated using techniques that rely upon monoclonal antibody reagents, including flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and ELISA. In order to facilitate querying, integration, and reuse of data, standardized terminology (...) for describing monoclonal antibody reagents and their targets needs to be used for annotating data submitted to ImmPort. (shrink)

Despite the frequency of stillbirths, the subsequent implications are overlooked and underappreciated. We present findings from comprehensive, systematic literature reviews, and new analyses of published and unpublished data, to establish the effect of stillbirth on parents, families, health-care providers, and societies worldwide. Data for direct costs of this event are sparse but suggest that a stillbirth needs more resources than a livebirth, both in the perinatal period and in additional surveillance during subsequent pregnancies. Indirect and intangible costs of stillbirth are (...) extensive and are usually met by families alone. This issue is particularly onerous for those with few resources. Negative effects, particularly on parental mental health, might be moderated by empathic attitudes of care providers and tailored interventions. The value of the baby, as well as the associated costs for parents, families, care providers, communities, and society, should be considered to prevent stillbirths and reduce associated morbidity. (shrink)

The Protein Ontology (PRO; http://proconsortium.org) formally defines protein entities and explicitly represents their major forms and interrelations. Protein entities represented in PRO corresponding to single amino acid chains are categorized by level of specificity into family, gene, sequence and modification metaclasses, and there is a separate metaclass for protein complexes. All metaclasses also have organism-specific derivatives. PRO complements established sequence databases such as UniProtKB, and interoperates with other biomedical and biological ontologies such as the Gene Ontology (GO). PRO relates to (...) UniProtKB in that PRO’s organism-specific classes of proteins encoded by a specific gene correspond to entities documented in UniProtKB entries. PRO relates to the GO in that PRO’s representations of organism-specific protein complexes are subclasses of the organism-agnostic protein complex terms in the GO Cellular Component Ontology. The past few years have seen growth and changes to the PRO, as well as new points of access to the data and new applications of PRO in immunology and proteomics. Here we describe some of these developments. (shrink)

This paper is a study about Philadelphia’s comprehensive user engagement sites (CUESs) as the authors address and examine issues related to the upcoming implementation of a CUES while seeking solutions for its disputed questions and plans. Beginning with the federal drug schedules, the authors visit some of the medical and public health issues vis-à-vis safe injection facilities (SIFs). Insite, a successful Canadian SIF, has been thoroughly researched as it represents a paradigm for which a Philadelphia CUES can expand upon. Also, (...) the existing criticisms against SIFs are revisited while critically unpackaged and responded to in favor of the establishment. In the main section, the authors propose the layout and services of the upcoming CUES, much of which would be in congruent to Vancouver’s Insite. On the other hand, the CUES would be distinct from Insite, as the authors emphasize, in that it will offer an information center run by individuals in recovery and place additional emphasis on early education for young healthcare professionals by providing them a platform to work at the site. The paper will also briefly investigate the implementation of a CUES site under an ethical scope of the Harm Reduction Theory. Lastly, the authors recommend some strategic plans that the Philadelphia City government may consider employing at this crucial stage. (shrink)

We are in a time of rapid change on multiple levels. Change can be seen as positive by one group and negative by another. As a result, different perspectives on any given change can draw completely different conclusions. In these proceedings we want to address different approaches to change from all kinds of perspectives within the realm of citizen science and participatory research. We discuss both active, transformative change, and the observation of change monitored by citizen science in all kinds (...) of disciplines. We highlight the potential of citizen science to be a change maker in research and society, and as a tool to manage the change happening around us. The proceedings "Change - The transformative power of citizen science" showcase a selection of topics that have been presented and discussed at the ECSA/ACSC 2024 double conference in Vienna and highlight the transformative power, citizen science can have. (shrink)

We use the myth of Pygmalion as a lens to investigate and frame the relationship between women and artificial intelligence (AI). Pygmalion was a legendary ancient king of Cyprus and sculptor. Having been repulsed by women, he used his skills to create a statue, which was imbued with life by the goddess Aphrodite. This can be seen as one of the primordial AI-like myths, wherein humanity creates intelligent life-like self-images to reproduce or replace ourselves. In addition, the myth prefigures historical (...) and present gendered dynamics within the field of AI and between AI and society at large. Throughout history, the theme of women being replaced by inanimate objects (e.g. automata, algorithms) has been repeated, and continues to repeat in contemporary AI technologies. However, this socially detrimental pattern in technology — what we dub Pygmalion displacement — is often overlooked, whether due to naive excitement about new developments, or due to an unacknowledged sexist history of the field itself. As we demonstrate herein, Pygmalion displacement prefigures heavily, but in an unacknowledged way, in the original Turing test, the imitation game: a central thought experiment, foundational to AI. With women, and the feminine generally, being both dislocated and erased from and by technology, AI is and has been (presented as) created mainly by privileged men, subserving capitalist patriarchal ends. This poses serious dangers to women and other marginalised people. By tracing the historical and ongoing entwinement of femininity (from a patriarchal perspective) and AI, we aim to understand, make visible, and start a dialogue on the ways in which AI harms women. (shrink)

The theories of pre-existence and epigenesis are typically taken to be opposing theories of generation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. One can be a pre-existence theorist only if one does not espouse epigenesis and vice versa. It has also been recognized, however, that the line between pre-existence and epigenesis in the nineteenth century, at least, is considerably less sharp and clear than it was in earlier centuries. The debate (1759-1777) between Albrecht von Haller and Caspar Friedrich Wolff on (...) their theories of generation is usually taken to be a debate between a pre-existence theorist and an epigeneticist, and the supposed fact that these two theories of generation are mutually exclusive explains (so the story goes) the divide between Haller and Wolff. However, it’s not clear that Haller endorsed an especially robust form of pre-existence, and nor is it clear that Wolff’s theory of generation -- once he considered it carefully -- is clear epigenetic. Rather, Haller’s theory of generation is marked by traces of epigensis and Wolff’s theory has elements of pre-existence theory. This is not to say that their theories of generation are basically the same, but the debate between the two ought not to be framed in terms of pre-existence versus epigenesis. Their points of difference must be explained in some other way. In this way, their controversy bears characteristics of similar disputes over generation in the nineteenth century more than it resembles those in the seventeenth century. In this paper, I argue that (a) Haller’s and Wolff’s theories both blend elements from pre-existence and epigenesis; (b) but there are still deeply-rooted differences between the two generation theories; (c) one source of these differences is that Haller and Wolff have divergent conceptions of what an adequate explanation is; (d) we can see that they have different conceptions of what constitutes an adequate explanation by paying heed to their evaluations of Descartes’ epistemology and methodology in his theory of generation (such as it is); and (e) this shows that one of the main differences between Haller’s generation theory and that of Wolff is the degree to which each thinks we need to (and indeed can) explain the nature of the causes -- both efficient and final -- at play during the formation of organic beings. (shrink)

The term ‘Continental philosophy’ designates not philosophy on the continent of Europe as a whole, but rather a selective slice of Franco-German philosophy. Through a critical analysis of the arguments advanced by Otto Neurath, the paper addresses the issue of why Austrian philosophers in particular are not counted in the pantheon of Continental philosophers. Austrian philosophy is marked by the predominance of philosophical analysis and of the philosophy of science. The paper concludes that it is not Austria which is the (...) special case when seen against the background of contemporary mainstream philosophy, but rather Germany and France. (shrink)

Integral ang ipinahihiwatig ng mga pelikula sa Pilipinas na direktang nagtampok sa mga kuwentong pag-ibig at paghahanapbuhay ng mga migranteng Pilipino sa ibayong dagat. Patok sa lipunang Pilipino ang mga pelikulang nakakakilig, nakapagbibigay ng ligaya, at inspirasyon. Ngunit hindi din dapat kaligtaan ang isa pang temang maaaring umusbong mula dito—ang kalagayan at danas ng mga karakter, hindi lamang bilang mangingibig, kundi bilang manggagawa din. Kung gayon, pagkalas ito panandalian sa kinasanayang pagtrato sa mga romantic movie ng mga Pilipino sa payak (...) nitong anyo bilang kuwentong pag-ibig lamang. Bagkus, malaong holistikong magsisiwalat sa malawakang diaspora at realidad ng paggawang Pilipino sa iba’t ibang bahagi ng mundo. Layunin ng artikulong ito na muling ipasundayag ang pagtatalaban ng puso na siyang simbolo ng pag-ibig at kamay na kumakatawan o metapora ng paghahanapbuhay. Partikular na susuyurin ang dalawang pelikula na nasa direksiyon ni Olivia Lamasan, na nagtampok sa mga Pilipino sa Estados Unidos—ang Sana Maulit Muli at In My Life. (shrink)

Nilalayon ng pag-aaral na ito ang isang pagsusuri at/o pagsasalansang tipolohikal ukol sa ilang pelikulang direktang tumuon sa danas at naratibo ng mga manggagawa, mangingibig, at/o manggagawang mangingibig—partikular na ang mga pelikulang idinirehe ni Olivia M. Lamasan. Sa paglago ng anomang larang katulad ng media studies, mahalaga rin ang pagsipat ng tipolohiya at/o pagsasaklasipika batay sa uri ng mga ipinamamayaning paksa. Ito ay upang matukoy ang pinagmumulan at/o pinaghuhugutang idea at inspirasyon ng mga kumatha at higit sa lahat, ang (...) pananalamin sa realidad ng lipunan sa panahon kung kailan ito kinatha. Nakasandig ang panunuring ito hindi lamang sa tradisyonal na pagbubuod ng mga kinathang pelikula, ngunit refleksibo rin uugatin ang kayariang panlipunan nito sa kasalukuyang direksiyon ng edukasyon at nakapangyayaring pagpapahalaga sa mga Pilipinong sining. Ang mga pelikulang Pilipino, lalo pa’t kung malaya at mapagpalaya ay maituturing na isang ekstensiyon at salamin ng mga communal ethos ng sambayanan at kalinangang Pilipino. (shrink)

A series of papers on different aspects of practical knowledge by Roderick Chisholm, Rudolf Haller, J. C. Nyiri, Eva Picardi, Joachim Schulte Roger Scruton, Barry Smith and Johan Wrede.

Sensibility, in any of its myriad realms – moral, physical, aesthetic, medical and so on – seems to be a paramount case of a higher-level, intentional property, not a basic property. Diderot famously made the bold and attributive move of postulating that matter itself senses, or that sensibility (perhaps better translated ‘sensitivity’ here) is a general or universal property of matter, even if he at times took a step back from this claim and called it a “supposition.” Crucially, sensibility is (...) here playing the role of a ‘booster’: it enables materialism to provide a full and rich account of the phenomena of conscious, sentient life, contrary to what its opponents hold: for if matter can sense, and sensibility is not a merely mechanical process, then the loftiest cognitive plateaus are accessible to materialist analysis, or at least belong to one and the same world as the rest of matter. This was noted by the astute anti-materialist critic, the Abbé Lelarge de Lignac, who, in his 1751 Lettres à un Amériquain, criticized Buffon for “granting to the body [la machine, a common term for the body at the time] a quality which is essential to minds, namely sensibility.” This view, here attributed to Buffon and definitely held by Diderot, was comparatively rare. If we look for the sources of this concept, the most notable ones are physiological and medical treatises by prominent figures such as Robert Whytt, Albrecht von Haller and the Montpellier vitalist Théophile de Bordeu. We then have, or so I shall try to sketch out, an intellectual landscape in which new – or newly articulated – properties such as irritability and sensibility are presented either as an experimental property of muscle fibers, that can be understood mechanistically (Hallerian irritability, as studied recently by Hubert Steinke and Dominique Boury) or a property of matter itself (whether specifically living matter as in Bordeu and his fellow montpelliérains Ménuret and Fouquet, or matter in general, as in Diderot). I am by no means convinced that it is one and the same ‘sensibility’ that is at issue in debates between these figures (as when Bordeu attacks Haller’s distinction between irritability and sensibility and claims that ‘his own’ property of sensibility is both more correct and more fundamental in organic beings), but I am interested in mapping out a topography of the problem of sensibility as property of matter or as vital force in mid-eighteenth-century debates – not an exhaustive cartography of all possible positions or theories, but an attempt to understand the ‘triangulation’ of three views: a vitalist view in which sensibility is fundamental, matching up with a conception of the organism as the sum of parts conceived as little lives (Bordeu et al.); a mechanist, or ‘enhanced mechanist’ view in which one can work upwards, step by step from the basic property of irritability to the higher-level property of sensibility (Haller); and, more eclectic, a materialist view which seeks to combine the mechanistic, componential rigour and explanatory power of the Hallerian approach, with the monistic and metaphysically explosive potential of the vitalist approach (Diderot). It is my hope that examining Diderot in the context of this triangulated topography of sensibility as property sheds light on his famous proclamation regarding sensibility as a universal property of matter. (shrink)

Hermann Hesse's works often explore deep philosophical themes and the human quest for self-understanding and enlightenment. His writing draws heavily from Eastern philosophy, Jungian psychology, and Western existentialism, creating a rich tapestry of ideas that challenge and inspire readers. Hermann Hesse's philosophical exploration in his works offers profound insights into the human condition, emphasizing the importance of personal experience, the integration of dualities, and the interconnectedness of all life. His writings encourage readers to embark on their own journeys of self-discovery, (...) recognizing that enlightenment is a continuous, evolving process. Here, we'll examine some of the key philosophical elements present in his most famous works. -/- The Search for Self-Identity At the heart of Siddhartha is the quest for self-identity. Siddhartha's journey represents the human struggle to understand one's true self and purpose in life. This theme resonates with existentialist philosophy, which emphasizes the individual's responsibility to create meaning in an inherently meaningless world. Siddhartha's refusal to accept predefined paths and doctrines underscores the existentialist belief in the necessity of personal experience and authenticity in the search for self-identity. -/- 1. Siddhartha: The Quest for Authenticity In Siddhartha, the protagonist's journey is a vivid representation of the search for self-identity. From the outset, Siddhartha is dissatisfied with the conventional teachings and practices of his Brahmin upbringing. His quest for authenticity drives him to leave his home and explore various paths, including asceticism, sensual indulgence, and finally, a contemplative life by the river. Siddhartha's journey reflects existentialist themes, particularly the idea that true self-identity cannot be handed down through tradition or external teachings. Instead, it must be discovered through personal experience and introspection. This aligns with the existentialist notion that individuals must create their own essence through their actions and choices, rather than conforming to predefined roles or expectations. -/- 2. Steppenwolf: The Duality of the Self In Steppenwolf, Hesse delves into the complexities of self-identity through the character of Harry Haller. Harry is torn between his human side, which longs for connection and meaning, and his "wolf" side, which is driven by instinct and isolation. This inner conflict illustrates the duality inherent in human nature and the struggle to reconcile these opposing aspects. Hesse's exploration of Harry's psyche resonates with the Jungian concept of the individuation process, where the integration of the conscious and unconscious parts of the self leads to wholeness. Harry's journey is a quest for self-identity that involves confronting and accepting the darker, shadowy parts of his personality. This process of self-discovery is both painful and liberating, underscoring the idea that true self-identity emerges from embracing all facets of one's being. -/- 3. Demian: The Role of the Unconscious Demian is another key work in which Hesse explores the search for self-identity, focusing on the protagonist Emil Sinclair's journey toward self-realization. Guided by the enigmatic Max Demian, Sinclair learns to listen to his inner voice and question societal norms. The novel emphasizes the importance of the unconscious mind in the search for self-identity, drawing on Jungian psychology. Sinclair's experiences highlight the tension between conforming to societal expectations and following one's inner truth. His journey reflects the existentialist idea that individuals must break free from external constraints to discover their true selves. Hesse suggests that the path to self-identity involves a deep engagement with the unconscious mind and an acceptance of one's inner conflicts and desires. -/- ………………………………….. The Concept of Impermanence -/- One of the central philosophical concepts in Siddhartha is impermanence, a fundamental tenet of Buddhist philosophy. The novel illustrates the transient nature of all things, emphasizing that nothing in life is permanent or unchanging. Siddhartha's experiences with love, wealth, and asceticism teach him that attachment to transient phenomena leads to suffering. This aligns with the Buddhist teaching of Anicca, which posits that recognizing and accepting impermanence is essential for achieving enlightenment. -/- Siddhartha: The Transient Nature of Life In Siddhartha, Hesse’s exploration of impermanence is central to the protagonist’s spiritual journey. Siddhartha’s experiences reflect the Buddhist teaching of Anicca, which posits that all things are in a constant state of flux and that clinging to anything impermanent leads to suffering. -/- Throughout the novel, Siddhartha undergoes various transformations—from a Brahmin’s son to an ascetic, a lover, a merchant, and finally, a ferryman. Each phase of his life teaches him about the transient nature of existence. His realization that neither extreme asceticism nor indulgence provides lasting fulfillment underscores the futility of seeking permanence in an impermanent world. -/- The river, a recurring symbol in the novel, epitomizes the flow of life and the constant change inherent in all things. Siddhartha’s enlightenment comes when he embraces the river’s wisdom, understanding that true peace lies in accepting the impermanence of all experiences. -/- Steppenwolf: The Ephemeral Nature of Identity Steppenwolf delves into the theme of impermanence through the internal conflict of its protagonist, Harry Haller. Harry’s struggle with his dual nature—the civilized man and the untamed wolf—reflects the fluidity and transient nature of identity. Hesse portrays identity not as a fixed entity but as a dynamic interplay of opposing forces. -/- The novel’s surreal episodes, particularly in the Magic Theater, emphasize the impermanent nature of reality and the self. Harry’s experiences in the theater reveal the illusory and ever-changing aspects of his perceptions and identity. Hesse suggests that true self-understanding requires embracing the impermanence and multiplicity of one’s nature. -/- The Glass Bead Game: The Impermanence of Human Endeavors -/- In The Glass Bead Game, Hesse explores the impermanence of human knowledge and cultural achievements. The game itself, a complex intellectual synthesis of arts and sciences, represents the pinnacle of human endeavor. However, the novel’s setting in a distant future where the game’s origins and significance have been largely forgotten underscores the transient nature of all human creations. -/- The protagonist, Joseph Knecht, ultimately realizes that the pursuit of intellectual perfection through the game is insufficient for a meaningful life. His decision to leave the Order and experience the impermanent, unpredictable world outside reflects his acceptance of life’s impermanence. Knecht’s journey illustrates that true wisdom involves embracing the fleeting nature of human existence and engaging fully with the present moment. -/- Hesse’s exploration of impermanence invites readers to reflect on their own lives and the ways in which the recognition of life’s fleeting nature can lead to greater wisdom and fulfillment. By embracing the impermanence of all things, Hesse suggests, individuals can attain a deeper appreciation of the present moment and the interconnectedness of all experiences. (shrink)

This book is a survey of the most important developments in Austrian philosophy in its classical period from the 1870s to the Anschluss in 1938. Thus it is intended as a contribution to the history of philosophy. But I hope that it will be seen also as a contribution to philosophy in its own right as an attempt to philosophize in the spirit of those, above all Roderick Chisholm, Rudolf Haller, Kevin Mulligan and Peter Simons, who have done so (...) much to demonstrate the continued fertility of the ideas and methods of the Austrian philosophers in our own day. For some time now, historians of philosophy have been gradually coming to terms with the idea that post-Kantian philosophy in the German-speaking world ought properly to be divided into two distinct traditions which we might refer to as the German and Austrian traditions, respectively. The main line of the first consists in a list of personages beginning with Kant, Fichte, Hegel and Schelling and ending with Heidegger, Adorno and Bloch. The main line of the second may be picked out similarly by means of a list beginning with Bolzano, Mach and Meinong, and ending with Wittgenstein, Neurath and Popper. As should be clear, it is the Austrian tradition that has contributed most to the contemporary mainstream of philosophical thinking in the Anglo-Saxon world. For while there are of course German thinkers who have made crucial contributions to the development of exact or analytic philosophy, such thinkers were outsiders when seen from the perspective of native German philosophical culture, and in fact a number of them found their philosophical home precisely in Vienna. When, in contrast, we examine the influence of the Austrian line, we encounter a whole series of familiar and unfamiliar links to the characteristic concerns of more recent philosophy of the analytic sort. As Michael Dummett points out in his Origins of Analytic Philosophy, the newly fashionable habit of referring to analytic philosophy as "Anglo-American" is in this light a "grave historical distortion". If, he says, we take into account the historical context in which analytic philosophy developed, then such philosophy "could at least as well be called "Anglo-Austrian" (1988, p. 7). Much valuable scholarly work has been done on the thinking of Husserl and Wittgenstein, Mach and the Vienna Circle. The central axis of Austrian philosophy, however, which as I hope to show in what follows is constituted by the work of Brentano and his school, is still rather poorly understood. Work on Meinong or Twardowski by contemporary philosophers still standardly rests upon simplified and often confused renderings of a few favoured theses taken out of context. Little attention is paid to original sources, and little effort is devoted to establishing what the problems were by which the Austrian philosophers in general were exercised -- in spite of the fact that many of these same problems have once more become important as a result of the contemporary burgeoning of interest on the part of philosophers in problems in the field of cognitive science. (shrink)

Die Entwicklung der Philosophie in Österreich unterscheidet sich in markanter Weise von der Hauptlinie der philosophischen Entwicklung in Deutschland. Dabei fällt bei der österreichischen Philosophie vor allem die konsequente Orientierung an den Wissenschaften auf. In der philosophiegeschichtlichen Forschung sind für diese Besonderheit der österreichischen Philosophie z. B. von Otto Neurath, Rudolf Haller, Friedrich Stadier und J.C. Nyiri verschiedene Erklärungen vorgeschlagen worden. In diesen spielen in jeweils unterschiedlicher Weise Faktoren der spezifisch österreichischen Entwicklungen in historischer, institutioneller, politischer und religiöser Hinsicht (...) eine Rolle. Der vorliegende Aufsatz kritisiert demgegenüber bereits die diese Erklärungsversuche tragende Fragestellung: Die philosophischen Entwicklungen in Österreich bedürfen - so lautet die neue These - gar nicht einer besonderen Erklärung; denn sie stellen den geistesgeschichtlichen Normalfall dar. Vielmehr ist eine Erklärung dafür notwendig, daß sich die wissenschaftliche Philosophie und die mit ihr verbundenen Charakterzüge stilistischer Klarheit, technischer Kompetenz, systematischer Orientierung, Spezialisierung und Professionalisierung im gleichen Zeitraum nicht auch in Deutschland entwickelt haben. Eine solche Erklärung läßt sich - so eine weitere These des Aufsatzes - ziemlich leicht aus der besonderen Rolle der (traditionellen idealistischen) Philosophie im deutschen Nationalbewußtsein herleiten. (shrink)

Newton’s impact on Enlightenment natural philosophy has been studied at great length, in its experimental, methodological and ideological ramifications. One aspect that has received fairly little attention is the role Newtonian “analogies” played in the formulation of new conceptual schemes in physiology, medicine, and life science as a whole. So-called ‘medical Newtonians’ like Pitcairne and Keill have been studied; but they were engaged in a more literal project of directly transposing, or seeking to transpose, Newtonian laws into quantitative models of (...) the body. I am interested here in something different: neither the metaphysical reading of Newton, nor direct empirical transpositions, but rather, a more heuristic, empiricist construction of Newtonian analogies. Figures such as Haller, Barthez, and Blumenbach constructed analogies between the method of celestial mechanics and the method of physiology. In celestial mechanics, they held, an unknown entity such as gravity is posited and used to mathematically link sets of determinate physical phenomena (e.g., the phases of the moon and tides). This process allows one to remain agnostic about the ontological status of the unknown entity, as long as the two linked sets of phenomena are represented adequately. Haller et. al. held that the Newtonian physician and physiologist can similarly posit an unknown called ‘life’ and use it to link various other phenomena, from digestion to sensation and the functioning of the glands. These phenomena consequently appear as interconnected, goal-oriented processes which do not exist either in an inanimate mechanism or in a corpse. In keeping with the empiricist roots of the analogy, however, no ontological claims are made about the nature of this vital principle, and no attempts are made to directly causally connect such a principle and observable phenomena. The role of the “Newtonian analogy” thus brings together diverse schools of thought, and cuts across a surprising variety of programs, models and practices in natural philosophy. (shrink)

Contribution à la Journée : Jean Petitot. Le souci de la rationalité, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre la Défense, Bâtiment L, salle 212 (organisée par Olivia Chevalier-Chandeigne) 29 mai 2015 .

1. INTRODUÇÃO -/- No "mundo" das produções animais, e sem que saibamos exatamente o motivo ou os motivos, não é incomum observar, mesmo a nível docente (faceta em que nos sentimos especialmente culpados), uma notável discussão (obscuridade de ideias e/ou na linguagem, produzida deliberadamente ou não) ao abordar os conceitos de fertilidade, fecundidade e prolificidade. -/- Esta falta de clareza conceitual torna-se tanto mais manifesta quando, precisamente a partir dos referidos conceitos, se pretende efetuar, por exemplo, uma programação ou uma (...) análise técnico-econômica de uma exploração pecuária. -/- O objetivo do presente trabalho é tentar introduzir com "clareza de ideias" acerca dos referidos conceitos essenciais na Zootecnia, sempre no domínio que nos é próprio, o das produções animais. Com a finalidade de tornar a exposição mais didática, construindo os conceitos sobre a cultura dos suínos. No entanto, que fique bem claro desde já que, com pequenas variações, pode-se considerar qualquer outra «espécie animal superior», incluindo as aves. -/- Para efeitos de brevidade e concisão, e porque serão abordados noutros trabalhos, não vamos aprofundar aqui, para além do estritamente indispensável, as questões relativas à anatomia do aparelho reprodutor e à fisiologia da reprodução. -/- -/- 2. FERTILIDADE -/- Segundo o Dicionário Geral Ilustrado da Língua Portuguesa: -/- — Fertilidade: Qualidade de fértil. -/- — Fértil: Virtude que tem a terra para produzir copiosos frutos. -/- A palavra "fertilidade" tem a sua raiz no vocábulo latino "fertilis" (produtivo, abundante). Ao nível da produção animal, a fertilidade pode ser definida como: -/- «A capacidade de um macho ou de uma fêmea púbere de produzir e liberar gametas maduros fisiologicamente aptos a fecundar (espermatozoides) ou para serem fecundados (ovócitos de segunda ordem)». -/- No caso da fêmea, o aparecimento da puberdade começa com a intervenção das hormonas gonadotrofinas FSH e LH (folículo estimulante e lúteo estimulante, respectivamente). Com ela se inicia o desenvolvimento de 15-30 ou mais folículos primários localizados no estroma ovariano, processo que se repetirá de forma cíclica enquanto não se inicia um processo de anafrodisia funcional (gestação) ou patológica. -/- 2.1 Fertilidade em suínos: formação de ovários, ovócitos, folículos e generalidades das fêmeas -/- Na porca, os ovários são duas formações ovais situadas na cavidade abdominal na região sublombar em ambos os lados do raquis. Geralmente, o ovário direito tem um tamanho superior ao esquerdo e, como no caso da maioria das fêmeas mamíferas, a maior parte da superfície ovariana está rodeada pelo epitélio germinal e pelo peritoneu, exceto numa pequena porção, ílio-ovárico, por onde penetram os vasos e os nervos. -/- O estroma ovárico é formado por uma rede de tecido conjuntivo em cujas maias se encontram numerosos folículos que contêm as células germinativas ou ovócitos em diversos estágios de desenvolvimento. Estes folículos manifestam-se na superfície do ovário da porca sob a forma de uma série de eminências arredondadas que lhe dão um aspecto de amora. -/- A fêmea já nasce com um número determinado de folículos primários originados durante o desenvolvimento embrionário, contendo cada folículo um ovócito de primeira ordem que alcançou um desenvolvimento de dictiotene da prófase meiótica ou mitose I. -/- A partir dos folículos primários originam-se folículos secundários ou poliestratificados, alcançando-se o grau de folículos terciários de Graaf ou maduros, com o aparecimento da puberdade. O folículo terciário ou antral caracteriza-se por um aumento de volume e uma grande complexidade, contém, em princípio, o ovócito de primeira ordem que sofreu o período de vitelo-gênese e que vai dar lugar ao ovócito de segunda ordem quando ocorre a lise do cumulus proliger ou ooforo, com o qual a célula sexual permanece agora livre no seio do líquido folicular. Neste processo o ovócito de primeira ordem sofreu modificações características como são um deslocamento do núcleo para a superfície da célula e o protoplasma distribui-se irregularmente. -/- Um folículo terciário ou maduro tem a seguinte estrutura desde a parte externa à interna: teca externa, teca interna, membrana de Slajvansky, membrana granulosa e as células da coroa radiada que rodeiam o ovócito, uma membrana pelúcida que envolve totalmente o ovócito de grande transcendência no momento da fecundação e finalmente o ovócito de primeira ordem. Existe uma cavidade denominada cavidade folicular, que contém um líquido segregado pelas células da granulosa, licor folicular de composição complexa, destacando as hormonas sexuais femininas e concretamente o 17-beta-estradiol. A membrana granulosa está relacionada com a coroa radiada pelo «cumulus proliger» ou ooforo que serve de nexo de ligação. -/- Posteriormente, e seguindo o processo, origina-se o folículo pré-ovulatório ou deiscente, produzindo-se a eclosão do folículo e libertando-se um ovócito de segunda ordem em período de metafase II graças a um processo que Pérez García denominou como ovocitação, termo que foi aceito nos diversos meios científicos, já que considera que o termo ovulação no caso dos vertebrados é incorreto. Este ovócito de segunda ordem é a verdadeira célula fértil, coisa que não ocorre quando se libera ou se produz o óvulo no oviduto; os óvulos são células inférteis. No processo de ovocitação intervém uma série de mecanismos que classificamos em pressores, enzimáticos e neuro-hormonais, destacando entre estes últimos a hormona luteoestimulante (LH), além dos fatores introváricos descritos recentemente. -/- Consequentemente, uma fêmea, no nosso caso suína, será fértil quando for capaz de levar a bom termo de forma regular e de acordo com a periodicidade do seu ciclo sexual o processo descrito supra. -/- Na prática cotidiana das explorações não é possível saber diretamente se uma fêmea é fértil ou não. Neste contexto, por exemplo, ninguém poderá nos informar se ante as manifestações psicomáticas do zelo existe fertilidade; pode tratar-se de um zelo anovular que requer para o seu diagnóstico a utilização de métodos endoscópicos ou ecográficos, assim como métodos cirúrgicos como a perfusão dos ovidutos ou do útero para obter os ovócitos liberados avaliando-se a quantidade e qualidade dos mesmos. -/- Por conseguinte, a frase frequentemente ouvida a nível das explorações: «é uma fêmea muito fértil», é, a menos que tenha sido efetuado o «controle específico» da reprodutora, pelo menos «tecnicamente inadequado». -/- 2.2 Fertilidade em suínos: formação, translocação e generalidades dos espermatozoides no macho -/- O caso do porco é um pouco diferente. No período embrionário formam-se as espermatogônias, células equivalentes às ovogonias da fêmea. De cada espermatogônia primária ou espermatogônia A1 por numerosas mitoses, produzem-se 16 espermatócitos primários mais uma espermatogônia B1 que repetirá o processo. Por conseguinte, o período de proliferação ou multiplicação difere significativamente do mesmo período no caso da fêmea, uma vez que no macho durante toda a vida sexual são produzidas continuamente novas espermatogônias. -/- Cada espermatócito primário, através de um processo de crescimento muito limitado, origina um espermatócito de primeira ordem que, durante o período de maturação, originará dois espermatócitos de segunda ordem (haploides) e, em segundo lugar, quatro espermátides (haploides). Cada uma destas espermátides, através de um processo de transformação denominado espermiogênese ou espermatohistogênese, originará um espermatozoide. Os espermatozoides passarão posteriormente do rete testis ao epidídimo, onde se armazenarão alelostaticamente. A trajetória dos espermatozoides antes de chegar ao epidídimo passa pelos tubos retos de Haller (muito lentamente pela pressão exercida) para chegar às lagunas de Haller e daí aos cones eferentes. O trânsito dos espermatozoides através do epidídimo é de fundamental importância porque é aqui onde tem lugar a verdadeira maturação. Os espermatozoides obtidos a nível da cabeça do epidídimo não terminaram a sua maturação e, portanto, carecem de capacidade fecundante, enquanto que aqueles provenientes da cauda deste órgão a têm em grande medida. No entanto, à saída do epidídimo, os espermatozoides ainda não atingiram a sua plena maturidade. Para isso deverão passar pelas ampolas do ducto deferente ou de Henle para que, como afirmam a maioria dos autores, tenha lugar a seleção de formas anormais e de espermatozoides fracos. As células intersticiais do epitélio seminífero são responsáveis por fornecer aos espermatozoides um material nutricional que exerce ações tróficas e endócrinas que favorecem o equilíbrio celular do espermatozoide. Finalmente estes espermatozoides, conjuntamente com as secreções prostáticas, das vesículas seminais e das glândulas bulbouretrais, terminarão sua trajetória na uretra, sendo eliminados ao exterior pelo órgão copulador ou pênis mediante o processo de ejaculação. -/- No momento da ejaculação libera-se o esperma, ou sêmen, que é o resultado da mistura do material espermático de origem testicular e as sucessivas secreções das glândulas acessórias antes citadas, que derramam seus produtos na uretra. No entanto, o processo final espermatogênico não termina no trato genital masculino, mas sim no trato feminino depois do coito ou da inseminação artificial graças ao conhecido processo extremamente complexo da capacitação espermática. -/- Um varrão é fértil a partir do momento em que é capaz de produzir espermatozoides normais. Analisando o esperma de forma adequada poderemos constatar com uma relativa precisão, tendo em conta a grande quantidade de fatores endógenos e exógenos que afetam a um ser tão sensível como o porco, o nível de fertilidade do mesmo. Devemos ter em mente que macho suíno adulto pode ser inicialmente muito fértil (apresentar uma grande quantidade de espermatozoides, de 400-1.300 x 106/ml na fração espermática do seu ejaculado) e, em vez disso, não ser apto para a reprodução porque pode apresentar defeitos no epidídimo e/ou nas ampolas de Henle pelo qual os espermatozoides não amadurecem e portanto não são úteis para efeitos reprodutivos. -/- Contudo, na prática, e de acordo com a própria definição, o porco é considerado fértil quando produz espermatozoides maduros com as seguintes características: -/- - Concentração correta; -/- - Capacidade motora adequada; -/- - Capacidade metabólica; -/- - Estrutura correta em relação à cabeça e ao flagelo (pescoço, trato intermediário e cauda, considerando esta última formada por seu trato principal e seu trato terminal), avaliando-se também o estado do acrossoma; -/- - Adequado comportamento cromocitógeno. -/- Logo deve ficar claro que a fertilidade é uma aptidão que em geral têm os machos e as fêmeas púberes para produzir e liberar gametas anatômicos e fisiológicos corretos (os híbridos das espécies cavalar e asnal, os mulos e os burdéganos, por exemplo, não são férteis; uma fêmea com ausência de desenvolvimento gonodal tampouco). -/- -/- 3. FECUNDIDADE -/- De acordo com o Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa: -/- — Fecundidade: Qualidade de fecundo. -/- — Fecundo: Que produz ou se reproduz por meios naturais. -/- A palavra «fecundidade» provém do latim fecunditas, significa «virtude e faculdade de produzir». Qualidade de fecundo, do latim fecundus, que «produz ou se reproduz em virtude dos meios naturais». -/- Esta definição pode conduzir, no âmbito das produções animais, a equívocos. Somos a favor da aplicação da seguinte definição de fecundidade. -/- «É a capacidade que um macho e/ou uma fêmea fértil tem para conseguir que os seus gametas, anatómica e fisiológica, aumentem normalmente: uma vez liberados, juntam-se aos do outro sexo para formar um zigoto». -/- Este fenômeno recebe o nome de fecundação, não sendo correto o de fertilização, que é utilizado por alguns autores. -/- 3.1 Generalidades e a fecundação em suínos -/- No caso da porca, para continuar com o mesmo exemplo ao longo de todo o trabalho, os gametas femininos, ovócitos de segunda ordem, sofrem uma descida ou migração, uma vez liberados do folículo maduro, através do oviduto para entrar em contato com os espermatozoides. -/- Esta migração pode ocorrer porque antes de ocorrer a mencionada deiscência folicular caracterizada por um congestionamento, tanto do próprio ovário como dos ovidutos ou trompas de Falópio, o pavilhão destas últimas aproxima-se do ovário (o oviduto de três partes: bandeira, corpo e istmo). Constituindo uma espécie de funil, graças à intervenção das fimbrias do pavilhão, no qual, em princípio, os oócitos deiscentes devem ser depositados com o respectivo líquido folicular. -/- As razões pelas quais o ovócito se dirige ao pavilhão não são bem conhecidas, embora se pense que a causa é devida às correntes que originam os cílios com seus movimentos. O ovócito percorre o oviduto num tempo adequado (reunindo, portanto, as condições adequadas de pH, pressão osmótica, etc.) para que o espermatozoide possa alcançá-lo e entrar em contato com ele. -/- Se o ovócito de segunda ordem não cair no infundíbulo ou transitar a uma velocidade inadequada pelo oviduto não poderá ter lugar a impregnação (penetração do espermatozoide no ovócito de segunda ordem) e portanto a fecundação (singamia e cariogamia). Há que ter em conta que a fecundação provoca a segunda etapa da maturação do ovócito caracterizada pela finalização da mitose II, já que como supracitado o ovócito de segunda ordem se libera no processo de metafase II (equacional), originando um óvulo que já contém o material cromossômico masculino e eliminando o segundo polocito. -/- Podemos interpretar que a eliminação deste segundo polocito, como consequência da penetração da cabeça do espermatozoide no ovócito originando-se um óvulo, seria como o resultado de uma espécie de incompatibilidade entre o pronúcleo do polocito e o que fornece o espermatozoide. Por conseguinte, no período de maturação da ovogênese produz-se, através de um processo reducional, um ovócito de segunda ordem e um primeiro pólcito. Posteriormente, o ovócito de segunda ordem originará por uma mitose equacional, que carece do período de duplicação do ADN no ciclo de Savel, um óvulo e um segundo pólcito. Às vezes, mas nem sempre, o primeiro polocito originará um terceiro e um quarto polocito mediante mitose, pelo que no total podem originar-se três polocito. Estes polocitos podem ser chamados de ovos abortivos porque carecem praticamente de deutoplasma que ficou englobado no óvulo e que permitirá o desenvolvimento embrionário em seus primeiros estádios até que se estabeleçam as conexões feto-maternas. -/- O óvulo maduro apresenta o pronúcleo feminino capaz de conjugar-se com o pronúcleo masculino, dando lugar à formação do zigoto. Mas, insisto mais uma vez, a penetração do espermatozoide ocorre sempre no estágio de ovócito de segunda ordem e nunca quando a célula sexual tenha alcançado o estádio de óvulo. -/- Evidentemente e depois de todo o comentado: -/- UMA PORCA PODE SER FERTIL E NÃO FECUNDA -/- Por isso bastaria, por exemplo, que o pavilhão da tromba não conseguisse aproximar-se de maneira adequada ao ovário, com o que os ovócitos de segunda ordem, anatômica e fisiologicamente normais, cairiam na cavidade abdominal. Nestas circunstâncias a fecundação, logicamente, seria totalmente impossível. -/- O espermatozoide, por sua vez, tem que subir um trecho do oviduto para "encontrar" o ovócito. Este avanço ocorre como consequência das contrações peristálticas do útero que realiza uma sucção do esperma. Neste momento os espermatozoides experimentam uma importante seleção biológica dado que para atravessar o istmo tubárico necessitam ter uma adequada vitalidade (na porca a união uterotubárica, assim como a primeira parte do istmo, atuam parcialmente como uma barreira). -/- Evidentemente, o espermatozoide não o tem fácil, embora consiga aproximar-se do ovócito graças às quatro hormonas produzidas pelos gametas (dois androgamonas e duas ginogamonas), embora atualmente fala-se da existência de três ginogamonas já que o ovócito se comporta como um polo positivo e a parte terminal da cabeça do espermatozóide como um polo negativo. -/- Uma vez que o espermatozoide entra em contato com o ovócito, deve «salvar» a camada protetora do ovócito (formada por um aglomerado mucoso de natureza espessa e viscosa, além de uma camada interna que pode ser mais ou menos poliestratificada que constitui a coroa radiada procedente das células da membrana granulosa). Para superar estes obstáculos, os espermatozoides têm uma estrutura, o acrossoma. Esta estrutura contém um complexo específico de lipoglicoproteínas que inclui uma série de enzimas como hialuronidase e acrosina. A hialuronidase está provavelmente envolvida na dispersão do cumulus proliger. A acrosina está relacionada com a penetração do espermatozoide através da zona pelúcida. -/- Então também podemos afirmar, como fizemos no caso da reprodutora, que: -/- UM PORCO TAMBÉM PODE SER FERTIL E NÃO FECUNDO -/- Bastaria para isso que os espermatozoides experimentassem um hipocinese, por isso sendo excessivamente lentos não tinham suficiente motilidade de avanço. -/- No entanto, sem ter a necessidade de chegar a estes extremos, o que deve ficar claro é que: -/- a) Fertilidade e fecundidade são dois conceitos claramente distintos. -/- b) Para que um reprodutor ou uma reprodutora possam tornar-se fecundos antes devem ser férteis. -/- Assim, por exemplo, um macho fértil pode não ser fecundo; quando um reprodutor não tem ereção, não tem suficiente ardor genérico, não é capaz, obviamente, de introduzir seu aparelho copulador no trato genital da fêmea. Esta situação pode ser ultrapassada, pelo menos em alguns casos, mediante a utilização de um ejaculador elétrico e posterior aplicação da técnica de inseminação artificial. -/- Uma fórmula clássica para determinar a porcentagem global de fecundidade obtida num rebanho durante um determinado período de tempo (T) pode ser a seguinte: -/- Fecundidade (T)(%)=(N° de fêmeas gestantes (T))/(N° de fêmeas cobertas (T)) x 100 -/- A mesma fórmula é utilizada para determinar a «capacidade fecundante» (CF) de um macho X durante um período T. -/- CF(x)(T)(%)=(N° de fêmeas cobertas / macho X (T) gestantes)/(N° de fêmeas cobertas / macho X (T) ) x 100 -/- Obviamente, na prática, a «capacidade fecundante final» do macho X não é apenas função das suas próprias aptidões, é também função da aptidão fecundante das fêmeas por ele cobertas. -/- Por esta razão, para que o parâmetro CFX(T) seja «fiável», o macho X deve ter coberto um elevado número de fêmeas durante o período T. Consequentemente, este período de tempo não pode ser excessivamente curto, dependendo do ciclo sexual da espécie. -/- Analisados os termos fertilidade e fecundidade, vamos tratar a despeito da prolificidade. -/- -/- 4. PROLIFICIDADE -/- Segundo o Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa: -/- — Prolífico: Que tem a virtude de gerar.; -/- — Gerar: Dar origem a um novo ser. -/- No âmbito das produções animais é um termo realmente fácil de de compreender, não existindo discrepância entre os autores. -/- Poderíamos estabelecer a seguinte definição para a prolificidade: -/- "É a capacidade que a fêmea reprodutora tem para proporcionar aos zigotos um meio adequado em que possam realizar o seu desenvolvimento e chegar ao término". -/- 4.1 Generalidades e prolificidade em suínos -/- No caso da porca, poderíamos definir, em primeiro lugar, a prolificidade como o número de leitões nascidos por parto. A maioria dos autores consideram os leitões nascidos vivos e os nascidos mortos; outros só computam os nascidos vivos. Nós nos inclinamos pela primeira consideração. -/- No seio da fêmea, uma vez realizada a fecundação, a «fusão» das células germinativas do macho e da fêmea, inicia-se a divisão das células do zigoto, que constituem uma massa ou um aglomerado de células não especializadas. (Quando no processo de divisão forem atingidas as 16 células, a mencionada massa celular não identificada recebe a denominação de mórula, a qual dará lugar à blástula ou blastocisto.) -/- Durante os primeiros dias este zigoto em divisão, que irá transformar-se em embrião, desloca-se; primeiro, ao longo do oviduto; depois, no útero. Uma vez alcançado o útero é quando ocorre a nidificação. Esta nidificação pode ocorrer porque a mórula segrega uma enzima que é capaz de fixar-se em uma porção do endométrio, resultando em uma cavidade. É precisamente nesta cavidade que tem lugar a «implantação». -/- Nos suínos, o momento da nidificação situa-se entre 10 e 15 dias a contar do início da gestação. Aproximadamente entre os 15-16 dias de gestação os embriões estão totalmente fixados nas paredes uterinas. A partir deste momento pode-se iniciar o desenvolvimento das estruturas que vão permitir com que a mãe possa alimentar os novos seres (durante os primeiros dias, os ovos fertilizados alimentam-se do seu próprio deutoplasma e do chamado leite uterino de Williams proveniente do endotélio uterino). -/- Uma vez desenvolvidas todas as estruturas necessárias (saco vitelino, corioalantoides, saco amniótico, etc.), o embrião pode desenvolver-se no limite das suas possibilidades, transformar-se num feto e tentar atingir o seu objetivo que não é outro senão o de chegar com vida ao final, quero dizer, na altura do parto. -/- Em suma, de acordo com o exposto até aqui, acerca prolificidade da porca, um cálculo para medir o índice reprodutivo é dado por: prolificidade Y em seu parto n será: -/- Prolificidade porca Yn = Número de leitões nascidos (vivos+mortos) -/- Quando se fala da prolificidade média de um lote de reprodutoras (entendendo-se por «lote de reprodutoras» um conjunto de porcas que se encontram no mesmo estado fisiológico), considera-se o número médio de crias durante o período de partos. -/- Assim, por exemplo, a prolificidade média de um lote de 20 porcas que pariram, na respectiva maternidade, 180 leitões vivos e 6 leitões mortos é: -/- Prolificidade médiando lote=(180 l.v.+ 6 l.m.)/(20 porcas paridas)=9,3 leitões/porca -/- Se nos referirmos a uma exploração com 200 porcas reprodutoras ativas presentes na propriedade, desde o dia 1 de Janeiro a 31 de Dezembro, ao qual foram «obtidos» 1800 leitões vivos e 40 leitões nascidos mortos, a prolificidade média da exploração durante este ano será: -/- Prolificidade média do rebanho=(1800 l.v+40 l.m.)/(200 reprodutoras)= 9,2 leitões/reprodutora ativa -/- Este número, a nível prático e referente exclusivamente a um ano, é pouco indicativo dado que dependerá da calendarização no programa de gestão da exploração. -/- Normalmente, o parâmetro mais utilizado para refletir o desempenho de uma exploração no aspecto reprodutivo é o da produtividade definida pela expressão: -/- Produtividade final real=prolificidade média x (N° de fêmeas paridas)/(N° total de fêmeas) -/- Suponhamos que, numa exploração de 200 porcas reprodutoras, tenham parido 150 leitões (vivos+mortos) com uma prolificidade média de 9,0 leitões, a produtividade será: -/- Produtividade final real=9,0 leit./porca x (150 porcas paridas)/(200 porcas total)=6,75 leit./porca -/- Se esta produtividade for referente à um ano, a fórmula será: -/- Produtividade final anual = prolificidade média x (N° de fêmeas paridas)/(N° total de fêmeas) x (365 dias)/I -/- Sendo I – Intervalo médio entre dois partos. -/- No exemplo (exploração) anterior, se o intervalo médio entre dois partos é de 154 dias, a produtividade final anual será: -/- Produtiv. final anual = 9,0 leit./porca x (150 p.paridas)/(200 p.presentes) x (365 dias)/(154 dias)=16 leit./porca/ano -/- Trata-se de um valor muito indicativo do nível médio de «eficácia produtiva» ou eficiência reprodutiva da exploração. -/- Tal como foi calculado para as reprodutoras, estima-se a eficácia produtiva de um macho reprodutor X a partir de uma fórmula semelhante, dada por: -/- Produtividade(mX) = prolificidade x (N° de fêmeas paridas)/(N° de fêmeas cobertas) -/- Onde a prolificidade é a média de crias das fêmeas paridas. -/- Se um macho reprodutor tiver coberto (inseminado) 200 porcas, ao qual 140 pariram um total de 850 leitões vivos e 20 leitões mortos, seu coeficiente produtivo é: -/- Produtiv.macho X=(870 leitões (vivos+mortos))/(140 porcas paridas) x (140 p.paridas)/(200 p.cobertas)=4,35 leit./porca coberta -/- Este parâmetro expressa o número médio de crias nascidas por fêmea coberta. -/- Numa exploração pecuária (especialmente numa exploração suinícola) torna-se muito interessante, na prática, estudar a evolução da produtividade dos machos reprodutores ao longo do tempo. -/- Numa exploração pode também ser interessante calcular a eficácia reprodutiva das fêmeas da exploração que exprime o número de dias necessários para obter uma criação (índice Ni). Este índice permite comparar a diferente eficácia reprodutiva de duas fêmeas e é definido pela seguinte expressão: -/- Ni=Ii/(Prolificidade i) -/- Sendo: -/- Ii = Intervalo médio entre dois partos de uma fêmea i. -/- Prolificidade i = Número médio de crias nascidas por parto na fêmea i. -/- Em nosso caso, a porca 134 tem um intervalo médio entre partos de 156 dias e uma prolificidade média de 9,1 leitões. Por sua vez, a porca 143 tem um I = 163 dias e uma prolificidade média de 9,5 leitões. Com base nos dados apresentados achamos o índice Ni, mediante os cálculos: -/- N134 = (156 dias)/(9,1 leitões)=17,14 dias/leit. -/- N143 = (163 dias)/(9,5 leit.) =17,16 dias/leit. -/- Neste caso, ao contrário do que se poderia perceber a olho nu, as duas reprodutoras possuem a mesma eficácia reprodutiva (quanto menor o índice Ni, maior a eficácia reprodutiva). Esta é a razão, de que numa exploração nem sempre um desmame precoce dos leitões (18-24 dias) é melhor que um desmame mais tardio (24-28 dias). -/- A eficácia reprodutiva numa exploração de R fêmeas reprodutoras durante um período de T dias é avaliada através da fórmula: -/- NiR = (T x R)/(N° de crias nascidas em T) -/- Se, numa exploração de 200 porcas reprodutoras, tiverem nascido, nos últimos 365 dias, um total de 1840 leitões (1800 leitões vivos e 40 leitões mortos), a eficácia reprodutiva será: -/- N200 = (365 dias x 200 porcas)/(1840 leit.nascidos)=39,67 dias/leit. -/- Ao qual equivale a uma prolificidade média do rebanho, no tempo considerado, de: -/- Prolificidade média do rebanho=(365 dias)/(39,67 dias/leit.)=9,2 leit. -/- Tal e como havia sido estimado anteriormente. -/- Não é necessário insistir na importância prática que tem, a nível das explorações, a correta consideração e a adequada utilização dos conceitos, parâmetros e índices expostos nas páginas precedentes. Neste sentido, em muitas das nossas explorações, também aqui, há ainda um longo caminho a percorrer. -/- -/- 5. RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES -/- Ao longo deste trabalho venho tentado expor de uma forma mais clara e simples possível a realidade conceitual dos termos fertilidade, fecundidade e prolificidade dentro da perspectiva das produções animais. -/- Em todos os casos, trata-se de capacidades ou aptidões anatômica-fisiológicas dos reprodutores ligadas ao exercício da sua atividade no âmbito da exploração. -/- Nessa presente exposição, objetivou-se deixar claro que: -/- a) Fertilidade, fecundidade e prolificidade são conceitos totalmente distintos embora estejam correlacionados. -/- b) Um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora pode ser fértil e não fecundo. -/- c) Consequentemente, um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora não pode ser fecundo se não for fértil antes. -/- d) Um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora pode ser fértil e fecundo e não ser prolífico. -/- e) Consequentemente, para que um reprodutor e/ou reprodutora possa ser prolífico antes tem que ser fecundo. E se for fecundo, significa que também é fértil. -/- f) Na prática, as explorações só podem estimar, no âmbito do conceito geral de «eficácia reprodutiva», a fecundidade e a prolificidade dos reprodutores, nunca a sua fertilidade. -/- Uma vez classificados e estudados os referidos conceitos, estamos em condições de enfrentar outros temas ligados ao processo reprodutivo. -/- -/- 6. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- -/- BRACKETT, B. G.; JÚNIOR, G. E. A.; SEIDEL, S. M. Avances en zootecnia. Nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. 1ª ed. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1988. -/- COLE, H. H.; CUPPS, P. T. Reproduction in domestic animals. 1ª ed. Londres: Academic Press, 1977. -/- FERREIRA, A. H. et al. Produção de suínos: teoria e prática. Brasília: ABCS, 2014. -/- GORDON, I. Reproducción controlada del cerdo. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1999. -/- HAFEZ, E. S. E.; HAFEZ, B. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. -/- HUGHES, P. E.; VARLEY, M. A. Reproducción del cerdo. Zaragoza: Editorial Acribia, 1984. (shrink)

Objective: The aim of this study is to evaluate relationship between ostiomeatal complex variations (OMC) and maxillary sinus pathologies in children and adolescents using cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). -/- Methods: CBCT images of 72 patients (44 males and 28 females) aged 7-18 years were evaluated retrospectively. Presence of nasal septal deviation (NSD), nasal septal pneumatization (NSP), concha bullosa (CB), accessory maxillary ostium (AMO), agger nasi cell (ANC), Haller cell (HC), Onodi cell (OC), ethmoid sinusitis and maxillary sinus pathologies were (...) investigated. Maxillary sinus pathologies were classified. Correlations of OMC variations with each other, maxillary sinus pathologies and ethmoid sinusitis were investigated. Chi-square test was used to analyze relationships among variables and distribution of parameters. -/- Results: NSD was determined in 70.8%, NSP in 40.3%, ethmoid sinusitis in 75%, maxillary sinus pathology in 34.8% of images. OMC variations rates were detected as CB 31.3%, AMO 16%, ANC 16%, HC 24.3% and OC 18.8%. The most common maxillary sinus pathology was localized mucosal thickening, with a rate of 15.3% on right and 22.2% on left. Statistically significant differences were determined between almost all OMC variations with each other, and between anatomical variations in OMC with maxillary sinus pathologies except for NSP and AMO (p < 0.05). The presence of ethmoid sinusitis was more common in males (p =0.026). -/- Conclusion: Anatomical variations in OMC had no significant effect on maxillary sinus pathology except for NSP and AMO. Besides, most of anatomical variations in OMC were statistically significantly correlated with each other. CBCT visualization of these variations is important for sinonasal surgery and is an effective method in children and adolescents with low radiation dose and high image quality compared to computed tomography. (shrink)

Friedrich Stadler und sein Team schließen über 40 Jahre nach Präsentation der ersten beiden Bände das von Rudolf Haller initiierte Projekt einer umfassenden Werkschau Otto Neuraths (1882–1945) ab. In acht Bänden wird auf fast 5.000 Seiten das Schaffen eines Polyhistors dokumentiert und zugänglich gemacht, dessen intellektueller Spannweite man nicht einmal gerecht wird, wenn man ihn als Philosophen, Nationalökonomen, Gesellschaftstechniker und Aufklärer bezeichnet.

I sitt berömda bevis för tidens overklighet påstod McTaggart att det sätt händelser tycks skifta position i tiden från framtid till nutid och till förfluten tid, innebär en motsägelse. Vad McTaggart egentligen menade har varit föremål för en livlig debatt ända sedan beviset först publicerades 1908. Beviset består av två delar. I den första argumenterar McTaggart för att ingenting kan förändras förutom genom att övergå från framtid till förfluten tid. I den andra argumenterar han för att en sådan övergång innebär (...) en motsägelse och att det därför inte kan finnas någon förändring överhuvudtaget, vilket i sin tur innebär att det heller inte finns någon tid. De flesta filosofer är i dag eniga om att McTaggart har fel, men oeniga om på vilket sätt han har fel. Olika filosofer förkastar olika delar av beviset, beroende på om de har vad som kallas en A- eller B-uppfattning av tiden. De som har en A-uppfattning förnekar att tid förstådd som övergång från framtid till förfluten tid är motsägelsefull. De som har en B-uppfattning förnekar att en övergång från framtid till förfluten tid är nödvändig för förändring, men håller med om att sådan övergång är motsägelsefull. Det är min uppfattning att denna oenighet beror på att McTaggarts argument från första början blivit missuppfattat, av både A- och B-teoretiker. Av någon anledning har det alltid betraktats som ett självständigt argument, ett som är oberoende av det ontologiska system McTaggart förespråkade. Jag föreslår ett nytt sätt att förstå hur han menade att tiden är motsägelsefull. Ett sätt som tar hans ontologiska system som utgångspunkt. (shrink)

A. J. Ayer’s Language, Truth, and Logic had been responsible for introducing the Vienna Circle’s ideas, developed within a Germanophone framework, to an Anglophone readership. Inevitably, this migration from one context to another resulted in the alteration of some of the concepts being transmitted. Such alterations have served to facilitate a number of false impressions of Logical Empiricism from which recent scholarship still tries to recover. In this paper, I will attempt to point to the ways in which LTL has (...) helped to foster the various mistaken stereotypes about Logical Empiricism which were combined into the received view. I will begin by examining Ayer’s all too brief presentation of an Anglocentric lineage for his ideas. This lineage, as we shall see, simply omits the major 19th century Germanophone influences on the rise of analytic philosophy. The Germanophone ideas he presents are selectively introduced into an Anglophone context, and directed towards various concerns that arose within that context. I will focus on the differences between Carnap’s version of the overcoming of metaphysics, and Ayer’s reconfiguration into what he calls the elimination of metaphysics. Having discussed the above, I will very briefly outline the consequences that Ayer’s radicalisation of the Vienna Circle’s doctrines had on the subsequent Anglophone reception of Logical Empiricism. (shrink)

My aim is to lay down some constraints on a correspondence theory of truth for empirical sentences of a natural language on the basis of a theory according to which that to which a true empirical sentence of such a language corresponds is a part of the natural world. The problem is to find some means of delineating those portions of the world which serve as correspondents, portions of reality otherwise called ‘truthmakers’.