We discuss potential biorisks from large language models (LLMs). AI assistants based on LLMs such as ChatGPT have been shown to significantly reduce barriers to entry for actors wishing to synthesize dangerous, potentially novel pathogens and chemical weapons. The harms from deploying such bioagents could be further magnified by AI-assisted misinformation. We endorse several policy responses to these dangers, including prerelease evaluations of biomedical AIs by subject-matter experts, enhanced surveillance and lab screening procedures, restrictions on AI training data, and access (...) controls on biomedical AI. We conclude with a suggestion about future research directions in bioethics. (shrink)

False belief tasks have enjoyed a monopoly in the research on children’s development of a theory of mind. They have been granted this status because they promise to deliver an unambiguous assessment of children’s understanding of the representational nature of mental states. Their poor cousins, true belief tasks, have been relegated to occasional service as control tasks. That this is their only role has been due to the universal assumption that correct answers on true belief tasks are inherently ambiguous regarding (...) the level of the child’s understanding of mental states. It has also been due to the universal assumption that nothing in the child’s developing theory of mind would lead to systematically incorrect answers on true belief tasks. We review new findings that 4- and 5-year-olds do err, systematically and profoundly, on the true belief versions of all the extant belief tasks. This reveals an intermediate level of understanding in the development of children’s theory of mind. Researchers have been unaware of this intermediate level because it produces correct answers in false belief tasks. A simple two-task battery—one true belief task and one false belief task—is sufficient to remove the ambiguity from each task. The new findings show that children do not acquire an understanding of beliefs, and hence a representational theory of mind, until after 6 years of age, or 2 years later than most developmental psychologists have concluded. This raises the question of how to interpret other new findings that infants are able to pass false belief tasks. We review these new infant studies, as well as recent studies on chimpanzees, in light of older children’s failure on true belief tasks, and end with some speculation about how all of these new findings might be reconciled. (shrink)

Several recent lines of inquiry have pointed to the amygdala as a potential lesion site in autism. Because one function of the amygdala may be to produce autonomic arousal at the sight of a significant face, we compared the responses of autistic children to their mothers’ face and to a plain paper cup. Unlike normals, the autistic children as a whole did not show a larger response to the person than to the cup. We also monitored sympathetic activity in autistic (...) children as they engaged in a wide range of everyday behaviours. The children tended to use self-stimulation activities in order to calm hyper-responsive activity of the sympathetic (`fight or flight’) branch of the autonomic nervous system. A small percentage of our autistic subjects had hyporesponsive sympathetic activity, with essentially no electrodermal responses except to self-injurious behaviour. We sketch a hypothesis about autism according to which autistic children use overt behaviour in order to control a malfunctioning autonomic nervous system and suggest that they have learned to avoid using certain processing areas in the temporal lobes. (shrink)

This study’s objective was to understand Colombian adolescents’ experiences and preferences regarding access to sexual and reproductive health services (SRHS), either alone or accompanied. A mixed-method approach was used, involving a survey of 812 participants aged eleven to twenty-four years old and forty-five semi-structured interviews with participants aged fourteen to twenty-three. Previous research shows that adolescents prefer privacy when accessing SRHS and often do not want their parents involved. Such findings align with the longstanding tendency to frame the ethical principle (...) of autonomy as based on independence in decision-making. However, the present study shows that such a conceptualization and application of autonomy does not adequately explain Colombian adolescent participants’ preferences regarding access to SRHS. Participants shared a variety of preferences to access SRHS, with the majority of participants attaching great importance to having their parents involved, to varying degrees. What emerges is a more complex and non-homogenous conceptualization of autonomy that is not inherently grounded in independence from parental involvement in access to care. We thus argue that when developing policies involving adolescents, policymakers and health professionals should adopt a nuanced “relational autonomy” approach to better respect the myriad of preferences that Colombian (and other) adolescents may have regarding their access to SRHS. (shrink)

Biological ontologies are used to organize, curate, and interpret the vast quantities of data arising from biological experiments. While this works well when using a single ontology, integrating multiple ontologies can be problematic, as they are developed independently, which can lead to incompatibilities. The Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies Foundry was created to address this by facilitating the development, harmonization, application, and sharing of ontologies, guided by a set of overarching principles. One challenge in reaching these goals was that the (...) OBO principles were not originally encoded in a precise fashion, and interpretation was subjective. Here we show how we have addressed this by formally encoding the OBO principles as operational rules and implementing a suite of automated validation checks and a dashboard for objectively evaluating each ontology’s compliance with each principle. This entailed a substantial effort to curate metadata across all ontologies and to coordinate with individual stakeholders. We have applied these checks across the full OBO suite of ontologies, revealing areas where individual ontologies require changes to conform to our principles. Our work demonstrates how a sizable federated community can be organized and evaluated on objective criteria that help improve overall quality and interoperability, which is vital for the sustenance of the OBO project and towards the overall goals of making data FAIR. Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest. (shrink)

The relationship between attention and consciousness is one that is crucial for understanding perception and different types of conscious experience, and we commend this analysis of the topic by Pitts, Lutsyshyna, and Hillyard (2018). We have also examined this relationship closely (e.g., Montemayor & Haladjian, 2015) and would like to point out a few potential contradictions in the Pitts et al. paper that require clarification, particularly in the attempt to reconcile aspects of recurrent processing theory (RPT) with global neuronal workspace (...) theory (GNWT). This commentary addresses these points and introduces other considerations important for this topic. (shrink)

Autor prostredníctvom skúmania literárnych diel Charlesa Dickensa, Williama Makepeaca Thackeryho, George Eliotovej a Thomasa Hardyho vytvára mozaiku viktoriánskej morálky Anglicka 19. storočia. Dospel k záveru, že uvedená doba vôbec nebola taká puritánska, ako si ju zvykneme predstavovať a morálne problémy, ktoré ľudstvo rieši v priebehu svojho vývoja sú vo svojej podstate univerzálne, hoci nie totožné. Líšia sa vo svojich individuálnych podobách, v akých sa s nimi stretávame v jednotlivých obdobiach dejín ľudstva.

The rejection of a “characterless” moral self is central to some of Bernard Williams’ most important contributions to philosophy. By the time of Truth and Truthfulness, he works instead with a model of the self constituted and stabilized out of more primitive materials through deliberation and in concert with others that takes inspiration from Diderot. Although this view of the self raises some difficult questions, it serves as a useful starting point for thinking about the process of developing an authentic (...) moral point of view in the context of contemporary living. In what follows, I begin to fill out and extend this picture of the self and its related notion of authenticity by exploring some of the “technologies of the self” at play in Rachel Cusk’s recent work (primarily, the Outline trilogy, Coventry, Second Place, and “The Stuntman”) that ask us to rethink the possibility and importance of stability; seek a way of constituting oneself and one’s values outside the confining structures of traditional narrative (focusing instead on a framework that might be provided by the visual arts); and give a different role to the sort of internalized other Williams sees as being at work in the mechanisms of shame. (shrink)

I show that in Epictetus’ view (1) the wise man genuinely loves (στέργειv) and is affectionate (φιλόστoργoς) to his family and friends; (2) only the Stoic wise man is, properly speaking, capable of loving—that is, he alone actually has the power to love; and (3) the Stoic wise man loves in a robustly rational way which excludes passionate, sexual, ‘erotic’ love (’έρως). In condemning all ’έρως as objectionable πάθoς Epictetus stands with Cicero and with the other Roman Stoics, Seneca and (...) Musonius Rufus, and against the Greeks of the early Stoa. Epictetus’ conception of love excludes erotic passion because of its intrinsic excessiveness and uncontrollableness, which inevitably endanger mental serenity, but includes and emphasizes the soberly rational, purely positive joy of interpersonal affiliation. Epictetus’ account of how the Stoic Sage loves is, I think, more consistent and less problematic than that of the Greek Stoics. (shrink)

In his new book, Knowledge: The Philosophical Quest in History, Steve Fuller returns to core themes of his program of social epistemology that he first outlined in his 1988 book, Social Epistemology. He develops a new, unorthodox theology and philosophy building upon his testimony in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District in defense of intelligent design, leading to a call for maximal human experimentation. Beginning from the theological premise rooted in the Abrahamic religious tradition that we are created in the (...) image of God, Fuller argues that the spark of the divine within us distinguishes us from animals. I argue that Fuller’s recent work takes us away from key insights of his original work. In contrast, I advocate for a program of social epistemology rooted in evolutionary science rather than intelligent design, emphasize a precautionary and ecological approach rather than a proactionary approach that favors risky human experimentation, and attend to our material and sociological embeddedness rather than a transhumanist repudiation of the body. (shrink)

In the eighth chapter of the Bodhicaryāvatāra, the Buddhist philosopher Śāntideva has often been interpreted as offering an argument that accepting the ultimate nonexistence of the self (anātman) rationally entails a commitment to altruism, the view that one should care equally for self and others. In this essay, I consider reconstructions of Śāntideva’s argument by contemporary scholars Paul Williams, Mark Siderits and John Pettit. I argue that all of these various reconfigurations of the argument fail to be convincing. This suggests (...) that, for Madhyamaka Buddhists, an understanding of anātman does not entail acceptance of the Bodhisattva path, but rather is instrumental to achieving it. Second, it suggests the possibility that in these verses, Śāntideva was offering meditational techniques, rather than making an argument for altruism from the premise of anātman. (shrink)

In Republic V Socrates offer three successive waves of paradox, the first being that amongst the rulers men and women will be assigned to fulfill the same social functions and the second being that amongst the rulers the traditional private family will be abolished. In her article “Philosopher Queens and Private Wives: Plato on Women and the Family” (Philosophy and Public Affairs (1977)) Susan Moller Okin argued that Plato’s argument is that the second wave of paradox implies the first. In (...) this note I rebut Okin’s arguments and show, in part based on evidence adduced by Okin herself, that for Plato it is the first wave of paradox that implies the second. (shrink)

Abstract: William Conklin takes on Hegel’s interpretation of Sophocles’ Antigone in this essay. Hegel asked what makes human laws human and what makes divine laws divine? After outlining Hegel’s interpretation of Antigone in the light of this issue, Conklin argues that we must address what makes human law law? and what makes divine law law? Taking his cue from Michel Foucault’s “What is an Author?”, the key to understanding Sophocles’ Antigone and Hegel’s interpretation to it, according to Conklin, is (...) the relationship between legal authority and an author. Antigone’s divine law opposes Creon’s human law in terms of whether the sense of legal authority presupposes an author. Antigone’s tribe recognises divine laws as nested in an impersonal Fate or Moira common to the Helenes as experienced through rituals and other personal experiences. Such an unwritten law lacks an author “whose origin we know not when”. The city-state’s citizens recognize authority in terms of whether a law has a source in a juridical representer of an invisible author. The invisible author is the city-state external to the representers. The representers interpret human laws in a manner which tries to access the invisible author. What becomes important is that philosophical consciousness observes how the characteristics of the two senses of legal authority clash. (shrink)

This essay fills in some historical, conceptual, and pedagogical gaps that appear in the most visible and recent professional efforts to “revive” Philosophy as a Way of Life (PWOL). I present “American Philosophy and Self-Culture” as an advanced undergraduate seminar that broadens who counts in and what counts as philosophy by immersing us in the lives, writings, and practices of seven representative U.S.-American philosophers of self-culture, community-building, and world-changing: Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), Henry (...) David Thoreau (1817–1862), Margaret Fuller (1810-1850), Henry Bugbee (1915–1999), and Gloria Anzaldúa (1942–2004). Students enter the class with preconceptions about who philosophers are, what they do, how they write, and the languages in which they write. Students walk out with new senses of self, place, and language that emerge through new ways of seeing, doing, and writing philosophy. (shrink)

Chapin reviewed this 1972 ZEITSCHRIFT paper that proves the completeness theorem for the logic of variable-binding-term operators created by Corcoran and his student John Herring in the 1971 LOGIQUE ET ANALYSE paper in which the theorem was conjectured. This leveraging proof extends completeness of ordinary first-order logic to the extension with vbtos. Newton da Costa independently proved the same theorem about the same time using a Henkin-type proof. This 1972 paper builds on the 1971 “Notes on a Semantic Analysis of (...) Variable Binding Term Operators” (Co-author John Herring), Logique et Analyse 55, 646–57. MR0307874 (46 #6989). A variable binding term operator (vbto) is a non-logical constant, say v, which combines with a variable y and a formula F containing y free to form a term (vy:F) whose free variables are exact ly those of F, excluding y. Kalish-Montague 1964 proposed using vbtos to formalize definite descriptions “the x: x+x=2”, set abstracts {x: F}, minimization in recursive function theory “the least x: x+x>2”, etc. However, they gave no semantics for vbtos. Hatcher 1968 gave a semantics but one that has flaws described in the 1971 paper and admitted by Hatcher. In 1971 we give a correct semantic analysis of vbtos. We also give axioms for using them in deductions. And we conjecture strong completeness for the deductions with respect to the semantics. The conjecture, proved in this paper with Hatcher’s help, was proved independently about the same time by Newton da Costa. (shrink)

My essay begins by providing a broad vision of how William James’s psychology and philosophy were a two-pronged attempt to revive the self whose foundations had collapsed after the Civil War. Next, I explain how this revival was all too successful insofar as James inadvertently resurrected the imperial self, so that he was forced to adjust and develop his philosophy of religion in keeping with his anti-imperialism. James’s mature philosophy of religion therefore articulates a vision of the radically ethical (...) saint religiously bound to a decidedly pluralistic universe. I evaluate James’s philosophy of religion by comparing it to Enrique Dussel’s psychological portrait of the imperialist ego, Dussel’s attempt to religiously bind this ego, and the more radical philosophy that results. I suggest that Dussel’s philosophy of liberation: 1) better theorizes the religious contraction of the self as a necessary part of ethical and political life and 2) offers a more concrete and radically democratic philosophy. My overarching aim is to show how Dussel’s liberation philosophy can help critically develop James’s pragmatist claim that religion might provide a force for widely and positively transforming our ethical and political lives. (shrink)

It is fair to say that in contemporary society there is a growing demand amongst consumers for instant gratification and for products and services that can be accessed 24-hours a day. This appears to be the case across numerous sectors of society including (but not limited to) business, education, retail, tourism, health, and recreation. Some examples that come to mind are the: (i) investor looking for a quick-win return on their outlay, (ii) patient demanding a same-day diagnosis and medicine for (...) their latest ailment, (iii) fast-food restaurant goer, (iv) all-inclusive package holiday-maker that can have food, drink, and entertainment any time of day and without having to leave the confines of their hotel, (v) student or professional undertaking an accelerated program of studies or training in order to be awarded the qualification/certificate in the shortest time possible, and (vi) individual using an online dating agency in order to be instantly matched with the “perfect partner”. In addition to the sectors and examples mentioned above, this trend towards wanting immediate reward also appears to be occurring in the spirituality and religion marketplace. For example, one only has to conduct a search on the internet or look at the spiritualty section of a bookshop and it is easy to be overwhelmed by the number of individuals purporting to be spiritual teachers and promising a quick-fix for alleviating suffering. In this post, we examine the benefits and risks of the ‘I want it all, I want it now’ mentality as they relate to the spiritual (and high-street) consumer, and discuss whether it is possible to embody the essence of the Buddha’s teachings whilst living in a “fast-food” society. (shrink)

Automated reasoning about uncertain knowledge has many applications. One difficulty when developing such systems is the lack of a completely satisfactory integration of logic and probability. We address this problem directly. Expressive languages like higher-order logic are ideally suited for representing and reasoning about structured knowledge. Uncertain knowledge can be modeled by using graded probabilities rather than binary truth-values. The main technical problem studied in this paper is the following: Given a set of sentences, each having some probability of being (...) true, what probability should be ascribed to other (query) sentences? A natural wish-list, among others, is that the probability distribution (i) is consistent with the knowledge base, (ii) allows for a consistent inference procedure and in particular (iii) reduces to deductive logic in the limit of probabilities being 0 and 1, (iv) allows (Bayesian) inductive reasoning and (v) learning in the limit and in particular (vi) allows confirmation of universally quantified hypotheses/sentences. We translate this wish-list into technical requirements for a prior probability and show that probabilities satisfying all our criteria exist. We also give explicit constructions and several general characterizations of probabilities that satisfy some or all of the criteria and various (counter) examples. We also derive necessary and sufficient conditions for extending beliefs about finitely many sentences to suitable probabilities over all sentences, and in particular least dogmatic or least biased ones. We conclude with a brief outlook on how the developed theory might be used and approximated in autonomous reasoning agents. Our theory is a step towards a globally consistent and empirically satisfactory unification of probability and logic. (shrink)

Background: Subgenual cingulate cortex (SCC) responses to self-blaming emotion-evoking stimuli were previously found in individuals prone to self-blame with and without a history of major depressive disorder (MDD). This suggested SCC activation reflects self-blaming emotions such as guilt, which are central to models of MDD vulnerability. -/- Method: Here, we re-examined these hypotheses in an independent larger sample. A total of 109 medication-free participants (70 with remitted MDD and 39 healthy controls) underwent fMRI whilst judging self- and other-blaming emotion-evoking statements. (...) They also completed validated questionnaires of proneness to self-blaming emotions including those related to internal (autonomy) and external (sociotropy) evaluation, which were subjected to factor analysis. -/- Results: An interaction between group (remitted MDD v. Control) and condition (self- v. other-blame) was observed in the right SCC (BA24). This was due to higher SCC signal for self-blame in remitted MDD and higher other-blame-selective activation in Control participants. Across the whole sample, extracted SCC activation cluster averages for self- v. other-blame were predicted by a regression model which included the reliable components derived from our factor analysis of measures of proneness to self-blaming emotions. Interestingly, this prediction was solely driven by autonomy/self-criticism, and adaptive guilt factors, with no effect of sociotropy/dependency. -/- Conclusions: Despite confirming the prediction of SCC activation in self-blame-prone individuals and those vulnerable to MDD, our results suggest that SCC activation reflects blame irrespective of where it is directed rather than selective for self. We speculate that self-critical individuals have more extended SCC representations for blame in the context of self-agency. (shrink)

Článek se zaměřuje na teorie kulturní mezery, jež ve svém díle rozpracovali Thorstein Veblen a William F. Ogburn. Sleduje přitom zejména dva motivy: jak se v přístupech těchto autorů tematizuje vztah sociální vědy a jejího publika a jak je argument mezery využit k prosazování specifického pojetí „účelu“ sociální vědy. Je zde předvedeno, jak se ve dvou různých stylech psaní a ve dvou různých argumentačních strategiích v podstatě identická teorie proměňuje a současně zužitkovává k prosazení distinktivního pojetí sociální vědy. Veblenův (...) klíčový motiv „sebe-konfrontace“ společnosti je srovnán s Ogburnovým motivem „využitelnosti“ vědění ve vztahu k úvahám o literárních technologiích vědy. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:The Cambridge Companion to OckhamJeffrey E. BrowerPaul Vincent Spade, editor. The Cambridge Companion to Ockham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xii + 400. Cloth, $54.95.Contemporary analytic philosophers have always been among the most enthusiastic audiences for the volumes in the Cambridge Companion series. And of all the great philosophers of the Middle Ages, perhaps none has appealed more to their sensibilities than William Ockham. It is (...) fitting, therefore, that after the publication of the Companion to Aquinas—the first volume in the series devoted to a medieval philosopher—there should appear a Companion to Ockham.The fifteen chapters comprising this volume survey the entire range of Ockham's thought and may conveniently be divided into four main parts. The first part (chaps. 2-7) deals with Ockham's most enduring legacy: his contribution to issues falling within the domain of logic, philosophy of language, and metaphysics. The second part (chaps. 8-9) is devoted to issues in epistemology and philosophy of mind/cognition. The third part (chaps. 10-13) focuses on Ockham's views in ethics, action theory, and political philosophy. And the fourth part (chaps. 14-15) considers aspects of his philosophical theology. In addition, there is also an historical chapter (chap. 1), placing Ockham's life and works in their late-medieval intellectual context, and a brief editor's introduction, including a very useful list of all Ockham's writings, together with the best (sometimes, the only) Latin editions and English translations available.The volume is well organized and beautifully conceived. Some chapters are quite difficult, and in places contain material that is likely to be unfamiliar even to specialists in medieval philosophy. But the way in which they have been organized maximizes their usefulness and accessibility to specialists and non-specialists alike. The earlier parts of the volume lay the foundation for later ones, and the individual chapters within each part are arranged so as to build on and complement one another. This is perhaps most evident in the five chapters comprising the first part. Calvin Normore's presentation ofOckham's logic (in chap. 2) nicely prepares the reader for Claude Panaccio's discussion (in chap. 3) of Ockham's theory of mental language. Panaccio's chapter, in turn, provides the framework for David Chalmer's analysis (in chap. 4) of the debate over whether [End Page 588] Ockham's mental language permits synonymous expressions. Again, these three chapters taken together provide important background for Paul Spade's treatment (in chap. 5) of Ockham's views in metaphysics, which are closely related to his logic and philosophy of language. Finally, Gyula Klima's discussion (in chap. 6) ofhow Ockham's views in semantics and ontology differ from those of his predecessors, and André Goddu's discussion (in chap. 7) of Ockham's philosophy of nature, can be fully appreciated only against the background of the preceding chapters.What is perhaps most impressive about the volume, however, is the extent to which it succeeds at providing a systematic introduction to Ockham's philosophical achievement. All the chapters are, to some extent, concerned with matters of textual analysis and interpretation. But most of them involve much more than a mere survey of Ockham's texts. For example, in each of the four main parts, there is at least one chapter that attempts to locate Ockham's views in relation to those of his predecessors or contemporaries (such as Aquinas and Scotus), with the result that we get a sense of Ockham's place in the major medieval debates to which he contributed. At the same time, the volume introduces us to some of the most lively current debates in Ockham scholarship. It does this, not merely by summarizing them, but by actually carrying them out over the course of its chapters. For example, Eleonore Stump provides a sophisticated defense (in chap. 8) of what has become a standard interpretation of Ockham's theory of intuitive and abstractive cognition. In the following chapter, however, Elizabeth Karger rejects the standard interpretation on the basis of a re-reading of certain key texts. Again, in the first part of the volume there is a running debate... (shrink)

Christine Korsgaard attempts to reinterpret Kantian ethics in a way that might alleviate Bernard Williams’ famous worry that a man cannot save his drowning wife without determining impartially that he may do so. She does this by dividing a reflective self that chooses the commitments that make up an agent’s practical identity from a self defined as a jumble of desires. An agent, she then argues, must act on the commitments chosen by the reflective self on pain of disintegration. Using (...) Harry Frankfurt’s emphasis on love as a final end, I argue that disintegration as motivation is not a more acceptable motivation than impartiality and so does not adequately address Williams’ criticism. I also argue that the idea of a divided self either leads to an infinite regress or to an implausible description of how our commitments evolve and change. To make this last claim, I discuss a case from John Updike’s novel 'In the Beauty of the Lilies.'. (shrink)

Christine Korsgaard attempts to reinterpret Kantian ethics in a way that might alleviate Bernard Williams’ famous worry that a man cannot save his drowning wife without determining impartially that he may do so. She does this by dividing a reflective self that chooses the commitments that make up an agent’s practical identity from a self defined as a jumble of desires. An agent, she then argues, must act on the commitments chosen by the reflective self on pain of disintegration. Using (...) Harry Frankfurt’s emphasis on love as a final end, I argue that disintegration as motivation is not a more acceptable motivation than impartiality and so does not adequately address Williams’ criticism. I also argue that the idea of a divided self either leads to an infinite regress or to an implausible description of how our commitments evolve and change. To make this last claim, I discuss a case from John Updike’s novel 'In the Beauty of the Lilies.'. (shrink)

What is W. V. O. Quine’s relationship to classical pragmatism? Although he resists the comparison to William James in particular, commentators have seen an affinity between his “web of belief” model of theory confirmation and James’s claim that our beliefs form a “stock” that faces new experience as a corporate body. I argue that the similarity is only superficial. James thinks our web of beliefs should be responsive not just to perceptual but also to emotional experiences in some cases; (...) Quine denies this. I motivate James’s controversial view by appealing to an episode in the history of medicine when a researcher self-experimented by swallowing a vial of bacteria that at the time had not been studied in much detail. The researcher’s commitment to his own as-yet untested hypothesis was based in part on emotional considerations. Finally, I argue that Quine’s insistence that emotions can never be relevant to adjusting our web of belief reflects a tacit holdover of one of logical positivism’s crucially anti-pragmatist commitments—that philosophy of science should focus exclusively on the context of justification, not the context of discovery. James’s emphasis on discovery as a (perhaps the) crucial locus for epistemological inquiry is characteristic of pragmatism in general. Since Quinean epistemology is always an epistemology of justification, he is not happily viewed as a member of the pragmatist tradition. (shrink)

Studie recenzuje díla: Sam HARRIS, The Moral Landscape a Patricia Smith CHURCHLAND, Braintrust. Cílem recenzní stati je vyzdvihnout hlubokou shodu v naturalistickém pojetí etiky u obou autorů a upozornit na některé nedostatky jejich argumentace.

Are rights to privacy consistent with sexual equality? In a brief, but influential, article Catherine MacKinnon trenchantly laid out feminist criticisms of the right to privacy. In “Privacy v. Equality: Beyond Roe v. Wade” she linked familiar objections to the right to privacy and connected them to the fate of abortion rights in the U.S.A. (MacKinnon, 1983, 93-102). For many feminists, the Supreme Court’s decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) had suggested that, notwithstanding a dubious past, legal rights to privacy (...) might serve feminist objectives, and prove consistent with sexual equality. By arguing that Roe’s privacy justification of abortion rights was directly responsible for the weakness and vulnerability of abortion rights in America, MacKinnon took aim at feminist hopes for the right to privacy at their strongest point. Maintaining that Roe’s privacy justification of abortion is intimately, and not contingently, related to the Supreme Court’s subsequent decision in Harris v. McRae, (1980) MacKinnon concluded that privacy rights cannot be reconciled with the freedom and equality of women, and so can have no place in a democracy.1 In Harris, the Supreme Court held that the State need not provide Medicaid coverage for abortions that are necessary to preserve the health, but not the life, of a pregnant woman, effectively depriving poor women of almost all state aid for abortions.2 Moreover, the Court’s subsequent decision in Bowers v . Hardwick (1986) appeared to confirm the truth of MacKinnon’s observation – though this case concerned gay rights, rather than abortion rights, and occurred several years after MacKinnon’s condemnation of Harris. -/- This paper examines MacKinnon’s claims about the relationship of rights to privacy and equality in light of the reasoning in Harris and Bowers. When we contrast the Majority and Minority decisions in these cases, it shows, we can distinguish interpretations of the right to privacy that are consistent with sexual equality from those that are not. This is not simply because the two differ in their consequences – though they do - but because the former, unlike the latter, rely on empirical and normative assumptions that would justify sexual inequality whatever right they were used to interpret. So while I agree with MacKinnon that the Majority’s interpretation of the right to privacy in Harris is inconsistent with the equality of men and women, I show that there is no inherent inconsistency in valuing both privacy and equality, and no reason why we must chose to protect the one, rather than the other. Indeed, an examination of MacKinnon’s article, I suggest, can help us to see why rights to privacy can be part of a scheme of democratic rights, and how we might go about democratising the right to privacy in future. To avoid confusion I should emphasise that my arguments are of a philosophical, not a legal, nature. Thus, I will be ignoring the specifically legal and constitutional aspects of MacKinnon’s article, and of the Supreme Court decisions, in order to bring their philosophical significance into focus. -/- . (shrink)

This 9,000+ word entry briefly assesses five models of the Trinity, those espoused by (i) Richard Swinburne, (ii) William Lane Craig, (iii) Brian Leftow, (iv) Jeff Brower and Michael Rea, and (v) Peter van Inwagen.

In the 1960s and 1970s, Hilary Putnam articulated a notion of relativized apriority that was motivated to address the problem of scientific change. This paper examines Putnam’s account in its historical context and in relation to contemporary views. I begin by locating Putnam’s analysis in the historical context of Quine’s rejection of apriority, presenting Putnam as a sympathetic commentator on Quine. Subsequently, I explicate Putnam’s positive account of apriority, focusing on his analysis of the history of physics and geometry. In (...) the remainder of the paper, I explore connections between Putnam’s account of relativized a priori principles and contemporary views. In particular, I situate Putnam’s account in relation to analyses advanced by Michael Friedman, David Stump, and William Wimsatt. From this comparison, I address issues concerning whether a priori scientific principles are appropriately characterized as “constitutive” or “entrenched”. I argue that these two features need to be clearly distinguished, and that only the constitutive function is essential to apriority. By way of conclusion, I explore the relationship between the constitutive function of a priori principles and entrenchment. (shrink)

A discussion of the recent prominence of 'new atheism' and 'Christian nationalism' in the United States.

En 1969 Harry Frankfurt publica su seminal artículo “Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility”. Allí ataca la necesidad del principio de posibilidades alternativas (PPA) para la adscripción de responsabilidad moral a los agentes cuando estos realizan una acción. Desde entonces, muchos han sido los intentos de defender el PPA y de mostrar su necesidad para la adscripción de la responsabilidad moral. En este ensayo se examina uno de esos intentos: el que se basa en la causalidad-agencial propuesta por Thomas Reid (1710-1796), (...) y que cuenta con William Rowe como uno de sus defensores dentro de la discusión contemporánea. Esto, con el objetivo de mostrar que, si bien esta defensa podría permitir la aparición de lo que se conoce como un “parpadeo” de libertad, ello no es suficiente para sustentar la atribución de responsabilidad moral. (shrink)

What is to be learned from the chaotic downfall of the Weimar Republic and the erosion of European liberal statehood in the interwar period vis-a-vis the ongoing European crisis? This book analyses and explains the recurrent emergence of crises in European societies. It asks how previous crises can inform our understanding of the present crisis. The particular perspective advanced is that these crises not only are economic and social crises, but must also be understood as crises of public power, order (...) and authority. In other words, it argues that substantial challenges to the functional and normative setup of democracy and the rule of law were central to the emergence and the unfolding of these crises. The book draws on and adds to the rich ’crises literature’ developed within the critical theory tradition to outline a conceptual framework for understanding what societal crises are. The central idea is that societal crises represent a discrepancy between the unfolding of social processes and the institutional frameworks that have been established to normatively stabilize such processes. The crises at issue emerged in periods characterized by strong social, economic and technological transformations as well as situations of political upheaval. As such, the crises represented moments where the existing functional and normative grid of society, as embodied in notions of public order and authority, were severely challenged and in many instances undermined. Seen in this perspective, the book reconstructs how crises unfolded, how they were experienced, and what kind of responses the specific crises in question provoked. -/- Table of Contents -/- Introduction: European Crises of Public Power: From Weimar until Today, Poul F. Kjaer & Niklas Olsen / Part I: Semantics, Notions and Narratives of Societal Crisis / 1. What Time Frame Makes Sense for Thinking About Crises?, David Runciman / 2. The Stakes of Crises, Janet Roitman / Part II: Weimar and the Interwar Period: Ideologies of Anti-Modernism and Liberalism / 3. The Crisis of Modernity – Modernity as Crisis: Towards a Typology of Crisis Discourses in Interwar East Central Europe and Beyond, Balázs Trencsényi / 4. European Legitimacy Crisis – Weimar and Today: Rational and Theocratic Authority in the Schmitt-Strauss Exchange, John P. McCormick / 5. Crisis and the Consumer: Reconstructions of Liberalism in Twentieth Century Political Thought , Niklas Olsen / Part III: The Causes of Crises: From Corporatism to Governance / 6. The Constitutionalization of Labour Law and the Crisis of National Democracy , Chris Thornhill / 7. The Crisis in Labour Law: From Weimar to Austerity Ruth Dukes / 8. From the Crisis of Corporatism to the Crisis of Governance, Poul F. Kjaer / Part IV: The Euro and the Crisis of Law and Democracy / 9. What is left of the European Economic Constitution II? From Pyrrhic Victory to Cannae Defeat Christian Joerges / 10. Reflections on Europe’s “Rule of Law Crisis”, Jan-Werner Müller. 11. Democracy under Siege: The Decay of Constitutionalisation and the Crisis of Public Law and Public Opinion, Hauke Brunkhorst/ Part V: The Consequences of Crises and the Future of Europe / 12. Crises and Extra-Legality: From Above and From Below, William E. Scheuermann / 13. “We could all go Down the Road of Lebanon” – Crisis Thinking on the Anti-Muslim Far Right, Mikkel Thorup / 14. Conclusions and Perspectives: The Re-Constitution of Europe, Poul F. Kjaer & Niklas Olsen Index . (shrink)

Louis Pojman and Robert Westmoreland have compiled the best material on the subject of equality, ranging from classical works by Aristotle, Hobbes and Rousseau to contemporary works by John Rawls, Thomas Nagel, Michael Walzer, Harry Frankfurt, Bernard Williams and Robert Nozick; and including such topics as: the concept of equality; equal opportunity; Welfare egalitarianism; resources; equal human rights and complex equality.

In this thirteenth book of scilogs – one may find topics on Neutrosophy, Plithogeny, Physics, Mathematics, Philosophy – email messages to research colleagues, or replies, notes, comments, remarks about authors, articles, or books, spontaneous ideas, and so on. It presents new types of soft sets and new types of topologies. -/- Exchanging ideas with Mohammad Abobala, Ishfaq Ahmad, Ibrahim M. Almanjahie, Fatimah Alshahrani, Nizar Altounji, Muhammad Aslam, Said Broumi, Victor Christianto, R. Diksh, Feng Liu, Frank Julian Gelli, Erick Gonzalez Caballero, (...) Riad Hamido, Yaser Al-Hasan, Ahmed Hatip, Yasin Karmouta, Nivetha Martin, Preda Mihăilescu, V. Lakshmana Gomathi Nayagam, Ze Carlos Tiago de Oliveira, Alexey Platonov, Andrei Pogany, Shakti Prasad, Ranulfo Paiva Barbosa (Sobrinho), Dmitri Rabounski, Ackbar Rezaei, Constantin Sandu, A. Saraswathi, Usman Shahzad, Gocho V. Sharlanov, Stefan Spaarmann, Michael Voskoglou, Vinay Kumar Yadav, Tomasz Witczak, William H. Woodall, Mircea Zărnescu, Mohamed Bisher Zeina (in order of reference in the book). (shrink)

This paper argues that in addition to the familiar approach using formal contexts, there is now a need in artificial intelligence to study contexts as social constructs. As a successful example of the latter approach, I draw attention to 'interpretation' (in the sense of literary theory), viz. the reconstruction of the intended meaning of a literary text that takes into account the context in which the author assumed the reader would place the text. An important contribution here comes from Wendell (...) Harris, enumerating the seven crucial dimensions of context: knowledge of reality, knowledge of language, and the authorial, generic, collective, specific, and textual dimensions. Finally, two recent approaches to interpretation, due to Jon Barwise and Jerry Hobbs, are analyzed as useful attempts which also come to grips with the notion of context. It must be noted that there has been a considerable body of contributions connecting linguistic structure with social context. For example, anthropological linguistics, from Bronislaw Malinowski onwards, has underlined the cultural context of discourse as essential to meaning. This viewpoint became prominent with the emergence of the ethnography of speaking in anthropology. Thus, conversation analysis represents a consistent formal effort to contribute to an analysis of the nature of context. While this paper emphasizes and reviews the literary theory approach, it makes various contacts with works of the latter kind (e.g., the landmark contributions of Erving Goffman, John Gumperz, William Hanks, John Heritage, Dell Hymes, et al.) in order to deliver a more balanced and complete study of the dimensions of context. (shrink)

In the consolidated cases Altitude Express v. Zarda, Bostock v. Clayton County, and R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes v. EEOC, the Supreme Court will decide whether or not Title VII prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. Although the parties disagree as to the appropriate formulation of a but-for test to determine whether or not there was a discriminatory outcome, all parties do agree to the use of such a test, which asks “whether the (...) evidence shows ‘treatment of a person in a manner which but for that person’s sex would be different.’” City of Los Angeles, Dep’t. of Water and Power v. Manhart, 435 U.S. 702, 711 (1978). However, but-for tests confuse more than they clarify the inquiry; a discriminatory outcome cannot be explained by appeal to just a discrete characteristic of a particular person. Individuals are not discriminated against because of these characteristics per se. Rather, they are discriminated against because of the social meanings and expectations that attach to these characteristics. Beyoncé and Taylor Swift illustrate the difference between individual-level causation and social explanation in two separate songs, “If I Were a Boy” and “The Man.” The explanation for why the counterfactual ‘male’ Beyoncé and Swift are evaluated differently than their current ‘female’ versions does not lie in individual-level features considered apart from the social world, but in social-level roles and expectations associated with those features. For this reason, a social explanation test—one that asks whether the social meanings of sex characteristics, rather than the characteristics per se, explain the outcome in question—is more suitable for determining whether or not Title VII has been violated. (shrink)

The immediate occasion for this special issue was Christia Mercer’s influential paper “The Contextualist Revolution in Early Modern Philosophy”. In her paper, Mercer clearly demarcates two methodologies of the history of early modern philosophy. She argues that there has been a silent contextualist revolution in the past decades, and the reconstructivist methodology has been abandoned. One can easily get the impression that ‘reconstructivist’ has become a pejorative label that everyone outright rejects. Mercer’s examples of reconstructivist historians of philosophy are deceased (...) (P. F. Strawson, Margaret J. Osler, Richard Watson, and Bernard Williams), anonymous (the fans of philosopher* mentioned by Lisa Downing), or authors whose more recent work followed a contextualist methodology (Jonathan Bennett). The reconstructivist camp seems to have turned into a shadowy group, largely extinct by now, not unlike the Death Eaters in the fictional universe of Harry Potter. There are some figures who previously belonged to this group, but they have since reformed their ways – or so it seems. Sometimes it is rumoured that certain people may still have secret allegiance to it, but no one dares to fly its banner openly. We decided to create this special issue because we believe that reconstructivist methodology does not deserve this shadowy existence. (shrink)

The article considers the philosophical potential of Heraclitean ambiguity and implications for how one might engage philosophically with Heraclitus. While works on Heraclitus most commonly offer new interpretations or dispute or add nuance to established interpretations, this work somewhat sidesteps interpretive disputes to consider the philosophical value and relevance of Heraclitus’s fragments themselves. Specifically, a hermeneutical tool proposed by William Desmond called a “companioning approach,” is supported. Desmond’s companioning approach is considered in the context of Pierre Hadot’s account of (...) the history of hermeneutical practices to show that it merely defines and legitimizes a longstanding hermeneutical activity. Further, a recent work by A. V. Halapsis shows that Heraclitus’s ambiguity may have been a consequence of his anthropological commitments and that he may have intended to allow for something like a companioning engagement. (shrink)

New philosophical essays on love by a diverse group of international scholars. Topics include contributions to the ongoing debate on whether love is arational or if there are reasons for love, and if so what kind; the kinds of love there may be ; whether love can explain the difference between nationalism and patriotism; whether love is an necessary component of truly seeing others and the world; whether love, like free will, is “fragile,” and may not survive in a deterministic (...) world; and whether or not love is actually a good thing or may instead be a force opposed to morality. Key philosophers discussed include Immanuel Kant, Iris Murdoch, Bernard Williams, Harry Frankfurt, J. David Velleman, Niko Kolodny, Thomas Hurka, Bennett Helm, Alfred Mele and Derk Pereboom. Essays also touch on the treatment of love in literature and popular culture, from Graham Greene’s The End of the Affair to Spike Jonze’s movie her. (shrink)

This paper comments on an article by V.S. Ramachandran and William Hirstein (JCS,1999) in which they purport to be identifying the neurological principles of beauty. I draw attention to the way the problem of beauty is construed in the philosophical literature by Mary Mothersill (1984) and Immanuel Kant (Critique of Judgment). I argue that Ramachandran and Hirsteins' principles do not address the problem of beauty because they do not differentiate between the experience of beauty and other closely related phenomena. (...) I then show how one might address the problem of beauty within the framework that they have adopted. (shrink)

Tarihte herhalde çok az soru Tanrı’nın varlığı sorusu kadar sık sorulmuş, çok yanıtlanmış ve verilen birbirinden farklı onca yanıta rağmen kesin bir sonuca ulaştırılamayıp tartışılmaya devam etmiştir. Yine de geçmişe dönüp baktığımızda bu soruya verilen farklı yanıtların farklı uygarlıkların inşa edilmesine, bazılarının yıkılmasına, acımasız çatışmalara ve her şeye rağmen kucaklaşmalara da vesile olduğunu görüyoruz. Tanrı var mı? Varsa onu nasıl bilebiliriz? Tanrı yoksa her şey mubah mı? İnsan aklı ilahi olanı kavrayabilir mi? Tanrı’nın varlığı ahlaklı olmanın şartı mı? Evren akıllı (...) bir tasarımcının imzasını taşıyor mu? Bu kitapta felsefeci William David Beck, bu sorulara tarihte verilen yanıtları ve bu konudaki tartışmaları ele alarak meselenin genel ve tarihsel bir tablosunu bize sunuyor. Platon, Aristoteles, Marcus Aurelius gibi Eski Yunan ve Roma düşünürlerinden Anselmus, Thomas Aquinas, Augustinus ve Yahudi-Hıristiyan geleneğine, Doğu’nun bilgelerine, İbni Rüşd, Fârâbî ve Gazzâlî gibi İslam düşünürlerinden Alvin Plantinga, Graham Oppy, Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins, Max Tegmark gibi Batılı modern ilahiyatçılara, bilim insanlarına ve Yeni Ateizm hareketine kadar uzanan bir çizgide “Tanrı var mı?” sorusuna verilen çeşitli yanıtları ve bu yanıtlara sunulan akılcı gerekçeleri ortaya koyarak soruya felsefece bir yanıt vermenin nasıl bir iş olduğunu da gösteriyor. (shrink)

“What is the structure of thought?” is as central a question as any in cognitive science. A classic answer to this question has appealed to a Language of Thought (LoT). We point to emerging research from disparate branches of the field that supports the LoT hypothesis, but also uncovers diversity in LoTs across cognitive systems, stages of development, and species. Our letter formulates open research questions for cognitive science concerning the varieties of rules and representations that underwrite various LoT-based systems (...) and how these variations can help researchers taxonomize cognitive systems. (shrink)

Concentrados e Rações Para Cabras em Lactação -/- ___________________________________________________________________________ De um modo geral, há grande dificuldade nas criações zootécnicas nacionais para a formulação e uso racional de concentrados nas rações dos animais, neste caso, de caprinos, em especial, para cabras em lactação. O problema torna-se real e complexo em função das particularidades apresentadas pelos animais relativas ao seu trato digestivo, além de seus hábitos alimentares. Uma séria dificuldade relacionada com a tomada de decisão no momento da formulação da ração concentrada (...) reside na qualidade do volumoso utilizado. Esse volumoso possui uma qualidade bromatológica variável, na maioria das vezes, seja pelo manejo inadequado da forrageira ou do próprio ciclo vegetativo da planta utilizada. O solo também possui grande impacto nas características químicas da forrageira disponibilizada para os animais. Dada a variabilidade da qualidade da ração volumosa, o concentrado torna-se mal balanceado, sendo fornecido em quantidades inadequadas, favorecendo uma sub ou super alimentação, o que acarreta níveis de produção insatisfatórios e grande prejuízo para a indústria caprina, uma vez que afetará diretamente as características químicas e físicas do leite da cabra, mudando seus teores de sólidos totais etc. -/- OS NUTRIENTES E SUA IMPORT NCIA Muitos nutrientes são necessários na dieta da cabra para a realização do metabolismo normal, para a manutenção das funções corporais e para a produção que inclui acréscimo de tecido (animal em crescimento), para a reprodução e sua manutenção e, por fim, para a produção dos produtos como carne, leite e fibra. As classes específicas de nutrientes incluem carboidratos e lipídeos que fornecem energia; nitrogênio proteico ou não proteico que fornecem aminoácidos e energia; vitaminas; minerais e água. Embora seja ignorada por muitos autores, a água é um nutriente necessário para a digestão, metabolismo e produção. -/- Energia -/- A eficiência da utilização dos alimentos depende de um suprimento adequado de energia, uma vez que o processo de utilização dos alimentos requer gasto energético, sendo, portanto, de grande importância o suprimento energético para a produtividade dos caprinos. A deficiência energética retarda o crescimento e desenvolvimento de cabritos, aumenta a idade à puberdade, reduz a fertilidade e diminui a produção leiteira. Uma deficiência persistente acarreta redução na resistência a doenças infecciosas e parasitárias. A baixa resistência imunológica associada a deficiência energética ainda pode ser agravada mediante o déficit de outros princípios nutritivos como proteínas, vitaminas e minerais. O consumo inapropriado de energia resulta na inadequada ingestão de alimentos ou na baixa qualidade da dieta fornecida para o caprino. A baixa ingestão de energia também pode ser causada pelas altas quantidades de água presentes em algumas forrageiras in natura, por isso o ideal é o fornecimento de volumosos na sua matéria seca, onde será disponibilizado somente os nutrientes, segundo suas características bromatológicas. Segundo DA SILVA & FONTAIN, 2021 a base de qualquer ração é a energia, e se houver uma deficiência existente, os demais nutrientes e os aditivos serão subutilizados pelos animais. Os ruminantes possuem a capacidade de utilização energética através dos carboidratos complexos como celulose, hemicelulose, pectina etc., que estão presentes nas forragens, essa utilização acontece graças ao processo de fermentação que ocorre no rúmen. Entretanto, assim como ocorre em monogástricos, também possuem a capacidade de utilização de demais carboidratos como amido e açúcares. Os ruminantes exigem determinada quantidade de fibra, mas dependendo do animal, do nível de produção e dos ingredientes da ração, há necessidade de incluir na ração os denominados concentrados energéticos. Por exemplo as rações ricas em volumosos (alimentos fibrosos) não podem atender os requisitos energéticos em razão das limitações físicas do animal para ingerir uma quantidade suficiente de alimento, isto é, para atender suas exigências seria necessário grandes quantidades de ração volumosa ingerida, o que é impossível devido a capacidade do rúmen. Neste caso, para se reduzir o volume de ração ingerida, há necessidade de substituir parte dos alimentos fibrosos por concentrados energéticos de boa qualidade. Tais considerações são suficientes para aclarar a importância do aporte de energia no balanceamento de rações para cabras em lactação. -/- Proteínas -/- As proteínas exercem várias funções no organismo do animal e, desse modo, tornam- -se essenciais à alimentação. Elas são necessárias, por exemplo, para a manutenção do organismo, para reparos e formação dos tecidos que são continuamente desgastados, na manutenção dos processos fisiológicos, no crescimento de fetos e dos animais jovens e na síntese do leite. Os ruminantes, assim como outros animais, necessitam de vários componentes na dieta para desempenharem suas funções produtivas e reprodutivas. Esses componentes são chamados essenciais, do qual sem a sua presença os animais não poderiam sobreviver. Entre eles estão as fontes de nitrogênio proteico e não proteico que, após transformações fisiológicas e metabólicas, dão origem a proteínas que são digeridas, absorvidas e utilizadas pelos ruminantes (FERREIRA, 1983). As proteínas destacam-se, dentro das substâncias essenciais, pela amplitude de funções que desempenham no organismo. Estas participam desde a estruturação do corpo (músculos, cartilagens, unhas, pele e pelos), até mecanismos complexos de transporte e metabolismo. Portanto, dentre o supracitado, é essencial conhecer os principais concentrados proteicos e seus limites de utilização, visando o melhor aproveitamento destes, desde a esfera econômica até o impacto positivo sobre a produção de produtos caprinos. -/- Minerais -/- Existem pelo menos 15 minerais essenciais para a nutrição dos ruminantes, dentre os macronutrientes, isto é, os exigidos em maior quantidade na dieta, estão o cálcio, fósforo, sódio, cloro, magnésio, potássio e enxofre, e dentre os micronutrientes, ou seja, exigidos em menor quantidade, porém essenciais a sua presença, estão o ferro, iodo, zinco, cobre, manganês, cobalto, molibdênio e selênio. Em qualquer região, concentrações tóxicas de minerais como cobre, flúor, manganês, molibdênio ou selênio causam redução na produção e produtividade animal. As deficiências minerais ou desequilíbrio destes no solo e nas forrageiras cultivadas neste, têm sido responsáveis pelos baixos índices reprodutivos, ou seja, tais déficits ocasionam perdas nos processos reprodutivos normais, além de causar inadequada produtividade em diversas regiões do Brasil. Segundo dados apresentados por SOUSA, 1983 os caprinos sob pastagens, com elevados déficits de fósforo, cobalto ou cobre, podem apresentar perdas superiores relativas a produção cárnea e láctea em relação aos animais criados sob pastagens com déficits de energia e/ou proteína. Os macrominerais presentes na ração (volumosa ou concentrada) chegam ao rúmen e são dissolvidos, desempenhando uma série de funções importantes, além das específicas nas células e nos tecidos. Dentre elas incluem-se a mantença de um pH constante através da formação da solução tamponante, mantença de um potencial de redução e da pressão osmótica no rúmen. Os micronutrientes, por sua vez, possuem mais funções específicas na célula e no tecido, atuando como constituintes de coenzimas, catalizadores etc. (COELHO DA SILVA & LEÃO, 1979). Assim, torna-se indispensável conhecer as fontes dos minerais e a melhor maneira de utilizá-los durante o preparo de concentrados para cabras em lactação. -/- Vitaminas -/- Os caprinos necessitam fontes alimentares de vitaminas lipossolúveis (A, D, E e K), entretanto os microrganismos do rúmen, através do metabolismo e fermentação, produzem quantidades suficientes de vitaminas hidrossolúveis. Os animais em pastejo somente obtém suficientes quantidades de vitaminas ou precursores de vitaminas para satisfazer as necessidades, porém pode ser necessário a adição complementar de suplementos vitamínicos aos animais alimentados em confinamento ou com altas produções leiteiras. Os ruminantes exigem todas as vitaminas que são metabolicamente essenciais para os monogástricos. Essa indicação tem sido obtida através de estudos sobre as exigências vitamínicas em animais jovens, antes do desenvolvimento completo e funcionamento adequado do rúmen, ou com o emprego de inibidores da vitamina em estudo e observando-se a consequente manifestação do sintoma de deficiência. O suprimento de vitaminas do complexo B e da vitamina K para o ruminante é feito em decorrência das fermentações que ocorrem no aparelho digestivo. Entretanto, existem algumas dúvidas se a síntese de algumas vitaminas do complexo B é adequada para manter altos níveis de produção e uma alta taxa de crescimento. Como supracitado, existem inúmeras informações de que a maioria das vitaminas possam ser sintetizadas ou no trato gastrointestinal ou nos tecidos. Entretanto, as vitaminas A, D e E devem ser fornecidas ao animal (ARAÚJO & ZANETTI, 2019). As principais funções das vitaminas do complexo B estão relacionadas com o eficiente aproveitamento dos açúcares, gorduras e proteínas dos alimentos. A vitamina C possui papel imprescindível no metabolismo geral dos nutrientes. Quanto à vitamina K, sua função mais relatada é como fator anti-hemorrágico, agindo na coagulação do sangue (VELLOSO, 1983). Quanto à vitamina A, sabemos que não existe nos vegetais, entretanto o caroteno presente é um precursor desta, onde este sofre metabolismo e se transforma em vitamina A no organismo do animal, por isso, muitas vezes é relatado como pró-vitamina A. Os ruminantes são excelentes animais quando se fala na transformação de ß-carotenos em vitamina A. A coloração verde das plantas forrageiras é uma garantia da presença de pigmentos carotenoides nelas. Assim, durante a época das águas (chuvas), quando as forrageiras consumidas estão verdes, não há qualquer problema quanto ao suprimento de pró-vitamina A. Por sua vez, quando as pastagens estão amareladas e secas, pode aumentar a possibilidade do aparecimento de sintomas de deficiência de vitamina A, e esse problema pode ser agravado conforme aumenta-se o período de estiagem (VELLOSO, 1983). Deve-se dar especial atenção às cabras em lactação que, na maioria dos casos, recebem ração à base de fenos, que muitas vezes são mal conservados e apresentam pequeno conteúdo de ß-caroteno. As dietas típicas para caprinos contêm quantidades de caroteno suficientes para prevenir possíveis deficiências de vitamina A. O hábito alimentar dos caprinos sob pastejo, isto é, sua tendência de selecionar as partes mais verdes da planta coloca-os em vantagem em relação a outros ruminantes, entretanto, na ausência de partes verdes essa vantagem não possui importância. A deficiência de vitamina A em caprinos criados nos trópicos é rara, exceto nas condições supracitadas (DA SILVA et. al., 2021). A vitamina E apresenta uma deficiência ocasional em caprinos, embora essa vitamina, que é transferida através do leite, seja considerada essencial em função de suas propriedades antioxidantes (DA SILVA et. al., 2021). A vitamina D é relatada como fator anti-raquítico, dada sua propriedade em prevenir o raquitismo através de duas vias conhecidas, seja pelo aumento da absorção de cálcio dietético pelo intestino delgado ou pela mobilização deste, presente nos ossos. Além de evitar o raquitismo em animais jovens, a vitamina D também atua na integridade corporal dos adultos. Os caprinos expostos à luz solar por alguns minutos diariamente conseguem receber vitamina D em quantidades suficientes para suas necessidades fisiológicas, esse recebimento de vitamina D acontece através da conversão do 7-dehidrocolesterol da pele em vitamina D3, portanto a vitamina D3 é uma pró-vitamina. Assim, em animais mantidos em regime de pastejo, nas condições brasileiras, não há maior preocupação quanto ao suprimento de vitamina D3 (VELLOSO, 1983). Entretanto, os animais em regime de confinamento total, onde não possuem acesso à luz solar, devem receber atenção especial, uma vez que podem ocorrer deficiência desta vitamina, esta que pode ser evitada mediante o fornecimento da vitamina na mistura concentrada. -/- Água -/- Muitos autores da área de nutrição animal, seja em artigos ou livros, desconsideram a água como nutriente essencial para os animais, entretanto ela é imprescindível para inúmeras funções metabólicas. Além da água de bebida, os caprinos obtêm água através dos alimentos consumidos na matéria natural, da neve derretida e através do orvalho. A necessidade de água se deve a três motivos, primeiro pela excreção de água nas fezes e na urina ligada à utilização digestiva e metabólica dos alimentos; segundo pela fixação e exportação de água nas produções (carne, leite, pele e fibra); e, por fim, pelas perdas de vapor de água pelos pulmões e através da pele. O total de água requerida varia segundo o tamanho e condição fisiológica do animal, a temperatura ambiental e o nível de ingestão de matéria seca do animal. A ingestão de água é expressa em kg de água necessária por kg de matéria seca ingerida. Nas condições brasileiras, onde a temperatura fica acima dos 30 ºC, normalmente, o ideal de fornecimento é de 6-10 kg de água/kg de IMS. O consumo total é estimado em 3,5 kg de água/kg de leite produzido. Segundo DA SILVA & AIRES, 2018 as recomendações são de 145,6 g de água/kg de peso metabólico (kg0,75) para mantença e 1,43 kg/kg de leite produzido. Para aclarar os dados, suponhamos uma cabra em lactação com 40 kg de PV e produção de 5 kg de leite/dia, seu consumo será de 145,6 g x 400,75 = 2,32 kg de água para mantença + 1,43 x 5 = 7,15 kg de água, seu consumo total será 9,47 kg de água/dia. É necessário enfatizar que, à medida que a temperatura ambiental aumenta, os requisitos de água também aumentam. Em condições semidesérticas os caprinos adaptam-se, bebendo água apenas duas vezes por semana. A equação de necessidade de água, segundo DA SILVA & AIRES, 2018, é: ingestão total de água (L/dia) = 3,86 x IMS - 0,99. REQUISITOS NUTRICIONAIS -/- Para que possamos formular uma dieta balanceada e que os concentrados possam ser utilizados eficazmente e racionalmente, primeiramente é necessário conhecer as exigências nutricionais das cabras em lactação. Esses requerimentos são, na verdade, aproximações dos valores reais das exigências dos animais. Normalmente, os requisitos são tabulados, visando a facilidade no manejo de informações, entendimento e utilização dos dados na prática. Infelizmente, no Brasil não existem tabelas das exigências nutricionais dos caprinos e, com isso, é imperativo a utilização de dados obtidos em outros países e que possuem condições climáticas e animais diferentes, o que nem sempre corresponde à realidade brasileira. Os dados mais utilizados para estabelecimento das exigências são os do NRC nos Estados Unidos, AFRC na Inglaterra, CSIRO na Austrália, INRA na França e FEDNA na Espanha. A tabela 1 apresenta os requisitos nutricionais de ingestão de matéria seca de cabras leiteiras segundo a equação proposta pelo AFRC. É importante levar em consideração todos os fatores que afetam as exigências das cabras, tais como exigências de mantença, gestação, crescimento, atividade física, lactação, clima, raça etc. Os valores apresentados na tabela 2 devem ser incluídos aos valores de mantença. Os requerimentos completos dos caprinos podem ser tomados nas tabelas 3 a 19 do livro Formulação de Ração Para Caprinos. Como supracitado, os valores das exigências para produção de leite devem ser adicionados aos de mantença, por sua vez a tabela 3 apresenta os valores de produção que devem ser múltiplos dos requisitos de mantença. Existem formulações que levam em consideração a porcentagem de nutrientes no conteúdo total do concentrado. Diversos autores publicam quantidades de proteína, nutrientes digestíveis totais, cálcio e fósforo com base na matéria seca da ração. DA SILVA, 2021 sugere que para cabras em lactação com uma ou duas crias é ideal um concentrado com 14 a 16% de proteína bruta. Uma formulação para cabras em lactação, segundo DA SILVA, 2021, pode obedecer a ordem de 3 a 5% de IMS, 16 a 24% de proteína bruta, 65% de nutrientes digestíveis totais e minerais na ordem de 0,75% Ca e 0,3% P. O teor de nutrientes na mistura concentrada é importante para saber se a ração irá atender às exigências das cabras em lactação (tabela 8). O conhecimento dos níveis de nutrientes na mistura é essencial para elaborar uma ração balanceada que atenda aos requisitos de mantença e de produção. É importante, também, saber as observações quanto a relação entre energia/proteína e entre os minerais para que não haja um mau aproveitamento dos nutrientes e possíveis distúrbios metabólicos. ALIMENTOS CONCENTRADOS -/- Por definição, são aqueles que possuem conteúdo de fibra bruta inferior a 18%. Eles são divididos em concentrados proteicos e energéticos, quando possuem mais ou menos de 20% de proteína bruta, respectivamente. Um grande número de alimentos pode ser usado no balanceamento das misturas de concentrados na propriedade e deve permitir uma formulação equilibrada nutricionalmente, economicamente e de boa qualidade. As tabelas 9 e 10 apresentam a composição de alguns alimentos concentrados considerados mais comuns na formulação de dietas e de maior disponibilidade no Brasil. As recomendações para utilização de concentrados nas rações de cabras leiteiras podem variar em função dos demais ingredientes da ração total. De modo geral, quanto aos concentrados energéticos, não existem restrições às quantidades usadas na ração, desde que as exigências nutricionais sejam atendidas. A tabela 11 apresenta as restrições de utilização dos ingredientes na ração de caprinos. De tal forma pode ser pensado para os concentrados proteicos, entretanto, nesse caso, exige-se mais cuidado por parte do formulador, uma vez que deve-se levar em consideração a carga energética presente no ingrediente proteico. Deve-se enfatizar sempre que a utilização de ingredientes de origem animal é expressamente proibida na alimentação de ruminantes. Deve-se, ainda, referenciar quanto ao uso de fontes de nitrogênio não proteico (NNP) (ureia, biureto etc.) que podem ser usadas com vantagens nas dietas com alta carga energética. O critério de uso de NNP, em até ⅓ da proteína total da dieta, ainda pode ser utilizado de forma generalizada. RECOMENDAÇÕES PARA USO DAS MISTURAS DE CONCENTRADOS -/- Qualquer tipo de alimento concentrado pode ser usado no preparo de uma mistura de boa qualidade, entretanto os requerimentos das cabras devem ser atendidos. Sendo assim, o preço e a disponibilidade dos alimentos básicos são fatores importantes na escolha dos ingredientes. Conforme supracitado, a composição da mistura concentrada depende da qualidade do volumoso. Para que o produtor tenha garantia e controle de que as exigências estão sendo supridas, é recomendável o ajuste periódico das quantidades de concentrados que serão fornecidas. Esse ajuste é necessário em função da mudança da composição química das forrageiras com o avanço da maturidade fisiológica da planta. Essa composição normalmente existe em tabelas, entretanto as melhores aproximações são obtidas quando se faz a análise destas forrageiras em laboratórios especializados. É difícil fazer uma recomendação única para fornecimento de concentrado para cabras em lactação. Cada propriedade dispõe de recursos forrageiros peculiares, com variações na qualidade nutricional. Não obstante, os valores apresentados na tabela 12 podem servir de guia quando há impossibilidade de realização de um balanceamento específico para cada propriedade. É essencial a verificação dos níveis de outros nutrientes, tais como energia e minerais. Em geral, a preocupação é dada somente à proteína e, muitas vezes, a energia é negligenciada. O conteúdo de energia da ração (EM, EL ou NDT) muitas vezes se apresenta deficiente, o que possui relação direta com os índices de produção e produtividade insatisfatórios. Este é um dos pontos de limitação da produção leiteira, principalmente porque escapa à capacidade de observação do criador. Quando alimentadas com forrageiras de média ou baixa qualidade, é necessário completar os requerimentos de mantença das cabras e, dependendo da qualidade da forrageira disponível, recomenda-se de 200 a 500 g de concentrado/cabeça/dia. As fontes de NNP também podem ser utilizadas para cabras em lactação, desde que não ultrapasse ⅓ do nitrogênio total da dieta. Em termos práticos, a ureia deve constituir até 1% da matéria seca total da dieta ou, aproximadamente, 3% da mistura de concentrados. Uma adaptação gradativa é necessária para que os caprinos possam aproveitar eficazmente a ureia sem distúrbios. Essa adaptação é feita com níveis crescentes de ureia adicionados ao concentrado na base de 0,5% por semana até a limitação. Desta forma, na sexta semana, as cabras estarão recebendo concentrado contendo 3% do elemento. No caso de cabras de alta produção leiteira, é essencial dar atenção aos minerais, uma vez que elas não conseguem ingerir as quantidades exigidas para sua mantença e produção. Para mitigar o problema, recomenda-se adicionar ao concentrado ou à mistura concentrada um premix, isto é, uma mistura vitamínico-mineral completa ao nível de 3%. As rações comerciais também podem ser utilizadas, desde que se verifiquem os níveis de garantia, tanto de qualidade como de composição. É importante que se evite rações com altos níveis de proteína, onde, normalmente, não possuem boa relação energia/proteína. Essas rações, em geral, não são bem aproveitadas pelas cabras, onerando o custo de produção de leite. É importante sempre frisar que um máximo cuidado deve ser dado ao estado de conservação dos ingredientes. As condições de armazenamento devem ser as melhores possíveis, procurando-se locais secos e com boa ventilação. Alimentos rancificados, de uma forma geral, são rejeitados pelas cabras. No caso de utilização de alimentos com alto conteúdo de matéria graxa, que se rancificam facilmente, deve-se ter cuidados especiais, evitando-se preparar grandes quantidades de uma só vez. Outro ponto que merece destaque é a presença de bolores. Os alimentos mofados devem ser sistematicamente eliminados, pois além de causar danos à saúde do animal, podem também ocasionar problemas para a saúde humana. Intoxicações por aflatoxina são frequentemente relatadas em caprinos. Assim, o uso de ingredientes suscetíveis ao fungo (Aspergillus flavus) que produz aflatoxina, deve ser feito com ressalvas. É imprescindível salientar que essas toxinas também podem ser produzidas por outros fungos e podem estar presentes em uma série de alimentos em más condições de armazenamento. O local de armazenamento dos ingredientes ou da mistura concentrada deve possuir boa vedação para não permitir a entrada de insetos e/ou roedores. A proliferação de insetos, além de causar danos físicos aos alimentos, uma vez que se alimentam de alguns princípios nutritivos, produz um aquecimento em função dos processos metabólicos dos insetos, o que reduz as características do alimento e seu valor nutritivo. É essencial que o local seja à prova de roedores, pois além do grande desperdício de ração, causado pelo consumo e danos às embalagens, os roedores também são vetores de doenças que causam sérios prejuízos e perdas ao criatório. Na maioria dos casos, essas doenças escapam à capacidade de observação do criador. As cabras devem ser alimentadas segundo sua produção. Neste caso, é importante que a alimentação seja individual. Pode-se fornecer a ração durante a ordenha ou no intervalo do fornecimento da ração volumosa, porém sempre em horário previamente estabelecido. A mistura concentrada pode ser fornecida em cochos coletivos, mas é necessário a instalação de canzis para a contenção dos animais. É essencial que, antes do fornecimento, os cochos estejam limpos para permitir um melhor aproveitamento. Os concentrados muito farelados devem ser evitados durante a ordenha, uma vez que podem afetar a qualidade do leite pelo aumento da possibilidade de contaminação com poeira. As cabras de alta produção devem receber a ração concentrada dividida em duas ou três refeições no dia para permitir melhor aproveitamento. O fornecimento da mistura concentrada juntamente com a ração volumosa não é recomendável, mesmo que esta seja de baixa qualidade, porque de forma geral causam desperdício. No caso de cabras semi-confinadas, a prática da mistura de concentrados com os volumosos pode facilitar e agilizar o arraçoamento. Neste caso, também se faz recomendável a disposição de canzis nos comedouros para evitar a competição entre os animais. -/- RAÇÕES PARA CABRAS EM LACTAÇÃO -/- As rações de cabras em produção de leite devem ser de boa qualidade, produzidas em ambiente higienizado e com normas de segurança, além de, no caso de armazenamento, serem armazenadas em ambiente limpo, arejado e fora do alcance de insetos e roedores. Além das condições de fabricação e armazenagem, a ração, quando formulada, deverá obedecer os requisitos nutricionais das cabras para sua mantença e para a produção de leite. Sabemos que quanto maior a produção mais nutritiva deverá ser a ração. O fornecimento de ração volumosa também é essencial para o funcionamento normal do rúmen, além de fornecer uma carga nutricional. A relação entre volumoso e concentrado é importante, um não pode se sobressair em excesso sobre o outro, caso aconteça, haverá um desbalanceamento e consequente baixa na produção e produtividade. O limite de utilização dos ingredientes concentrados também é importante, caso haja uma incorporação maior de um dado ingrediente, poderá haver perdas significativas; por exemplo, se houver maior incorporação de ureia poderá haver intoxicação do animal. Na sequência, são apresentadas rações para cabras em lactação formuladas e disponíveis no livro sobre formulação de ração para caprinos do mesmo autor, exemplos 2 e seção rações prontas para caprinos números 2, 3, 4 e 21. A primeira ração formulada é para uma cabra da raça Saanen com 50 kg de PV e produção leiteira de 5 kg/dia com teor de gordura de 3,5%. A ração é composta por volumoso e concentrado, conforme tabela 13. Tomando os requerimentos da cabra em questão e a composição química da dieta, observamos que a dieta volumosa e concentrada supre todas as exigências nutricionais do animal (tabela 13.1). A seguir, são apresentadas misturas de volumosos e concentrados para cabras em lactação, conforme as recomendações dadas por DA SILVA, 2021 sobre os níveis nutricionais de rações para a categoria. Segundo o autor, a composição industrial de um concentrado deve ser de 16 a 24% de proteína bruta, 65% de nutrientes digestíveis totais, 0,75% de Ca e 0,3% de P, seguindo um CMS de 3 a 5% do peso vivo. Tais valores são genéricos, o ideal é consultar as tabelas de exigências das cabras. Os valores das misturas supracitadas, tanto de quantidade como de composição, são genéricos e podem variar em função de alguns fatores, os mais importantes são composição bromatológica dos ingredientes e das exigências nutricionais das cabras. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ARAÚJO, L. F.; ZANETTI, M. A. (Eds.). Nutrição Animal, 1ª ed. Barueri: Manole, 2019. COELHO DA SILVA, J. F. Concentrados energéticos para ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 37-42, 1983. COELHO DA SILVA, J. F.; LEÃO, M. I. Fundamentos de nutrição dos ruminantes. Piracicaba: Livroceres, 1979. 380 p. CRAMPTON, Earle W.; HARRIS, Lorin E. Nutrición animal aplicada: el uso de los alimentos en la formulación de raciones para el ganado. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1979. AIRES, P. R. R. Água na nutrição de caprinos e ovinos. In: Seminário da disciplina de Caprino-ovinocultura da professora Drª. Alcilene Maria Andrade Tavares Samay. Curso Técnico em Agropecuária. Belo Jardim: IFPE, 2018. DA SILVA, A. T. M. Rações para cabritos, caprinos a pasto, em mantença, reprodutores e cabras gestantes e em lactação. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. DA SILVA, C. L.; ALVES, A. A. A.; DA SILVA, S. R. P. Minerais e vitaminas na formulação de dietas para ruminantes. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. FONTAIN, E. C. da S. Energia e proteína na formulação de dietas para ruminantes. In: Curso de formulação e fabricação de dietas para ruminantes. São Bento do Una: Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco, 2021. Formulação de Ração Para Caprinos. Belo Jardim, 2021. 97p. FERREIRA, J. J. Proteína e concentrados proteicos na alimentação de ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 43-48, 1983. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL et al. Nutrient requirements of small ruminants: sheep, goats, cervids, and new world camelids. 中国法制出版社, 2007. SAMPAIO, J. M. C. et al. Criação de cabras leiteiras. Brasília: EMBRATER, 1984. 243p. Nutrição e Suplementação Mineral de Bovinos de Corte. Curso de Técnico em Agropecuária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Pernambuco, Belo Jardim, PE. SOLAIMAN, Sandra G. (Ed.). Goat science and production. John Wiley & Sons, 2010. SOUSA, J. C. Os minerais na alimentação dos ruminantes. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 49-57, 1983. VELLOSO, L. Importância das vitaminas para os bovinos. Informe Agropecuário, v. 9, n. 108, p. 63-66, 1983. (shrink)

RIGHT TO SILENCE-UK, U.S, FRANCE, and GERMANY SALLY RAMAGE (TRADE MARK REGISTERED) WIPO Orchid ID 0000-0002-8854-4293 Pages 2-30 Current Criminal Law, Volume 1, Issue 2, -/- Sally Ramage, BA (Hons), MBA, LLM, MPhil, MCIJ, MCMI, DA., ASLS, BAWP. Orchid ID 0000-0002-8854-4293 Publisher & Managing Editor Criminal Lawyer series [1980-2022](ISSN 2049-8047) Current Criminal Law series [2008-2022] (ISSN 1758-8405) and Criminal Law News series [2008-2022] (ISSN 1758-8421). Sweet & Maxwell (Thomson Reuters) (Licensed Annotator of UK Statutes) in annual law books Current Law (...) Statutes Annotated, (2006, 2009, 2010 editions) (sole and separate S&M contracts) for 7 UK Criminal Justice Statutes: UK Safeguarding Vulnerable Persons Act 2006; UK International Development Act 2006; UK Fraud Act 2006; UK Policing and Crime Act 2009, UK Local Democracy Act 2009; UK Bribery Act 2010; and UK Crime and Security Act 2010. TradeMark SALLY RAMAGE ® (2005-2025) in the UK, 2401827; WIPO TradeMark SALLY RAMAGE® 900614; USA TradeMark 3,440,910) (2008-2028). WARNING: The doing of an unauthorized act in relation to a copyright work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution. -/- ABSTRACT The privilege of the right to silence can be traced back to the 12th century, becoming more developed in later centuries. -/- Table of cases European Court of Human Rights Deweer v Belgium [1980], Eckle v Germany [1982], DN v The Netherlands [1975], Funke v France [1993] 16 EHRR 297, JP v Austria [1989], Kansal v UK [2003] Application No 21413/02 Khan v UK [2000] 31 EHRR 45, Saunders v UK [1997] 23 EHRR 313, Schenk v Switzerland [1991] 13 EHRR 242, and Tora Tolmos v Spain [1995] Table of Cases United Kingdom Brown v Procurator Fiscal, Dunfermline, [2000] , The Times, Feb 14, High Ct Scot.; HM Advocate v Friel [1978] SLT; Lambe v Munster [1882] 10 QBD 110.; Pearse v Pearse [1846] Eng Rep 950 (on truth); Re Pantmaenog Timber Co Ltd [2003] HL; R v Bryce [1992] 95 Cr App Rep 320; R v Canale [1990] 2 All ER 187; R v Fitzpatrick [1995] 4 SCR 154; R v Herbert [1990] 2 SCR 151; R V Hertfordshire County Council, ex parte Green Environmental Industries and another [2000] 1 All ER 773; R v Keenan [1989] Crim LR 720; R v Maguire [1990] Cr App Rep 115; R v Pound, Green and ors [2004]; R v Sang [1979] Crim LR 655; R v Saunders [1986] unreported; R v Seelig, R v Spens [1991] CA; R v Smith [1992] 95 Cr App. R. 191; R v Steen and ors [2003] unreported; R v Walsh [1981] CrimLR 822; R V Ward 96 Cr App R [1993]; R v Weekes [1993] Crim LR 211; R v White [1999] 2 SCR 417; R v Young [2003] unreported; Thompson Newspaper v Canada [1990] 1 SCR 425; Walsh Automation (Europe) Ltd v Bridgeman and ors [2002] EWHC 1344 QB France-Law France 1789 Declaration des driots de l‟homme et du citoyen 1808 Code d ‟instruction criminelle 1946 Constitution 1958 Code de procedure penale 2000 Penal Code Germany-Law Germany 1871 Criminal Code 1877 Criminal Procedure Code (St PO) 1877 Judicial Organisation Law 1949 Constitution 1975 Criminal Code 1998 Criminal Code Table of Cases Germany Germany BGH Admissibility of secret tape recordings judgement 14 June 1960, in BGHSt 14, 358 BGH Lie detector judgement 16 Feb 1954, in BGHSt 5, 332. BberfG Decision concerning the applicability of ne bis in idem 31 March 1987, in BberfGE 75,1; BGH Sweeping deception of suspect judgement 24 August 1988, in BGHSt 36, 328. BGH Judgement 24 August 1993, in BGHSt 39, 305 Table of Cases United States United States of America California v Byres [1971] 402 U.S. 424; Fisher v United States 475 U.S. 391 [1986]; Griffin v California [1965] 380 US 609 [; Hoffman v United States [1950] 341 U.S. 479; Supreme Court Baldwin v NY, 399 US 143 [1970]; Supreme Court Chavez v Martinez , U.S. 123 [2003]; Supreme Court Doyle v Ohio, 426 U.S. 610 [1976]; Supreme Court Escobedo v Illinois, 378 U.S. 478 [1964]; Supreme Court Giglio v US, 405 U.S. 150 [1972] Supreme Court Harris v NY, 401 U.S. 222 [1971]; Supreme Court Kirby v Illinois, 406 U.S. 682 [1972]; Supreme Court Miranda v Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 [1966]; Supreme Court Moore v Illinois, 408 U.S. 768 [1972]; Supreme Court Moran v Burbine, 475 U.S. [1986]; Supreme Court Orzoco v Texas, 324 U.S.24 [1969]; Supreme Court US v Hale [1975] 422 US 17; Supreme Court US v Leon, 468 U.S. 897 [1984]; Supreme Court US v Salerno, 481 U.S. 739 [1987]; Twining v New Jersey 211 US 78 113 -/- . (shrink)

I argue elsewhere (Roche 2014) that evidence of evidence is evidence under screening-off. Tal and Comesaña (2017) argue that my appeal to screening-off is subject to two objections. They then propose an evidence of evidence thesis involving the notion of a defeater. There is much to learn from their very careful discussion. I argue, though, that their objections fail and that their evidence of evidence thesis is open to counterexample.

We argued that explanatoriness is evidentially irrelevant in the following sense: Let H be a hypothesis, O an observation, and E the proposition that H would explain O if H and O were true. Then our claim is that Pr = Pr. We defended this screening-off thesis by discussing an example concerning smoking and cancer. Climenhaga argues that SOT is mistaken because it delivers the wrong verdict about a slightly different smoking-and-cancer case. He also considers a variant of SOT, called (...) “SOT*”, and contends that it too gives the wrong result. We here reply to Climenhaga’s arguments and suggest that SOT provides a criticism of the widely held theory of inference called “inference to the best explanation”. (shrink)

Kit Fine’s logic of essence and his reduction of modality crucially rely on a principle called the ‘monotonicity of essence’. This principle says that for all pluralities, xx and yy, if some xx belong to some yy, then if it is essential to xx that p, it is also essential to yy that p. I argue that on the constitutive notion of essence, this principle is false. In particular, I show that this principle is false because it says that some (...) propositions are essential to yy even though those propositions are only about some of its members. I then consider modifications to the principle appealing to consequential essence and argue that such a modification is inconsistent with a central. (shrink)