In this article I examine two mathematical definitions of observational equivalence, one proposed by Charlotte Werndl and based on manifest isomorphism, and the other based on Ornstein and Weiss’s ε-congruence. I argue, for two related reasons, that neither can function as a purely mathematical definition of observational equivalence. First, each definition permits of counterexamples; second, overcoming these counterexamples will introduce non-mathematical premises about the systems in question. Accordingly, the prospects for a broadly applicable and purely mathematical (...) definition of observational equivalence are unpromising. Despite this critique, I suggest that Werndl’s proposals are valuable because they clarify the distinction between provable and unprovable elements in arguments for observational equivalence. (shrink)

Goethe's objections to Newton's theory of light and colours are better than often acknowledged. You can accept the most important elements of these objections without disagreeing with Newton about light and colours. As I will argue, Goethe exposed a crucial weakness of Newton's methodological self-assessment. Newton believed that with the help of his prism experiments, he could prove that sunlight was composed of variously coloured rays of light. Goethe showed that this step from observation to theory is more problematic than (...) Newton wanted to admit. By insisting that the step to theory is not forced upon us by the phenomena, Goethe revealed our own free, creative contribution to theory construction. And Goethe's insight is surprisingly significant, because he correctly claimed that all of the results of Newton's prism experiments fit a theoretical alternative equally well. If this is correct, then by suggesting an alternative to a well-established physical theory, Goethe developed the problem of underdete... (shrink)

According to the standard interpretation of Einstein’s field equations, gravity consists of mass-energy curving spacetime, and an additional physical force or entity—denoted by Λ (the ‘cosmological constant’)—is responsible for the Universe’s metric-expansion. Although General Relativity’s direct predictions have been systematically confirmed, the dominant cosmological model thought to follow from it—the ΛCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) model of the Universe’s history and composition—faces considerable challenges, including various observational anomalies and experimental failures to detect dark matter, dark energy, or inflation-field candidates. (...) This paper shows that Einstein’s Equivalence Principle entails two possible physical interpretations of General Relativity’s field equations. Although the field equations facially appear to support the standard interpretation—that gravity consists of mass-energy curving spacetime—the field equations can be equivalently understood as holding that gravitational effects instead result from mass-energy accelerating the metric-expansion of a second-order spacetime fabric superimposed upon an absolute, first-order Euclidean space, resulting in the observational appearance of spacetime curvature. This alternative interpretation of relativity is shown to be empirically equivalent to the standard interpretation of relativity, albeit with a changing value for Λ (which is similar to how Λ is understood in the conception of Λ as ‘quintessence’, but in this case takes Λ to be gravity). The reconceptualization is then shown to potentially resolve major observational anomalies for the ΛCDM model, including recent observations conflicting with ΛCDM predictions, as well as failures to directly detect dark matter, dark energy, and inflation field/particle candidates. (shrink)

> Context • The alleged dichotomy between mind and matter is pervasive. Therefore, the attempt to explain mat- ter in terms of mind (idealism) is often considered a mirror image of that of explaining mind in terms of mat- ter (mainstream physicalism), in the sense of being structurally equivalent despite being reversely arranged. > Problem • I argue that this is an error arising from language artifacts, for dichotomies must reside in the same level of abstraction. > Method • I (...) show that, because matter outside mind is not an empirical observation but rather an explanatory model, the epistemic symmetry between the two is broken. Consequently, matter and mind cannot reside in the same level of abstraction. > Results • It then becomes clear that attempting to explain mind in terms of matter is epistemically more costly than attempting to explain matter in terms of mind. > Implications • The qualities of experience are suggested to be not only epistemically, but also ontologically primary. > Constructivist content • I high- light the primacy of perceptual constructs over explanatory abstraction on both epistemic and ontic levels. > Key words • Idealism, physicalism, pancomputationalism, anti-realism, hard problem of consciousness, epistemic symmetry, explanatory abstraction, levels of abstraction. (shrink)

The elderly face very challenging situations due to their mental and physical conditions. Like the other country in the world, Bangladesh Government has enacted laws to protect the elderly rights. However, the law does not seem to represent what the elderly actually needs. Therefore, 385 elderly people, aged between 60 and 90 years were surveyed to understand their expectations from family, society, and government. There were 57.1% men and 42.9% women. Most of the elderly (80%) were educated. Just over half (...) (53.5%) had ordinary mental and physical health, while a quarter (31.4%) had good status. More than half (53%) of the participants required 2000–5000 BDTK (Bangladeshi Taka) equivalent to $20-50 to cover monthly treatment expenditures. The majority (67.3%) felt government Old Age Allowance should be increased to BDT 5,000 ($50). Of 13.8% of individuals experienced harsh discourse from family because of the cost of therapy. However, 16.9% of people choose not to respond to this question. More than half (57.4%) of the respondents’ thought caregivers were insufficient. One-third felt that legislation should be changed to take care of parents (33.5%) and One-third felt that children should take care of more (33.5%). Some (3.6%) thought that children should act as they did in their childhood respectively. Almost half (44.2%) of respondents did not know that the elderly should receive a separate senior citizen card for preferential treatment, yet 51.9% thought this. Some (44.7%) felt the elderly should get priority in any queue and discounts in Bus/Uber/Rickshaw. Results also showed that expectation is more than the service provided. Further, a one-stop elderly care clinic is required to provide integrated care and support for the quality of life of the elderly. (shrink)

One of the objections against the thesis of underdetermination of theories by observations is that it is unintelligible. Any two empirically equivalent theories — so the argument goes—are in principle intertranslatable, hence cannot count as rivals in any non-trivial sense. Against that objection, this paper shows that empirically equivalent theories may contain theoretical sentences that are not intertranslatable. Examples are drawn from a related discussion about incommensurability that shows that theoretical non-intertranslatability is possible.

The explicit history of the “hidden variables” problem is well-known and established. The main events of its chronology are traced. An implicit context of that history is suggested. It links the problem with the “conservation of energy conservation” in quantum mechanics. Bohr, Kramers, and Slaters (1924) admitted its violation being due to the “fourth Heisenberg uncertainty”, that of energy in relation to time. Wolfgang Pauli rejected the conjecture and even forecast the existence of a new and unknown then elementary particle, (...) neutrino, on the ground of energy conservation in quantum mechanics, afterwards confirmed experimentally. Bohr recognized his defeat and Pauli’s truth: the paradigm of elementary particles (furthermore underlying the Standard model) dominates nowadays. However, the reason of energy conservation in quantum mechanics is quite different from that in classical mechanics (the Lie group of all translations in time). Even more, if the reason was the latter, Bohr, Cramers, and Slatters’s argument would be valid. The link between the “conservation of energy conservation” and the problem of hidden variables is the following: the former is equivalent to their absence. The same can be verified historically by the unification of Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics in the contemporary quantum mechanics by means of the separable complex Hilbert space. The Heisenberg version relies on the vector interpretation of Hilbert space, and the Schrödinger one, on the wave-function interpretation. However the both are equivalent to each other only under the additional condition that a certain well-ordering is equivalent to the corresponding ordinal number (as in Neumann’s definition of “ordinal number”). The same condition interpreted in the proper terms of quantum mechanics means its “unitarity”, therefore the “conservation of energy conservation”. In other words, the “conservation of energy conservation” is postulated in the foundations of quantum mechanics by means of the concept of the separable complex Hilbert space, which furthermore is equivalent to postulating the absence of hidden variables in quantum mechanics (directly deducible from the properties of that Hilbert space). Further, the lesson of that unification (of Heisenberg’s approach and Schrödinger’s version) can be directly interpreted in terms of the unification of general relativity and quantum mechanics in the cherished “quantum gravity” as well as a “manual” of how one can do this considering them as isomorphic to each other in a new mathematical structure corresponding to quantum information. Even more, the condition of the unification is analogical to that in the historical precedent of the unifying mathematical structure (namely the separable complex Hilbert space of quantum mechanics) and consists in the class of equivalence of any smooth deformations of the pseudo-Riemannian space of general relativity: each element of that class is a wave function and vice versa as well. Thus, quantum mechanics can be considered as a “thermodynamic version” of general relativity, after which the universe is observed as if “outside” (similarly to a phenomenological thermodynamic system observable only “outside” as a whole). The statistical approach to that “phenomenological thermodynamics” of quantum mechanics implies Gibbs classes of equivalence of all states of the universe, furthermore re-presentable in Boltzmann’s manner implying general relativity properly … The meta-lesson is that the historical lesson can serve for future discoveries. (shrink)

Temporal discounting is a technical operation in climate change economics. When discount rates are positive, economic evaluation treats future benefits as less important than equivalent present benefits. This chapter explains and critically evaluates four different reasons economists have given for tying discount rates to the interest rates we observe in real-world markets. I suggest that while philosophers have correctly criticized three of these reasons, their criticisms of the fourth miss the mark. This is because philosophers have not taken heed of (...) the distinct analytical framework in which the fourth reason arises. (shrink)

The predominant approaches to understanding how quantum theory and General Relativity are related to each other implicitly assume that both theories use the same concept of mass. Given that despite great efforts such approaches have not yet produced a consistent falsifiable quantum theory of gravity, this paper entertains the possibility that the concepts of mass in the two theories are in fact distinct. It points out that if the concept of mass in quantum mechanics is defined such that it always (...) exists in a superposition and is not a gravitational source, then this sharply segregates the domains of quantum theory and of general relativity. This concept of mass violates the equivalence principle applied to active gravitational mass, but may still produce effects consistent with the equivalence principle when applied to passive gravitational mass (in agreement with observations) by the correspondence principle applied to a weak field in the appropriate limit. An experiment that successfully measures the gravity field of quantum objects in a superposition, and in particular of photons, would not only falsify this distinction but also constitute the first direct empirical test that gravity must in fact be described fundamentally by a quantum theory. (shrink)

Electromagnetism is usually understood as a theory describing how charged particles and eletromagnetic fields interact. In this paper I argue that a double ontology comprising both particles and fields is problematic. Either we should think of electromagnetism as a theory about charged particles directly interacting with each other, or as theory of fields whose local interactions are manifested as field quanta, called "particles." From a purely theoretical point of view the choice between a particle and a field interpretation does not (...) matter much when it concerns classical electromagnetism; both interpretations are possible and, as shown by Quine, there is a general method for translating a theory about one kind of objects into a theory assuming another kind of objects, provided these theories are empirically equivalent. From an empiricist point of view, however, the particle interpretation is the choice, since some particles are directly observable. Testable predictions of electromagnetism are predictions of the motion of charged bodies, in theory represented as particles, so this must be the empiricists' choice of ontology. In quantum electrodynamics one is however forced to chose a field ontology, since a particle ontology for this theory is impossible. So called "quantum particles" are field quanta, which cannot be treated as individuals making up a domain of quantification. There is thus a tension regarding ontology between classical and quantum electrodynamics. But this tension is nothing else than the much debated measurement problem of quantum mechanics. (shrink)

Over the last two years, the third wave of artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged powerful tools for both artistic expression and scientific research. In design, image generators display an equivalent disruption to text generators, while the medium of text creates the new scope of writing prompts. This contribution discusses the ambivalences between text and image generators via two main theses: first about the potential of prompting and generated images as a medium of discourse; second, it examines the reasoning behind their (...) tendency to be mystified. Prompts can be automated through text generators and used to generate images on a wider scale, making it a praxis in which precise wording becomes crucial for generating anything. Generated images practice a form of mimesis. With Generative Adversial Networks (GANs) producing non-referential images, the discourse of illustration is concerning the obsolescence of authorship. AI is observed to manifest a dual character, serving as both tool and author, even though AI does not own the classification of a person and is not an author in legal terms. The utilization of text and image generators is intertwined with a mythicized notion due to their non-verifiable mode of operation. The myth of AI is a product of its indeterminacy. (shrink)

PREFACE WORD -/- Hilmi Ziya Ülken was born in Istanbul during the last period of the Ottoman Empire, was educated during this period and worked in many areas of the intellectual life of the newly established Republic. Although he was interested in many fields of social sciences, he gained fame in philosophy, sociology, history of thought and literature. Again, he undertook important tasks in revealing and introducing medieval Islamic thinkers and post-Tanzimat Turkish thought, and due to his deep knowledge of (...) Eastern and Western philosophies, he made comparative studies in these fields and tried to reveal the similarities and differences in both cultures. Many graduate studies, book chapters and articles have been written about such an important thinker whose works are also recognized abroad. Among the thinkers of the Republican Era, Ülken is one of the most studied names. In this study, Ülken's biography, his intellectual adventure, his understanding of philosophy and his ideas about the life of thought are discussed panoramically, and the bibliographic information obtained about his articles and other works that have not yet been fully revealed has been added to the study. Another important document added to this study is Ülken's biography written in his own handwriting. Our hope is that with the completion of the information missing in this study, a complete portrait of Ülken will be revealed. When Ülken's works are taken into consideration, it is understood that he wrote works in many fields of social sciences. The fact that he did not concentrate on a certain field but worked in many fields has been a frequently criticized aspect of him. In this sense, we think that the phrase "A Thinker of Mütebahhir", which we wrote as a subtitle to the title of our study, defines him very well. Many names have used the adjective mütebahhir, which means ocean and depth in Ottoman Turkish, about Ülken. While Necati Öner used it in a positive sense, names such as Cemil Meriç (1916-1987) and İsmail Tunalı (1923-2015) used it in a sense that includes negative connotations, such as saying words in every field, his knowledge is unlimited but formless and non-systematic, and Salâh Birsel (1919-1999) wrote on every subject. On the other hand, scholars such as Kurtuluş Kayalı and Ali Utku, who have recently conducted competent studies on Ülken, have emphasized that Ülken - contrary to popular belief - thought and worked within a system and was very sensitive about his system of thought. When Ülken's works are examined in general, it is seen that many of them were formed by turning lecture notes into books, and this situation caused many problems. This situation led to problems such as the disorganization of his works, the lack of a certain systematization, the lack of the necessary methodological sensitivity in footnotes and citations, and the use of some terms in their original language instead of their Turkish equivalents. When we look at the life stories of important thinkers in the history of thought, we observe that they were not only influenced by the social, political, economic, etc. conditions of the period in which they lived, but also that they influenced these conditions in the period in which they lived. The best example of this situation among the thinkers of the early years of the Republic is Ülken. When his works are examined in chronological order, it is noticeable that his ideas constantly changed, that he had to defend the ideas he criticized from time to time, and that he was in a constant search. He explained his works in many fields by saying that he wrote works that would be a source for his own works and that he served as a bridge to the past. The fact that he was a doyen in many fields of social sciences despite having a Mülkiye education can be explained by his self-education. Ülken, who set an example for academics and thinkers with his hard work, diligence, and lifestyle of constantly reading, researching and writing, carried out very important works in his 73 years of life. As Öner, a student of his who knew him closely, says: "In his daily life, Ülken was either reading, writing or philosophizing." Again, Tunalı says about his diligence that "when he was finishing a book, he would have written another book!" It can be said that one of Ülken's efforts was to establish a tradition of sociology and philosophy in Turkey by recognizing the disconnect in our world of thought. Ülken expressed this to his student Necati Öner by saying, "We are a quarter in philosophy, you will be half, and then we will be complete!" While the influence of philosophers and sociologists who came to our country with the educational reforms was quite limited, Ülken succeeded in establishing a tradition in Istanbul Sociology and Ankara Theology. For this reason, important sociologists and philosophers of our country, such as Baykan Sezer (1938-2002) and Kurtuluş Kayalı (born 1949), admitted that "we are students of the Ülken tradition" even though they were not his direct students. Ülken provided an important opening in the social sciences with his methodology that analyzed the problems he dealt with in depth, tried to deal with all aspects of the issues and made synthesis attempts between different ideas. In addition, with the newly established Republic, he made great efforts to collect and translate sources in many fields, especially philosophy, and to carry out activities on a philosophical basis. The fact that his works continued to attract attention in every period after him and were reprinted and read again and again reveals the centrality of his role in the intellectual life of the Republican period. In this study, in which the life, philosophy and thoughts of Hilmi Ziya Ülken, whose valuable contributions to Turkish-Islamic thought are undeniable, have been tried to be presented in general terms, the articles and book chapters I have written about Ülken in various journals and book chapters and whose titles I have given in the bibliography and bibliography section have also been utilized. I hope that this monographic study will make a small contribution to the studies on Ülken, who deserves to be remembered with mercy and gratitude. -/- . (shrink)

Can We Ever See a Chair in its Totality? Synopsis of Chapter Submitted -/- Ayad Gharbawi 2023 Submission - Philosophy – Can we ever see a chair in its totality? Key Words: Metaphysics; Vision; Mind; Unity of Vision; Limitations of Man’s Perception. Word Count: 3,036 Words. Dear Sir/Madam; I hope this email finds you well. -/- My book represents a fundamental break from the conventional methodologies of psychology as it aims to be far more precise in describing the attributes of (...) the various ‘bits’ of the mind, such as – memories, vision, scent, sounds, thoughts, dreams and so on, which, in their turn, as stated, are equivalent to some sub-atomic particle quantum laws. Ultimately the book defines with strict specificity what the ‘I’, the ‘Self’ is in light of the multitudes of attributes of the parts that ultimately compose our mind, or our personality, both directly and indirectly [in other words our public and private ‘faces.’] As per this specific manuscript, I am sending you one chapter from my book – Can we ever see the ‘total’ vision of an object, say, a chair in its totality? -/- In this particular article, we note evidence that no observer can ever see the totality of any observed object because of the infinite number of variables that render it impossible for any human being to see the totality of a chair or of any perceived entity. -/- These ‘variables’ are listed in our manuscript – such as being stationary or not; optical accuracy; the angle from which the observer views the chair; the distance from which the observer views the chair; the fact that no human can see the chair from every position and angle and if the observer is not stationary and/or the chair is not stationary, those variables will also change the image of the perceived entity. -/- These variables are infinite in number which leads one to the conclusion that no perceived entity can ever be seen in its entirety given the innumerable and infinite factors that strictly govern and enforce the limitations of the vision of the observing agent in question. -/- That is of course but one mere fraction of the limitations that the observing agent has to accept. -/- Hence there is no totality of vision as per any object. No entity can ever be seen or ‘known’ in its entirety. -/- The ‘unity’ and reality of any vision of any phenomena and/or object is therefore impossible and that is one more cause why defining ‘reality’ is such a difficult if not an impossible task. -/- Thus, when we ask, ‘What does a chair look like?’ the answer is meaningless. -/- And what are the implications? -/- 1. Reality cannot be defined in any wholesome, unified manner. 2. Even though on a day-to-day basis we believe we know our minds and we see our environments, in truth, humans are severely restricted and limited to what they can know and see in their minds and their surroundings. 3. All we know and see as per our minds and our surroundings are changing discrete quantized snippets and slivers of so-called ‘reality’ – and I put the latter in those terms because reality is not and cannot be a unified, whole entity in any way and in any circumstance. -/- . (shrink)

(...) However, whether we chose a weak or strong approximation, the set would not make any sense at all, if (once more) this choice would not be justified in either temporal or spatial sense or given the context of possible applicability of the set in different circumstances. This would obviously represent a dualism in itself as we would (for instance) posit and apply a full identity-equality-equivalence of x and y when applying Newtonian physics to certain observations we make (it (...) would be the case of neural correlates), and we would posit and apply a non - identity-equality-equivalence of x and y when applying Quantum mechanics to other observations. Following this dualism in and of theories, the same sate would need to be slightly modified: U2:(x~y)∪(x≈y); U3:(x~y)∩(x≈y); U4a:(x~y)⊆(x≈y) vs. U4b:(x~y)⊇(x≈y). (shrink)

The purpose of this essay is to shed some light on a certain type of sentence, which I call a borderline contradiction. A borderline contradiction is a sentence of the form F a ∧ ¬F a, for some vague predicate F and some borderline case a of F , or a sentence equivalent to such a sentence. For example, if Jackie is a borderline case of ‘rich’, then ‘Jackie is rich and Jackie isn’t rich’ is a borderline contradiction. Many theories (...) of vague language have entailments about borderline contradictions; correctly describing the behavior of borderline contradictions is one of the many tasks facing anyone offering a theory of vague language. Here, I first briefly review claims made by various theorists about these borderline contradictions, attempting to draw out some predictions about the behavior of ordinary speakers. Second, I present an experiment intended to gather relevant data about the behavior of ordinary speakers. Finally, I discuss the experimental results in light of several different theories of vagueness, to see what explanations are available. My conclusions are necessarily tentative; I do not attempt to use the present experiment to demonstrate that any single theory is incontrovertibly true. Rather, I try to sketch the auxiliary hypotheses that would need to be conjoined to several extant theories of vague language to predict the present result, and offer some considerations regarding the plausibility of these various hypotheses. In the end, I conclude that two of the theories I consider are better-positioned to account for the observed data than are the others. But the field of logically-informed research on people’s actual responses to vague predicates is young; surely as more data come in we will learn a great deal more about which (if any) of these theories best accounts for the behavior of ordinary speakers. (shrink)

Recent advances in the Super Linguistics of pictures have laid the Super Semantic foundation for modelling the phenomena of narrative sequencing and co-reference in pictorial and mixed linguistic-pictorial discourses. We take up the question of how one arrives at the pragmatic interpretations of such discourses. In particular, we offer an analysis of: (i) the discourse composition problem: how to represent the joint meaning of a multi-picture discourse, (ii) observed differences in narrative sequencing in prima facie equivalent linguistic vs pictorial discourses, (...) and (iii) the phenomenon of co-referencing across pictures. We extend Segmented Discourse Representation Theory to spell out a formal Super Pragmatics that applies to linguistic, pictorial and mixed discourses, while respecting the particular ‘genius’ of either medium and computing their distinctive pragmatic interpretations. (shrink)

The paper considers the symmetries of a bit of information corresponding to one, two or three qubits of quantum information and identifiable as the three basic symmetries of the Standard model, U(1), SU(2), and SU(3) accordingly. They refer to “empty qubits” (or the free variable of quantum information), i.e. those in which no point is chosen (recorded). The choice of a certain point violates those symmetries. It can be represented furthermore as the choice of a privileged reference frame (e.g. that (...) of the Big Bang), which can be described exhaustively by means of 16 numbers (4 for position, 4 for velocity, and 8 for acceleration) independently of time, but in space-time continuum, and still one, 17th number is necessary for the mass of rest of the observer in it. The same 17 numbers describing exhaustively a privileged reference frame thus granted to be “zero”, respectively a certain violation of all the three symmetries of the Standard model or the “record” in a qubit in general, can be represented as 17 elementary wave functions (or classes of wave functions) after the bijection of natural and transfinite natural (ordinal) numbers in Hilbert arithmetic and further identified as those corresponding to the 17 elementary of particles of the Standard model. Two generalizations of the relevant concepts of general relativity are introduced: (1) “discrete reference frame” to the class of all arbitrarily accelerated reference frame constituting a smooth manifold; (2) a still more general principle of relativity to the general principle of relativity, and meaning the conservation of quantum information as to all discrete reference frames as to the smooth manifold of all reference frames of general relativity. Then, the bijective transition from an accelerated reference frame to the 17 elementary wave functions of the Standard model can be interpreted by the still more general principle of relativity as the equivalent redescription of a privileged reference frame: smooth into a discrete one. The conservation of quantum information related to the generalization of the concept of reference frame can be interpreted as restoring the concept of the ether, an absolutely immovable medium and reference frame in Newtonian mechanics, to which the relative motion can be interpreted as an absolute one, or logically: the relations, as properties. The new ether is to consist of qubits (or quantum information). One can track the conceptual pathway of the “ether” from Newtonian mechanics via special relativity, via general relativity, via quantum mechanics to the theory of quantum information (or “quantum mechanics and information”). The identification of entanglement and gravity can be considered also as a ‘byproduct” implied by the transition from the smooth “ether of special and general relativity’ to the “flat” ether of quantum mechanics and information. The qubit ether is out of the “temporal screen” in general and is depicted on it as both matter and energy, both dark and visible. (shrink)

The philosophies of education serve as the guide of the teachers in handling the teaching-learning process. However, a belief will remain as a belief unless it is practiced. This study aimed to find the relationship between the philosophical beliefs and practices of the 30 teachers of the schools in San Roque, Mabini, Bohol - San Roque Elementary School and San Roque National High School, S.Y. 2019-2020. The study utilized a quantitative method descriptive survey research design. The research instrument used was (...) a self-constructed questionnaire in which the reliability was tested by a Cronbach’s Alpha using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software. Simple percentage and weighted mean were some of the statistical treatments used. Kendall’s tau_b, a non-parametric test, was used to determine the correlation between philosophical beliefs and their equivalent pedagogical practices. All of the statistical treatments were also run using the SPSS software. Further, the researcher assured the proper observation of the research ethics protocol. Based on the results, the philosophies of Progressivism (3.63) and Perennialism (3.31) were the most and least prevailing philosophical beliefs, respectively. On the other hand, the most and least prevailing philosophies practiced are Progressivism (3.69) and Essentialism (3.19), respectively. Moreover, research findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between the philosophical beliefs of teachers and their pedagogical practices. In conclusion, this study claims that teachers’ pedagogical practices are dependent to their philosophical beliefs; and as the teachers believed on a particular philosophy of education, they practice it accordingly to the extent of their adherence to the belief. (shrink)

In 'The Reference Book' (2012), Hawthorne and Manley observe the following contrast between (1) and (2): -/- (1) In every race John won. (2) In every race, the colt won. -/- The name 'John' in (1) must intuitively refer to the same single individual for each race. However, the description 'the colt' in (2) has a co-varying reading, i.e. a reading where for each race it refers to a different colt. This observation is a prima facie problem for proponents of (...) so-called The-Predicativism which is the view that the name in (1) is really a covert definite description, viz. 'the John'. If the The-Predicativism is correct, (1) and (2) are therefore syntactically equivalent, but this makes it mysterious why only (2) would have a co-varying reading. In a recent paper, Fara (2015) argues that there is a simple and elegant way for proponents of The-Predicativism to explain this contrast. This explanation relies on discerning some subtle syntactic differences between (1) and (2) which in turn are based on assumptions about nominal restrictions a la Stanley and Szabó (2000). In this short paper, I demonstrate that Fara's proposed explanation has a variety of serious shortcomings and hence that the contrast between (1) and (2) remains a significant problem for Predicativism. (shrink)

This paper is about a topic in the semantics of interrogatives.1 In what follows a number of assumptions figure at the background which, though intuitively appealing, have not gone unchallenged, and it seems therefore only fair to draw the reader’s attention to them at the outset. The first assumption concerns a very global intuition about the kind of semantic objects that we associate with interrogatives. The intuition is that there is an intimate relationship between interrogatives and their answers: an interrogative (...) determines what counts as an answer.2 Given a certain, independently motivated, view on what constitutes the meaning of an answer, this intuition, in return, determines what constitutes the meaning of an interrogative. For example, starting from the observation that answers are true or false in situations, we may be led to the view that answers express propositions, i.e., objects which determine a truth value in a situation. Given that much, our basic intuition says that interrogatives are to be associated with objects which determine propositions. Such objects will be referred to as ‘questions’ in what follows. Notice that all this is largely framework independent: we have made no assumptions yet about what situations, propositions, and questions are, we have only related them in a certain systematic way. In fact we will use a more or less standard, but certainly not uncontroversial, specification in what follows: situations are identified with (total) possible worlds; propositions with sets of worlds; and questions with equivalence relations on the set of worlds. The second assumption that plays a role in what follows is of a more linguistic nature. Interrogatives typically occur in two ways: as independent expressions, and as complements of certain verbs. The assumption is that these two ways of occurring are systematically related, not just syntactically but also semantically.3 Notice that the exact nature of this relationship is underdeter.. (shrink)

When agents know a protocol, this leads them to have expectations about future observations. Agents can update their knowledge by matching their actual observations with the expected ones. They eliminate states where they do not match. In this paper, we study how agents perceive protocols that are not commonly known, and propose a semantics-driven logical framework to reason about knowledge in such scenarios. In particular, we introduce the notion of epistemic expectation models and a propositional dynamic logic-style epistemic logic for (...) reasoning about knowledge via matching agentsÊ expectations to their observations. It is shown how epistemic expectation models can be obtained from epistemic protocols. Furthermore, a characterization is presented of the effective equivalence of epistemic protocols. We introduce a new logic that incorporates updates of protocols and that can model reasoning about knowledge and observations. Finally, the framework is extended to incorporate fact-changing actions, and a worked-out example is given. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. (shrink)

Christian B. Miller has noted a “realism challenge” for virtue ethicists to provide an account of how the character gap between virtuous agents and non-virtuous agents can be bridged. This is precisely one of Han Feizi’s key criticisms against Confucian virtue ethics, as Eric L. Hutton argues, which also cuts across the Aristotelian one: appealing to virtuous agents as ethical models provides the wrong kind of guidance for the development of virtues. Hutton, however, without going into detail, notes that the (...) notion of rituals in the Confucian tradition may be able to sidestep Han Feizi’s criticism. In this essay, I wish to explore not only how the notion of rituals, alongside its corollaries in Xunzi’s Confucian program for ethical cultivation, indeed addresses Han Feizi’s criticism, but also observe that Aristotle’s tragic poetry plays functionally equivalent roles in his own understanding of ethical upbringing. I will begin by considering Han Feizi’s critique of ethical cultivation in virtue ethics as such and how it poses a specific problem for the acquisition of the ‘constitutive reasoning’ shared by Aristotle and Xunzi. I will then briefly note that this problem trades on the synthetic structure of human nature found in both Aristotle and Xunzi (the rational/irrational parts of the soul and the heartmind/five faculties), which grounds the way they understand ethical action and agency. Finally, I will suggest how both Aristotle and Xunzi understand the role of the arts in their extensive programme of ethical cultivation, allowing them to respond to Han Feizi’s attack as too narrow a construal of their respective ethical projects. It is hoped that, through this, we may gain a better sense of how more recent virtue ethicists may similarly draw on aesthetic resources for ethical development. (shrink)

Light increment thresholds were measured on either side of one of the illusory contours of a white-on-black Kanizsa square and on the illusory contour itself. The data show that thresholds are elevated when measured on either side of the illusory border. These elevations diminish with increasing distance of the target spot from the white elements which induce the illusory figure. The most striking result, however, is that threshold elevations are considerably lower or even absent when the target is located on (...) the illusory contour itself. At an equivalent position in a control figure where no illusory contour is visible, such a threshold decrease does not occur. The present observations add empirical support to neural theories of illusory form perception. (shrink)

Background: how mind functions is subject to continuing scientific discussion. A simplistic approach says that, since no convincing way has been found to model subjective experience, mind cannot exist. A second holds that, since mind cannot be described by classical physics, it must be described by quantum physics. Another perspective concerns mind's hypothesized ability to interact with the world of quanta: it should be responsible for reduction of quantum wave packets; physics producing 'Objective Reduction' is postulated to form the basis (...) for mind-matter interactions. This presentation describes results derived from a new approach to these problems. It is based on well-established biology involving physics not previously applied to the fields of mind, or consciousness studies, that of critical feedback instability. -/- Methods: 'self-organized criticality' in complexity biology places system loci of control at critical instabilities, physical properties of which, including information properties, are presented. Their elucidation shows that they can model hitherto unexplained properties of experience. -/- Results: All results depend on physical properties of critical instabilities. First, at least one feed-back or feed-forward loop must have feedback gain, g = 1: information flows round the loop impress perfect images of system states back on themselves: they represent processes of perfect self-observation. This annihilates system quanta: system excitations are instability fluctuations, which cannot be quantized. Major results follow: -/- 1. Information vectors representing criticality states must include at least one attached information loop denoting self-observation. -/- 2. Such loop structures are attributed a function, 'registering the state's own existence', explaining -/- a. Subjective 'awareness of one's own presence' -/- b. How content-free states of awareness can be remembered (Jon Shear) -/- c. Subjective experience of time duration (Immanuel Kant) -/- d. The 'witness' property of experience – often mentioned by athletes 'in the zone' -/- e. The natural association between consciousness and intelligence -/- This novel, physically and biologically sound approach seems to satisfactorily model subjectivity. -/- Further significant results follow: -/- 1. Registration of external information in excited states of systems at criticality reduces external wave-packets: the new model exhibits 'Objective Reduction' of wave packets. -/- 2. High internal coherence (postulated by Domash & Penrose) leading to a. Non-separable information vector bundles. b. Non-reductive states (Chalmers's criterion for experience). -/- 3. Information that is: a. encoded in coherence negentropy; b. non-digitizable, and therefore c. computationally without digital equivalent (posited by Penrose). -/- Discussion and Conclusions: instability physics implies anharmonic motion, preventing excitation quantization, and totally different from the quantum physics of simple harmonic motion at stability. Instability excitations are different from anything hitherto conceived in information science. They can model aspects of mind never previously treated, including genuine subjectivity, objective reduction of wave-packets, and inter alia all properties given above. (shrink)

The paper discusses the origin of dark matter and dark energy from the concepts of time and the totality in the final analysis. Though both seem to be rather philosophical, nonetheless they are postulated axiomatically and interpreted physically, and the corresponding philosophical transcendentalism serves heuristically. The exposition of the article means to outline the “forest for the trees”, however, in an absolutely rigorous mathematical way, which to be explicated in detail in a future paper. The “two deductions” are two successive (...) stage of a single conclusion mentioned above. The concept of “transcendental invariance” meaning ontologically and physically interpreting the mathematical equivalence of the axiom of choice and the well-ordering “theorem” is utilized again. Then, time arrow is a corollary from that transcendental invariance, and in turn, it implies quantum information conservation as the Noether correlate of the linear “increase of time” after time arrow. Quantum information conservation implies a few fundamental corollaries such as the “conservation of energy conservation” in quantum mechanics from reasons quite different from those in classical mechanics and physics as well as the “absence of hidden variables” (versus Einstein’s conjecture) in it. However, the paper is concentrated only into the inference of another corollary from quantum information conservation, namely, dark matter and dark energy being due to entanglement, and thus and in the final analysis, to the conservation of quantum information, however observed experimentally only on the “cognitive screen” of “Mach’s principle” in Einstein’s general relativity. therefore excluding any other source of gravitational field than mass and gravity. Then, if quantum information by itself would generate a certain nonzero gravitational field, it will be depicted on the same screen as certain masses and energies distributed in space-time, and most presumably, observable as those dark energy and dark matter predominating in the universe as about 96% of its energy and matter quite unexpectedly for physics and the scientific worldview nowadays. Besides on the cognitive screen of general relativity, entanglement is available necessarily on still one “cognitive screen” (namely, that of quantum mechanics), being furthermore “flat”. Most probably, that projection is confinement, a mysterious and ad hoc added interaction along with the fundamental tree ones of the Standard model being even inconsistent to them conceptually, as far as it need differ the local space from the global space being definable only as a relation between them (similar to entanglement). So, entanglement is able to link the gravity of general relativity to the confinement of the Standard model as its projections of the “cognitive screens” of those two fundamental physical theories. (shrink)

Heidegger's philosophical project is generally seen as atheoretical and anti-logical because he remarked on the subjective conditions of knowledge and the everydayness of human behaviors. To him, Dasein's everyday reasoning is coercively and inevitably framed by the present-at-hand modes of understanding. Heidegger alerts us about the possible origins of present-at-hand modes of everyday experience. One of them is Das Man that, is associated with a categorical otherness for Heidegger. It can be regarded as an origin of the primordial scheme of (...) experiences for Dasein that takes those experiences for granted as an axiological ground for their lives in the World. Heidegger sees that process as an inauthentic condition for Dasein's fundamental character. Everyday reasoning generates a variety of present-at-hand instruments to understand and interpret the World and Dasein itself; thus, Dasein moves between Das Man and authentic modes. With a Heideggerian approach, this article observes how the characters in the film Druk take themselves out of Das Man and go into the authentic mode and how they do this through alcohol. The primary data source is Druk and the four teacher characters in the film. In the movie, alcohol is not a ready- to-hand object but a tool motivating its users and pushing them to perform. It is an example equivalent to the Heideggerian analogy of the hammer. The movie is a well-fitting example of the Heideggerian position with the story of four teachers who experiment with having a certain amount of alcohol in their blood to achieve a better version of themselves. (shrink)

In one of their papers, Michael De and Hitoshi Omori observed that the notion of classical negation is not uniquely determined in the context of so-called Belnap-Dunn logic, and in fact there are 16 unary operations that qualify to be called classical negation. These varieties are due to different falsity conditions one may assume for classical negation. The aim of this paper is to observe that there is an interesting way to make sense of classical negation independent of falsity conditions. (...) We discuss two equivalent semantics, and offer a Hilbert-style system that is sound and complete with respect to the semantics. (shrink)

The present essay addresses the epistemic difficulties involved in achieving consensus with respect to the Hayek–Keynes debate. It is argued that the empirical implications of the relevant theories are such that, regardless of what is observed, both theories can be interpreted as true, or at least, as not falsified. The essay explicates the respects in which the empirical evidence underdetermines the choice between the relevant theories. In particular, it is argued both that there are convenient responses that protect each theory (...) from what appears to be threatening evidence and that, for particular kinds of evidence, the two theories are empirically equivalent. Larry Laudan's suggestion that ampliative methodological criteria can resolve an underdetermined choice between multiple scientific theories is considered and rejected as a possible means to rational consensus. (shrink)

Contemporary philosopher Jacques Rancière has been criticized for a conception of “politics” that is insensitive to the diminished agency of the corporeally oppressed. In a recent article, Dana Mills locates a solution to this alleged problem in Rancière most recent book translated into English, Aisthesis, in its chapter on Mallarmé’s writings on modern dancer Loïe Fuller. My first section argues that Mills’ reading exacerbates an “homonymy” (Rancière’s term) in Rancière’s use of the word “inscription,” which means for him either a (...) vicious literal carving on living bodies, or else a virtuous figurative carving on nonliving bodies. The former, I call “bodily carving,” while the latter is the “corporeal writing” that I take Mallarmé to affirm in Fuller. My second section observes that Rancière himself misses a homonymy in Mallarmé on Fuller, namely “dance,” meaning either “ballet” or dance in general (including Fuller’s). My third section concludes that Rancière’s chapter on Fuller includes another “dance” homonymy, meaning either “concert dance” or what I term a new “art of meta-movement” in Fuller. The latter art, I conclude, is equivalent to Mallarmé’s “corporeal writing,” and can be understood as a new form of dance education, in pursuit of a new utopia of worker-dancers. (shrink)

A model-theoretic realist account of science places linguistic systems and their corresponding non-linguistic structures at different stages or different levels of abstraction of the scientific process. Apart from the obvious problem of underdetermination of theories by data, philosophers of science are also faced with the inverse (and very real) problem of overdetermination of theories by their empirical models, which is what this article will focus on. I acknowledge the contingency of the factors determining the nature – and choice – of (...) a certain model at a certain time, but in my terms, this is a matter about which we can talk and whose structure we can formalise. In this article a mechanism for tracing "empirical choices" and their particularized observational-theoretical entanglements will be offered in the form of Yoav Shoham's version of non-monotonic logic. Such an analysis of the structure of scientific theories may clarify the motivations underlying choices in favor of certain empirical models (and not others) in a way that shows that "disentangling" theoretical and observation terms is more deeply model-specific than theory-specific. This kind of analysis offers a method for getting an articulable grip on the overdetermination of theories by their models – implied by empirical equivalence – which Kuipers' structuralist analysis of the structure of theories does not offer. (shrink)

Although the Greek language of the archaic period lacked nominative expressions equivalent to the English “knowledge”, Greek speakers and writers employed a number of verbs in speaking of those who fail or succeed in knowing some fact, truth, state of affairs, or area of expertise—most commonly eidenai, gignôskein, epistamai, sunienai, and noein (in its aorist forms). In the Homeric poems, knowledge can be attained either through direct observation, through a revelatory trial or testing procedure, or from the reliable testimony of (...) others (each of these approaches figures in the discovery of Odysseus’ identity). Three broad ‘epistemic sentiments’ pervade early Greek poetry: the inability of mortals to grasp the nature of things lying beyond their immediate experience; the inability of mortals to grasp the larger course of events or ‘conceiving of what lies ahead and behind’ (prossô kai opissô); and the ability of ‘gifted’ poets and seers to overcome these limitations by drawing upon divine sources of truth and wisdom. (shrink)

Arguments pro and contra convergent realism – underdetermination of theory by observational evidence and pessimistic meta-induction from past falsity – are considered. It is argued that, to meet the counter-arguments challenge, convergent realism should be considerably changed with a help of modification of the propositions from this meta-programme “hard core” or “protecting belt”. Two well-known convergent realism rivals – “entity realism” of Nancy Cartwright and Ian Hacking and John Worrall’s “structural realism” – are considered. Entity realism’s main drawback is (...) fundamental laws underestimation. As for structural realism, its limitation of theoretical propositions by pure structural ones is ineffective. One always can transform propositions about objects into propositions about structures and vice versa. Both conceptions are kinds of “metaphysical revisionism” that tries to reformulate the good old convergent realism propositions using more decent language and applying ad hoc modifications of the solutions first obtained within the anti-realist epistemological meta-programmes. It is stated that to overcome the troubles of convergent realism one has to turn from classical or “metaphysical” realism to nonclassical or “internal” one and to coherent theory of truth. Internal realism has no troubles in solving the problem of empirically-equivalent theoretical descriptions and historical meta-induction problem, but gets the problem of scientific knowledge objectivity instead. Where does this objectivity come from? One of the answers is proposed by the scientific knowledge growth model elaborated by Rinat Nugayev and by Peter Galison. Each paradigm is a local viewpoint determined by the peculiarities of a culture into which its creator . was submerged. However, the meeting of the different paradigms leads to their interaction; as a result, the crossbred theoretical objects are constructed. Through these systems the infiltration of one paradigm on the other’s domain takes place. After the old paradigms’ grinding the new ones emerge that reconcile to each other much better than the old ones. Scientific theories reconcile results in elimination of many contingent details. In the process of competition more universal components survive. It is demonstrated that the process of objective knowledge genesis takes place in modern superstring theory too. The list of its drawbacks is rather long; it is clear that the theory cannot pretend on the role of the Theory of Everything. Nevertheless the process of argumentation pro and contra convergent realism – underdetermination of theory by observational evidence and pessimistic meta-induction from past falsity – are considered. It is argued that, to meet the counter-arguments challenge, convergent realism should be considerably changed with a help of modification of the propositions from this meta-programme “hard core” or “protecting belt”. It is stated that to overcome the troubles of convergent realism one has to turn from classical or “metaphysic” of quantum field theory and general relativity interpenetration have already begun. (shrink)

Non-commuting quantities and hidden parameters – Wave-corpuscular dualism and hidden parameters – Local or nonlocal hidden parameters – Phase space in quantum mechanics – Weyl, Wigner, and Moyal – Von Neumann’s theorem about the absence of hidden parameters in quantum mechanics and Hermann – Bell’s objection – Quantum-mechanical and mathematical incommeasurability – Kochen – Specker’s idea about their equivalence – The notion of partial algebra – Embeddability of a qubit into a bit – Quantum computer is not Turing machine (...) – Is continuality universal? – Diffeomorphism and velocity – Einstein’s general principle of relativity – „Mach’s principle“ – The Skolemian relativity of the discrete and the continuous – The counterexample in § 6 of their paper – About the classical tautology which is untrue being replaced by the statements about commeasurable quantum-mechanical quantities – Logical hidden parameters – The undecidability of the hypothesis about hidden parameters – Wigner’s work and и Weyl’s previous one – Lie groups, representations, and psi-function – From a qualitative to a quantitative expression of relativity − psi-function, or the discrete by the random – Bartlett’s approach − psi-function as the characteristic function of random quantity – Discrete and/ or continual description – Quantity and its “digitalized projection“ – The idea of „velocity−probability“ – The notion of probability and the light speed postulate – Generalized probability and its physical interpretation – A quantum description of macro-world – The period of the as-sociated de Broglie wave and the length of now – Causality equivalently replaced by chance – The philosophy of quantum information and religion – Einstein’s thesis about “the consubstantiality of inertia ant weight“ – Again about the interpretation of complex velocity – The speed of time – Newton’s law of inertia and Lagrange’s formulation of mechanics – Force and effect – The theory of tachyons and general relativity – Riesz’s representation theorem – The notion of covariant world line – Encoding a world line by psi-function – Spacetime and qubit − psi-function by qubits – About the physical interpretation of both the complex axes of a qubit – The interpretation of the self-adjoint operators components – The world line of an arbitrary quantity – The invariance of the physical laws towards quantum object and apparatus – Hilbert space and that of Minkowski – The relationship between the coefficients of -function and the qubits – World line = psi-function + self-adjoint operator – Reality and description – Does a „curved“ Hilbert space exist? – The axiom of choice, or when is possible a flattening of Hilbert space? – But why not to flatten also pseudo-Riemannian space? – The commutator of conjugate quantities – Relative mass – The strokes of self-movement and its philosophical interpretation – The self-perfection of the universe – The generalization of quantity in quantum physics – An analogy of the Feynman formalism – Feynman and many-world interpretation – The psi-function of various objects – Countable and uncountable basis – Generalized continuum and arithmetization – Field and entanglement – Function as coding – The idea of „curved“ Descartes product – The environment of a function – Another view to the notion of velocity-probability – Reality and description – Hilbert space as a model both of object and description – The notion of holistic logic – Physical quantity as the information about it – Cross-temporal correlations – The forecasting of future – Description in separable and inseparable Hilbert space – „Forces“ or „miracles“ – Velocity or time – The notion of non-finite set – Dasein or Dazeit – The trajectory of the whole – Ontological and onto-theological difference – An analogy of the Feynman and many-world interpretation − psi-function as physical quantity – Things in the world and instances in time – The generation of the physi-cal by mathematical – The generalized notion of observer – Subjective or objective probability – Energy as the change of probability per the unite of time – The generalized principle of least action from a new view-point – The exception of two dimensions and Fermat’s last theorem. (shrink)

The paper addresses Leon Hen.kin's proposition as a " lighthouse", which can elucidate a vast territory of knowledge uniformly: logic, set theory, information theory, and quantum mechanics: Two strategies to infinity are equally relevant for it is as universal and t hus complete as open and thus incomplete. Henkin's, Godel's, Robert Jeroslow's, and Hartley Rogers' proposition are reformulated so that both completeness and incompleteness to be unified and thus reduced as a joint property of infinity and of all infinite sets. (...) However, only Henkin's proposition equivalent to an internal position to infinity is consistent . This can be retraced back to set theory and its axioms, where that of choice is a key. Quantum mechanics is forced to introduce infinity implicitly by Hilbert space, on which is founded its formalism. One can demonstrate that some essential properties of quantum information, entanglement, and quantum computer originate directly from infinity once it is involved in quantum mechanics. Thus, these phenomena can be elucidated as both complete and incomplete, after which choice is the border between them. A special kind of invariance to the axiom of choice shared by quantum mechanics is discussed to be involved that border between the completeness and incompleteness of infinity in a consistent way. The so-called paradox of Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen is interpreted entirely in the same terms only of set theory. Quantum computer can demonstrate especially clearly the privilege of the internal position, or " observer'' , or "user" to infinity implied by Henkin's proposition as the only consistent ones as to infinity. An essential area of contemporary knowledge may be synthesized from a single viewpoint. (shrink)

Architecture and Deconstruction Case of Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi -/- Introduction Towards deconstruction in architecture Intensive relations between philosophical deconstruction and architecture, which were present in the late 1980s and early 1990s, belong to the past and therefore may be described from a greater than before distance. Within these relations three basic variations can be distinguished: the first one, in which philosophy of deconstruction deals with architectural terms but does not interfere with real architecture, the second one, in which (...) a collaboration between Jacques Derrida and a group of architects interested in his concepts is commenced, and the third one, in which completed or only designed objects or new concepts of deconstruction created by architects gain their supremacy over philosophy. The following book analyses these three possible ways, first of all with the reference to Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi. -/- Peter Eisenman -/- Misreading… and Other Errors -/- The issue of relations between Peter Eisenman’s work and philosophy of deconstruction may be referred to his activity more than ten years preceding his direct collaboration with Jacques Derrida (in 1985) and organisation of the exhibition Deconstructivist Architecture at Museum of Modern Art in New York (in 1988). As soon as at the stage of designing the first houses (House I-III, 1967-1970), which almost entirely inscribed in formalistic aesthetics of Modernism, the architect analysed the problem of architecture dependence on its assumptions. All his later designs may be treated as consequence of this initial interest in relations between practice and theory, and at the same time as an introduction to manipulations later on led at the level of metaphysics of architecture. Beginning with the issue of presence, considered in comments to House VI (1972), the number of ideas having their analogies in philosophy of deconstruction increased. The text entitled The End of the Classical: The End of the Beginning, The End of the End (1984), in which Eisenman criticised questions of representation in architecture, its delusive strive for truth and comparably unattainable attempts at ultimate definition of elementary rules, should be acclaimed the breaking point. This attitude was extended by numerous strategies disturbing architecture rules defined at metaphysical level in an essay Moving Arrows, Eros, and Other Errors: an Architecture of Absence (1986). The issue of Eisenman’s passage from formalism to deconstruction has already been much discussed in the literature (Rosalind Krauss, Thomas Patin among others), still it should be mentioned that the threads similar to Derrida’s concept included in Eisenman’s writing reveal untranslatability of architecture and philosophy. -/- Choral Works or Separate tricks -/- In 1985-1986 a series of seven disputes between Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman took place. The pretext for them were designs concerning Parc de la Villette in Paris. The situation of many months of collaboration between a notable philosopher of the second half of the 20th c. and an architect that already had a huge theoretical oeuvre, ended up with a publication of a large volume entitled Chora L Works and it became at the same time a vast study area for historians of contemporary architecture and philosophers. Derrida’s contribution to concept works were his considerations over the idea of chôra, the properties related to this concept were about to be reflected in shapes of the park. Therefore, Chora L Works became an example of the abilities of contemporary art, both in its capability of translation from philosophical ideas to artistic forms and its resistance to tradition of representing in architecture some phenomena and values originating outside this discipline. In the final period of their collaboration both interlocutors started to polemicise with each other more decidedly, what became a separate part of their thought exchange. The exchange of letters between Derrida and Eisenman at the turn of 1989 ended up the period of their direct contacts, nevertheless, at this time precisely a large group of experts in issues of deconstruction joined the discussion and extended the revealed in the former dispute problems into more than ten years of further considerations and publications. Except for a long text by Jeffrey Kipnis, who had participated in the meetings of the philosopher and the architect, there appeared also comments of researchers of artistic theories (K. Michael Hays, Thomas Patin), philosophers (Andrew Benjamin), and even experts in Greek literature (Maria Theodorou or Ann Bergren). Following these debates a contemporary reflection on architecture has saturated with indeed numerous concepts originating in philosophy of deconstruction. -/- Architecture which imitates mute philosophy -/- The series of Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman meetings, which took place in the period of 1985-1987, induced many authors to make comments. Some of them (Jeffrey Kipnis, Ann Bergren, Maria Theodorou) developed the subject of chôra which was introduced to the discussion by Derrida. The problem that was about to be solved was the question of tying up the concept of chôra with architecture, including Eisenman’s architecture and the series of meetings within frames of Chora L Works project. Kipnis on this occasion paid attention to chôra and its character of anachronia which infects any being created within chôra. In other words any event has its counterpart (analogon) in another, earlier event. He demonstrated the similarity of structure of many events and statements from the times of Derrida and Eisenman’s meetings to the almost identical behaviour of figures in Plato’s dialogue Timaeus. The loss of beginning present in this phenomenon was appropriate to both features of chôra and the effects of typical analyses of philosophy of deconstruction. Bergren’s analyses focused on accentuating gender of chôra, which, according to this author, had been neglected hitherto in discussions. She collated chôra descriptions with characteristics of women in myths, early Greek epic and philosophy and she arrived at a conclusion that chôra has features of a single woman and a married one at the same time. And yet Theodorou’s studies showed that in the Homeric epics chôra is not treated as an idea but is related with single things and events. The other part of the comments (represented by Andrew Benjamin and K. Michael Hays’ utterances) concerns Eisenman’s attitude to tradition which was treated as a variety of iteration understood philosophically. Benjamin commenced his considerations at the point of closeness between a definition of tradition and a concept of chôra understood as perpetuation (placement). A problematic issue was for him Eisenman’s complex relation to tradition based on its contest and affirmation at the same time. Overcoming the simple subordination to tradition – according to Benjamin – was based on awareness of the role of repetition in culture not known before. Hays made an attempt to explain the pleasure and torment of repetition with the support of Sigmund Freud and Roland Barthes’ concepts. According to Hays repetitions are attempts of a single being to a certain primal state perceived as free of any tension. In a similar way Rosalind Krauss explained a motif of a grate present in Modernistic art and also exceptionally frequent in Eisenman’s work. -/- Annex Architecture is still writing Balzac novels. Peter Eisenman and literature -/- Architecture’s approach to writing, script or literature, present within Peter Eisenman’s work, is an exceptional phenomenon, furthermore a complex one. The article considers four possible relations. The first one relates to Eisenman’s characteristics as a person extremely gifted with the ability to wordplay, which very ‘play’ reveals skills to create architectural images. In the second approach the attention has been paid to Eisenman’s interests – in the first period of his oeuvre – in linguistic works by Noam Chomsky and his transformational-generative grammar. The third kind of relations applied to overcoming the need for autonomy of architecture (and of modernist aesthetics at the same time) and renew interests in questions of meaning in architecture. The fourth sort of relations occurred when Eisenman started to create reflections of historic or literary narrations in architecture – ‘stone stories’ and architectural fictions of their kind. -/- Bernard Tschumi -/- From perversion to deconstruction In Bernard Tschumi’s writings from the 1970s and 1980s we can find a transposition of important threads of post-structuralist ideas deriving from Georges Bataille, Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida’s works. The analysis of the architect’s writings also shows roots in Phillippe Sollers, Michel Foucault and Denis Hollier’s works. The analysis of borrowed elements from the beginnings of Tschumi’s theoretical activity may be helpful in explaining the contents of his later writings motre inspired by philosophy of deconstruction. The set of his earliest views was inspired by Marxism, Neo Marxism and French Structuralism, mainly by the writings of Henri Levebre and Guy Debord. From the thought of Levebre Tschumi took interest for city as not only a question of urbanistics but also a political issue. From Debord’s concepts he borrowed a conviction about the role of situational violation for changes in the society structure. Some of these beliefs were preserved in his own concepts of architecture as an event. From this period derived also his will to change conservative elements of social structure not by means of political revolution but of theoretical and creative activity. Tschumi acknowledged that the effective way of the proceedings towards achieving his aims would be accepting the role of both a critical intellectualist and architecture expert who would not hide away his left-wing orientation. The speculations defined by the architect as ‘revolting analyses’ were about to characterise contradictions which tear the society apart, penetrate architecture and constitute the basis of culture. Spreading away of the conscience of false assumptions hidden away in various disciplines could have weakened cohesion of a conservative society and influence the will to change among the elites. This way the beginnings of political revolution were rooted in philosophy of architecture. In 1977 Tschumi published his text entitled The Pleasure of Architecture inspired by Roland Barthes’s The Pleasure of the Text, it also included some concepts derived from Georges Bataille and Jacques Derrida. First of all the author used Barthes’s concept which made an assumption that literary activity is pervaded by the spirit of resistance towards social rules, and Tschudi transferred this remark onto architecture. From the ideas of Bataille, acquainted via Holier’s work, he derived his belief that two concepts of space, a conceptual one (defined as Pyramid) and a sensual one (defined as Labirynth), not losing their distinct features, they join in the concept of experienced space which exceeds contradictions. The exceeding itself was defined as the basic rule of architecture and it was referred to situations in which architecture not only negates social needs, but also disavows its own tradition. Crossing the borders applies not only to political issues or permanent rules of the very discipline but also interfering with other fields (especially literature and film). The fact that architecture is associated with organising events turned Tschumi’s attention to questions of violence that result from upsetting architectural order of a given building by its users and the one hand, and on the other from forcing the users to specific acts imposed by this very order. The analysis of the concepts used by Tschumi in his early writings indicates that they are close to definitions that would occur in his reflection in the following years influenced by philosophy of deconstruction. -/- Approaching deconstruction Tschumi in his theories developed in the 1980s presumed that the current social world had undergone a deep process of decay, and the reaction against which ought to be based on ordering-up actions, and also preserving the main outline of disintegration of the whole and its elements in the state of conflict. The statements concerning the nature of the contemporary to Tschumi social relations were applied by him to the world of architecture, this led him to coming up with designing strategies that took into consideration the destabilised character of conditions in which works of architecture were created. New ways of conduct invented by Tschumi drew their inspiration from literature and research on literature, psychoanalysis, structural linguistics, structuralism and post structuralism, and eventually also deconstruction philosophy. The proposed methods were opposed by their author both to functionalism continuity trends and postmodern architecture. Tschumi’s proposals contradicted any forms of conservatism or traditionalism in political sphere as well as in reference to tendencies in architecture. They were not simple contradictions of social or architectural rules, they intrude them from the inside, weaken or escalate the already existing incongruities, they move the boundaries between the areas. Revolutionary illusions about the possibility of radical changes were replaced with strategies which completed, tainted or test former rules in the series of formal games of permutation and combination. Quite different from avant-garde formalism Tschumi’s games were not about maintaining the autonomy of a given area, but on the contrary – polluting it with other areas’ influences. Tschumi enjoyed demonstrating illusions of architecture concerning simple relations between form and function, or between form and meaning. Making use of Freud, Lacan and Foucault’s research he introduced a category of “madness” into architecture allowing an observation that the recognised norms are nothing but merely ones of many possible principles of behaviour, and their recognised status resulted from unjustified hindering innovativeness which is crucial for architecture. To reborn architecture’s capability of changing Tschumi also made use of Barthes’s discoveries concerning rules of narration and works by writers who applied in their writing knowledge on linguistics. Making a work’s author unclear by various mechanical transformations of its elements was however apparent only, and formal rigours imposed on the process of designing liberated possibilities difficult to obtain in more traditional creative action. Another mode of acting introduced by Tschumi was combining his work of elements deriving from outside architecture; joining space records with notation of motion and events accompanying architectural objects among others. These architectural and extra-architectural elements were not unified, on the contrary their heterogenous and conflictual character was stressed. This is how shock, anxiety and instability, typical for live in great metropolises, infiltrated architecture. Taking some ideas of deconstruction philosophy as a pattern Tschumi also took into critical consideration in his essays traditional in architecture oppositions between form and figuration, or theory and practice. By combining various inspirations he eventually worked out an idea of architectural event, which he understood as a series of actions contesting its own field, redefining its sources, principles and elements. An event, understood in this way, was not so much producing works as rather creating conditions of their production and at the same time designing the society different from a hierarchic one. -/- Park of deconstruction Among numerous philosophical strategies of deconstruction most frequently used was questioning the practice of strong opposition of two reasons. In many cases Bernard Tschumi’s writings just consider functioning of the conflict juxtaposition of the ideas of structure and ornament or theory and practice in history of architecture. Violation of traditional relations between terms of this kind, both old and modern, raised Jacques Derrida’s objections, when he was induced for the first time to co-operate with architects’ milieu. During this long lasting thought exchange the philosopher eventually acknowledged Bernard Tschumi’s arguments for reasoning the encroachment of architecture’s fundamental rules. Deconstruction applied in architecture was not a simple transposition or analogy of practices that had been applied by philosophy of deconstruction. We may even say that considering architectural terms became an important formula of deconstruction. Architecture understood in philosophical way became something beyond the practice and theory of its own discipline, a sort of metaphysics of both philosophy and architecture. The deliberate encroachment of simplicity of dividing architecture into theory and practice, for the first time became a clear aim for Tschumi in his drawings and texts entitled The Manhattan Transcripts. The contents of this series of works was a record of characteristic features of this New York district in such a way that not only objects were the subject of the record but also relations between objects, people and events. The record was about to take into consideration a conflict character of elements of this representation and at the same time to avoid applying to them the rule of mimetism. The record became a form of reflection over the very record by an increased control over the ways of representation. Architecture which was considered in the The Manhattan Transcripts was not directed to fulfill the needs of inhabitation or production, it was rather related with hitherto usually marginalised liminal situations: building ostentatiously big monuments, religious cult, war etc. Architecture operating in these relations focused also the attention on the included in it continuous tendency to overpass its own restrictions, the role of violence as its not recognised factor, or the meaning of excess and shock in its operation. Architecture moving from reason towards madness became even more visible in the design of Parisian Parc de la Villette, whose pavilions were defined as folies (in French it means both small park buildings and follies). The park was supposed to be on the one hand a reflection of traditional society disintegration while on the other it questioned basic rules of producing a work of architecture. The traditional rules of designing, based on ordering up, were replaced with the strategies of dysfunction and dissociation. In Tschumi’s opinion methods of this kind may be equivalent of what Derrida named différance. Instead of aiming at mergence, any diversity, plays or variations were strengthen. Tschumi’s texts, in which he explained his attitude, were completed by Derrida’s extent statement entitled Point de folie – Maintenant l’architecture. Derrida’s article is the most significant of all his statements on architecture as a form of thinking and activity. According to the philosopher, architecture should divide space (in French defined as espacement), what enables both thinking and action – it arranges the space of an event. Tschumi’s buildings, defined as folies, in an essential way destabilise any created order, and at the same time they refresh it. Derrida’s statement suggests that architecture may become both metaphor of an order merging a language or a society but also of inner forces which deconstruct and reconstruct it. Therefore architecture is at the same time a construction, a deconstruction and a reconstruction. Parc de la Villette stands out in this system with its attempt to step beyond the scheme of an easy repetition and its heading for chances of achieving more radical otherness. -/- Conclusion Destruction as construction. Paradoxes of deconstruction in architecture -/- Scepticism about persistence and common importance of fundamental values of human culture evinced in philosophers and writers’ works as early as in Greek antiquity, nevertheless it was not expressed so strongly as in the second half of the 20th century. Especially in Heidegger’s work Being and Time (although originated in 1927, still influential in all later philosophy) the following states were characterised: the state of losing the ground (Abgrund), of being out of sight (Unheimlichkeit) and of being out of dwelling (Un-zuhause-sein) – as the basis of self-confidence of conscious being there (Dasein). The entire criticism of philosophy of home and dwelling draws the inspiration from this early writing of the German philosopher, it combines crisis of basic terms of metaphysics with social conditions which are dictated by living in large metropolis. The crisis of both metaphysical foundation and home appears to be similar to the situation of weakening the relations between a man and his dwelling in extensively expanding cities. Whereas philosophy, as well as many disciplines of social sciences, have diagnosed for a long time the destabilisation of fundamental ideas of Western culture and crucial changes in the ways of dwelling, architecture itself occurred to be “the last fortress of metaphysics” (J. Derrida). Among contemporary architects, Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi were the ones who engaged most decidedly in the issues of critical analysis of architecture foundation and its social role. Both the architects noticed new formulas of contemporary social and individual existence, tremendously different from the entire history, and at the same time they affirmed lack of adequacy of architecture concepts to new situations. Both Eisenman and Tschumi used to describe the existing architecture as a tool for consolidation of highly integrated and hierarchised societies, and also as a discipline extremely uncoincidental with the current character of social life based on ideas of freedom and diversity. The means to transform architecture and make a factor of further social changes out of it, was a concept that accentuated revealing the inner contradictions of this discipline, and considering them in designing strategies. Eisenman’s activity, in regard of what has just been noticed, was focused on questioning the basic rules of traditionally comprehended architecture, especially the rule of purpose. The American architect noticed that the concept of architecture as fulfilment the need of location, hides away the fact that the location has to be constantly reconsidered, and hence it is overtaken by change (dislocation). Therefore new concept of architecture propounded architectural activity to translocate the concept of location – more than before – but also to change its status perpetually. Such comprehended architecture should claim, as its main purpose, the constant revision of this purpose and create itself anew permanently. Even Eisenman’s earliest designs of houses nos. I-IV broke with such values as the sense of safety, closeness and familiarity, and just on the contrary they accentuated senses of strangeness, homelessness and loss of confidence. The contradictions within architecture noticed by Tschumi referred to combination of intellectual and sensual values in architecture, when their non-appropriation was defeated by an additional condition, namely the way of experience based on pleasure of excess, marked by insanity. The features of folly were especially visible in his designs of gardens, where the order of planning was mixed with sensual experience introduced by particular elements (both the ones created by nature, and the buildings defined as folies). Parc de la Villette designed by the French architect in Paris put in question not only the common understanding of purpose in architecture but also the ideas of order and integrity, as its plan was based on the combination of independent layers with records of grids of points, various lines and planes. The architecture that collides inadequate elements with each other was supposed to be a kind of an event with no beginning and no end. The architecture treated as an event became a form of a space weakened articulation that maintains its diversity and lack of accordance of the elements building it up. The analyses of Eisenman and Tschumi’s theoretical writings indicate how much the aims of architecture have actually changed; instead of supporting social persistence, the architecture is rather intensifying contradictions, and instead of providing people with the sense of safety, it sublimes danger. From simple acts of defamiliarisation, increasing the distance to itself and enhancing the role of theory, through discomfort, anxiety, not feeling someone at home, weirdness, excess, shock and violence, architecture reached the edge of stability and uncertainty, only to make an attempt at penetrating what is impossible and unutterable, and recording what cannot become the subject of any records. -/- . (shrink)

We investigate the validity of the field explanation of the wave function by analyzing the mass and charge density distributions of a quantum system. It is argued that a charged quantum system has effective mass and charge density distributing in space, proportional to the square of the absolute value of its wave function. This is also a consequence of protective measurement. If the wave function is a physical field, then the mass and charge density will be distributed in space simultaneously (...) for a charged quantum system, and thus there will exist a remarkable electrostatic self-interaction of its wave function, though the gravitational self-interaction is too weak to be detected presently. This not only violates the superposition principle of quantum mechanics but also contradicts experimental observations. Thus we conclude that the wave function cannot be a description of a physical field. In the second part of this paper, we further analyze the implications of these results for the main realistic interpretations of quantum mechanics, especially for de Broglie-Bohm theory. It has been argued that de Broglie-Bohm theory gives the same predictions as quantum mechanics by means of quantum equilibrium hypothesis. However, this equivalence is based on the premise that the wave function, regarded as a Ψ-field, has no mass and charge density distributions, which turns out to be wrong according to the above results. For a charged quantum system, both Ψ-field and Bohmian particle have charge density distribution. This then results in the existence of an electrostatic self-interaction of the field and an electromagnetic interaction between the field and Bohmian particle, which contradicts both the predictions of quantum mechanics and experimental observations. Therefore, de Broglie-Bohm theory as a realistic interpretation of quantum mechanics is probably wrong. Lastly, we suggest that the wave function is a description of some sort of ergodic motion (e.g. random discontinuous motion) of particles, and we also briefly analyze the implications of this suggestion for other realistic interpretations of quantum mechanics including many-worlds interpretation and dynamical collapse theories. (shrink)

We investigate the implications of protective measurement for de Broglie-Bohm theory, mainly focusing on the interpretation of the wave function. It has been argued that the de Broglie-Bohm theory gives the same predictions as quantum mechanics by means of quantum equilibrium hypothesis. However, this equivalence is based on the premise that the wave function, regarded as a Ψ-field, has no mass and charge density distributions. But this premise turns out to be wrong according to protective measurement; a charged quantum (...) system has effective mass and charge density distributing in space, proportional to the square of the absolute value of its wave function. Then in the de Broglie-Bohm theory both Ψ-field and Bohmian particle will have charge density distribution for a charged quantum system. This will result in the existence of an electrostatic self-interaction of the field and an electromagnetic interaction between the field and Bohmian particle, which not only violates the superposition principle of quantum mechanics but also contradicts experimental observations. Therefore, the de Broglie-Bohm theory as a realistic interpretation of quantum mechanics is problematic according to protective measurement. Lastly, we briefly discuss the possibility that the wave function is not a physical field but a description of some sort of ergodic motion (e.g. random discontinuous motion) of particles. (shrink)

Predication is a lingual relation. We have this relation when a term is said (λέγεται) of another term. This simple definition, however, is not Aristotle’s own definition. In fact, he does not define predication but attaches his almost in a new field used word κατηγορεῖσθαι to λέγεται. In a predication, something is said of another thing, or, more simply, we have ‘something of something’ (ἓν καθ᾿ ἑνὸς). (PsA. , A, 22, 83b17-18) Therefore, a relation in which two terms are posited (...) to each other in a way that one is said (predicated) of the other is a predication. The term of which the other term is said is called a subject (ὑποκειμένον) and the other, which is said about the subject, is called the predicate. Thus, in a predication the predicate is predicated of the subject; given that being predicated is almost as the same as being said. The relation between being said and being predicated is so close that ‘if something is said of a subject both its name and its definition are necessarily predicated of the subject.’ (Cat., 5, 2a19-26) This, however, is true only about the second genera and not the accidents. a) Nature of relation in predication What is Aristotle’s theory about the nature of the relation in a predication? How does he fundamentally understand this relation? Phil Corkum distinguishes between predication logic and traditional term logic and argues that the relation between subject and predicate in Aristotle is of the latter kind. While in predicate logic, subjects and predicates have distinct roles, they have the same role in traditional term logic. In predication logic, subjects refer, but predicates characterize. Thereupon, a sentence expresses a truth if the object to which the subject refers is correctly characterized by the predicate. In traditional term logic, both subjects and predicates refer and a sentences expresses a truth if both name one and the same thing. He concludes that Aristotle ‘problematically conflates prediction and identity claims’ because while he thinks both subjects and predicates refer, he would deny that a sentence is true just in case the subject and the predicate name one and the same thing. Based on this, Corkum believes that Aristotle’s core semantic is not identity but the weaker relation of constitution, which is a mereological interpretation: ‘All men are mortal’ is true just in case the mereological sum of humans is part of the mereological sum of mortals. b) Aristotle’s theory of predication: one or two theories? Frank Lewis finds an inconsistent gap between the theory of predication in the Categories and that in the later books of the Metaphysics VII, 6. So too Joan Kung, Terry Irwin, Daniel Graham. c) Distinction of ‘being said of’ and ‘being in’ Owen enumerates the texts in which Aristotle’s distinction between ‘being said of’ and ‘being in’ is asserted: OI. 11b38-12a17; To., 127b1-4; Cat. 1a20-b9; 2a11-14; 2a27-b6; 2b15-17; 3a7-32; 9b22-24 d) Predication in Aristotle and the standard ‘S is P’ Marie De Rijk Lambertus thinks that the ‘S is P’ pattern is misleading when it comes to express predication in Aristotle. In his view, ‘The Aristotelian procedure should be described in terms of appositively assigning an attribute (κατηγορούμενον) to a substrate (ὑποκείμενον), rather than ascribing a predicate to a subject by means of a copula…. The comment should be considered an attribute which is said to fall to a substrate, without understanding this procedure in terms of sentence predication.’ e) Aristotle’s predication: bipartite or tripartite? It is a difficulty to make Aristotle’s theories of name-verb predication and tripartite predication consistent. The reason is that tripartite is not consistant with his name-verb structure based on which he says that the predicate term is the ‘verb.’ (20a31; 20b1-2; 16a13-5) The problem is that in a tripartite form like ‘Socrates is white’ we cannot take ‘is white’ as the verb because, based on Aristotle himself, no part of a verb can be significant itself. (16b6-7) However, his assertions about the equivalences between the two structures (OI. 12, 21b9-10; PrA. 51b13-16; Met., 1017b22-30) must mean that they are not inconsistent in his own view. Thus, as Allen Bāck points, ‘Aristotle seems to think that he has a single, consistent theory.’ The sense of saying or speaking as the root sense of rhema makes the relation between predication (saying something of something) and verb more interesting. The use of rhema in the sense of a long expression approves this. In Plato’s work (399ac) where Socrates claims that the name anthropos derives from anthron ha opopen (‘he who examines what he has seen’) we have an onoma from, or in place of, a rhema. 1) Subject The subject (ὑποκειμένον) is that of which another term is said or predicated. Aristotle’s own definition is of a much more philosophical value: ‘By subject I mean that which is expressed by an affirmative term (λέγω δὲ ὑποκείμενον τὸ κάταφάσει δηλούμενον).’ (Met., K, 1067b18) Throughout Aristotle’s work, three kinds of subjects can be found: possible, prime and absolute subject. a) Possible subject Those things that can take the position of a subject in a predication we call possible subjects, no matter they can or cannot take the position of predicate in any predication. All terms except the ultimate predicates are possible subjects because they can take the position of subject. b) Prime subject Those that in any predication can only take the position of a subject and not the position of a predicate are prime subjects. (Cat., 5, 3a36-b2; Met., Z, 1028b36-1029a1) This is the truest sense of subject and belongs only to substances. (Met., Z, 1029a1-2) In fact, ‘that which is not predicated of a subject, but of which all else is predicated’ is a substance. (Met., Z, 1029a7-9) In Categories, besides primary substances (Cat., 2, 1b3-6), individual qualities are also said not to be able to be said of anything else. (Cat., 2, 1a23-29) Aristotle’s examples are a certain ‘knowledge-of-grammar’ (τὶς γράμματικὴ) and ‘an individual white’ (τὸ τὶ λευκὸν). Thus, although substances are indeed in the truest sense individuals and, thereby, in the truest sense primary subjects, other individuals can take the position of subject as well. c) Absolute subject While substances are prime subjects of all other things, there is still something of which substances can be predicated and this predication is not an accidental predication: matter. (Met., Z, 1029a21-24) This predication is, indeed, the predication of a ‘form or this’ on matter and material substance. (Met., Θ, 1049a34-36) The only thing that is absolutely a subject, therefore, and can be a predicate is prime matter (πρώτη ὓλη). (Met., Θ, 1049a24-27) d) Subject and substance The most important thing in being a substance is being a subject: ‘It is because the primary substances are subjects for all the other things and all the other things are predicated of them or are in them, that they are called substances most of all.’ (Cat., 5, 2b15-17) And what is nearer to this position is more a substance as a species is more a substance than a genus.’ (Cat., 5, 2b7-8) e) Primary versus accidental subject A subject is a primary subject in a predication when the predicate is predicated of it as itself. In such a case, the subject is the subject of the predicate qua itself and not qua something else. A subject, on the one hand, is an accidental subject when it is not the primary subject of the predicate that is predicated on it. It means that a subject is an accidental subject when the predicate is predicated of it not qua itself but qua something else. An accidental subject is, therefore, anything other than a substance. 2) Predicate as universal It is evident from our discussion of kinds of subjects that except matter, primary substances (if we ignore both accidental predication and cases of absolute subjects) and other individuals, everything else can take the position of a predicate. Since primary substances are individuals, it results that everything except matter and individuals are capable to take the position of predicate. The immediate consequence of this is that the predicate must be a universal. When individuals cannot take the position of predicate, this position cannot be taken by any particular. Therefore, only universals can be predicated of others. Moreover, albeit universals can be a simple subject (for another universal), they are not prime subjects. The closeness of universal and predicate is to the extent that Aristotle differentiates universal from subject. (Met., Θ, 1049a27-30) 3) Categories or classes of predicates Aristotle distinguishes ten highest classes into one of which each predicate must necessarily fall: substance (or what a thing is), quality, quantity, relation, place, time, position, state, activity and passivity. (Cat., 4, 1b25-27; To., I, 9, 103b20- ; PsA., A, 22, 83b13-23) The substance counted among predicates must refer to secondary and not primary substances not only because Aristotle insists that primary substances cannot be predicated but also from his own examples of the category of substance: man and animal. (To., I, 9, 103b25) However, if a predicate be asserted of itself or its genus be asserted of it, the predicate signifies substance or what is; but if ‘one kind of predicate is asserted of another kind,’ it signifies one of the other nines. (To., I, 9, 103b30) These categories are so comprehensive that no predicate can remain outside them so that even non-being has as many senses as categories. (Met., M, 1089a26-30) a) That whether Aristotle’s categories are merely linguistic or fundamentally ontological is a so much controversial dispute. Some like G. E. R. Lloyd believe that ‘categories are primarily intended as a classification of reality … rather than of the signifying terms themselves.’ b) Although Aristotle’s categories have been historically regarded as a classification of predications, there are some recent commentators like Jonathan Barnes that think it is classifying predicates and not predications. 4) Kinds of predicates In his introduction of Categories, as J. W. Thorp truly points out , Aristotle distinguishes between the category of substance and the other categories using μὲν ... δὲ construction. This construction illustrates that beside tenfold classification of categories, there is an even more crucial differentiation between two kinds of predicates: substance or what is on the one hand and the other nine ones on the other hand: the distinction between what is predicated of the subject as what it is and what is predicated of it as an accident. Therefore, we have three kinds of classification - a twofold, a fourfold and a tenfold-complicatedly classifying the same thing, viz. the predicate. Predicates can be divided also to four kinds: property, definition, genus and accident. (To., I, 4, 101b11-20) A property is that predicate that is convertible with its subject and does not signify its essence. A definition is that predicate that is convertible with its subject and signifies its essence. It is a genus if it is not predicated convertibly and is contained in the definition of its subject. And it is an accident if it is neither convertible nor contained in the definition of its subject. (To., I, 8, ^103b3) All of these four kinds are among categories. (To., I, 9, 103b20) It seems that there might be some kind of relation between the twofold and the fourfold distinction: whereas genus and definition are predicated as what it is, accidents are not so predicated. There seems to be some rules that determine to each of these four kinds each predicate belongs. At To., IV, 123b30ff. Aristotle asserts: ‘If B has a contrary and A does not, then B does not belong to A as its genus.’ There is a dispute around per se accidents (τὰ καθ’ αὑτὰ συμβεβηκότα) (Topics., 102a18) whether they must be regarded as either of the four kinds or as a fifth kind. Barnes (1970) argued that they ‘do not fit at all neatly into the fourfold classification.’ He argues that based on the definition of accidents at A, 5, 102b4-5, they must be accidents but based on another definition, A, 5, 102b6-7, they cannot be accidents. He also defends the view that they are not properties. Barnes concludes: ‘This shows that the two definitions are not equivalent, and hence that the ‘predicables’ are not well-defined.’ Demetris J. Hadgopoulos defends the view that the two definitions of accidents are equivalent and per se accidents are properties. 5) Five types of predications We have five kinds of predications based on our division of subjects and our discussion of predicates: simple, primary (itself divided to substantial and accident), accidental (itself divided to primary and secondary), aoincidental and absolute predication. a) Simple predication. This is a predication in which a universal is predicated of either a particular or a universal subject. This sense of predication includes all other senses except the first kind of accidental predication. b) Primary predication. This is a predication in which a universal is predicated of a primary subject, namely a substance. A primary predication is of two kinds: i) Substantial predication. A primary predication in which the predicate is part of, or is included in, the definition of the subject. The universal that is the predicate here is the definition or the genus or the species or the diferentia of the subject. It is this predication that Aristotle calls a unity: ‘A statement may be called a unity … because it exhibits a single predicate as inhering not accidentally in a single subject.’ (PsA., B, 10, 93b35-37) It is only substantial predicates that can be predicated of each other: ‘Predicates which are not substantial are not predicated of one another.’ (PsA., A, 22, 83b18-19) Aristotle defines a substantial predication also in another way. A predication in which a higher genus is predicated on a lower genus, species, a substance or an individual, (or a species is predicated on an individual) is a substantial predication. Therefore, a substantial predication is a predication in a series that has individuals on one of its ends and a general category on its other end. In fact, only substantial predicates can be predicated of one another. (PsA., A, 22, 83b17-19) This series cannot be an infinite series because otherwise not only substances would not be definable but also a genus would be equal to one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) -/- ii) Accident predication. A primary predication in which the predicate is not part of, or is not included in, the definition of its subject. The universal that is the predicate here is the property or the accident of the subject. c) Accidental predication. This is a predication in which the subject is not a primary subject and its predicate is a substance. This predication is of two kinds: i) Primary accidental predication. This is a predication in which an accident is predicated of substance. Such a predication can go ad infinitum, which is inferable from Aristotle’s assertion that the secondary accidental predication cannot go ad infinitum. ii) Secondary accidental predication. It is a predication in which an accident is predicated of another accident. Such a predication, Aristotle asserts, cannot go ad infinitum because even more than two accidents cannot be combined. Now what is the meaning of Aristotle’s assertion that we cannot continue this ad infinitum? Does it mean that we cannot continue the predication ‘The musician is white’ and say ‘The white is Athenian?’ But why not? Or maybe he means that by adding any predication, we are still in a condition of predicating two accidents of a substance on each other. -/- As primary subjects, substances can also take the position of predicate though not essentially but accidentally. In propositions like ‘the white is a log’ or ‘That big thing is a log’ we observe substance taking the position of predicate but this is only accidentally: ‘When I affirm ‘the white is a log,’ I mean that something which happens to be white is a log- not that white is the subject in which log inheres (οὐχ ὡς τὸ ὑποκείμενον τῷ ξύλῳ τὸ λευκόν ἐστι), for it was not qua white or qua a species of white that the white (thing) came to be a log (οὔτε λευκὸν ὄν οὔθ᾿ ὃπερ λευκόν τι ἐγἐνετο ξύλον), and the white (thing) is consequently not a log except incidentally.’ (PsA., 22, 83a3-9) Aristotle compares this accidental use of substance in the position of predicate with the substantial use of it in the place of a subject: ‘On the other hand, when I affirm ‘the log is white,’ I do not mean that something else, which happens to be a log, is white (οὐχ ὃτι ἓτερόν τί ἐστι λευκόν, ἐκείνῳ δὲ συμβέβηκε ξύλῳ εἶναι), (as I should if I said ‘the musician is white,’ which would mean ‘The man who happens also to be a musician is white’); on the contrary, log is here the subject- the subject which actually came to be white, and did so qua wood or qua a species of wood and qua nothing else.’ (PsA., 22, 83a8-14) Aristotle asks us not to call propositions like ‘The white is a log’ a predication at all or at least call them accidental predication instead of simple (ἁπλως) predication. (PsA., A, 22, 83a14-17) An accidental predication, in which we have a substance in the place of predicate, is different from an essential predication in that while the subject of an accidental predication is said to be the predicate not by itself but as something different with which it coincides, the subject of an essential predicate is said to be the predicate by itself and not because it is something else: ‘Since there are attributes which are predicated of a subject essentially and not accidentally- not, that is, in the sense in which we say ‘That white (thing) is a man,’ which is not the same mode of predication as when we say ‘The man is white’: the man is white not because he is something else but because he is man, but the white is man because ‘being white’ coincides with ‘humanity’ within one subject. Therefore, there are terms such as are essentially subjects of predicates. (PsA., A, 19, 81a24-29) This capability of ‘non-essentially and only accidentally’ being a subject does belong, in fact, to all sensible things. (PsA., A, 27a32-36) d) Coincidental predication. this is a predication in which none of the subject and predicate are a substance or an individual. In this predication, one of the accidents of a substance or individual is predicated of one of the other accidentals of the same substance or individual. For example, when it is said that ‘The white is musical,’ there is an individual, say Socrates, for which both of white and musical are accidents. e) Absolute predication. This is a predication in which a form or a substance is predicated of a matter or a material substance. Some commentators like Loux and Lewis regarded this predication as close to accident predication, both based on inherence. As R.M. Dancy points out, these predications make Aristotle’s theory of predication immanentist: not only accident predications are explained by the immanence of accidents in substances, some of the substantial predications, which were not explained in Categories, are also explained by the immanence of form in matter. It is interesting that in this kind of predication, it is the predicate and not the subject, which is in the strictest sense substance. As the central books of Metaphysics claim, the form is the substance. Thus, in this predication, substance gets away from the sense of ὑποκείμενον. Corkum mentiones 68a19 as the only instance where Aristotle explicitly claims that a term may be predicated of itself, a passage that is, in Corkum’s view, problematic. 6) Demonstrable predicates Those predicates are demonstrable that are so related to their subjects that there are other predicates prior to them predicable of their subjects (ἔτι δ᾿ ἄλλος, εἰ ὧν πρότερα ἄττα κατηγορεῖται). (PsA., A, 22, 83b32-34) 7) Series of predications Since it is possible for a predicate to be itself the subject of another predication, we can have a series of predications in which the predicate of a predication is the subject of the next predication. This series has the following features: a) It has a limit (in number) (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) on the side of subjects: there are subjects that cannot themselves be predicated (PsA., A, 27, 43a39-41), which are, as we noted, prime subjects: particulars, i.e. prime substances and other individuals. (PsA., A, 19-22) Aristotle calls them ultimate (ὓστατον). (PsA., 21, 82a36-b1) b) It has a limit (in number of kinds) (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) also on the side of predicates: there must be predicates that cannot be subjects. (PsA., A, 19-22; PsA., A, 27, 43a36-39) Aristotle calls them primary (πρῶτον). (PsA., A, 21, 82b1-4) These are the highest categories or the highest genera of categories. (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) c) The series has an escalating shape from mere subjects at its downside to mere predicates at its upside. It is Aristotle himself whos uses the words up and down in this sense. (e.g. PsA., A, 22, 83b2-3) d) The predications that lie between lowest and highest ones must be finite in number. (PsA., A, 19-22 especially: 20, 82a21-35) These have subjects and predicates, each capable of both of the roles of being subject and being predicated. A result of this fitness is that neither demonstration can go to infinity nor everything is demonstrable, the two points Aristotle always insist on. e) The upward side includes the more universal ones and the downward the more particular ones. (PsA., 20, 82a21-23) f) It follows from the above features that ‘neither the ascending nor the descending series of predications … are infinite.’ (PsA., A, 22, 83b24-25) g) Reciprocation and convertibility. Except in case of terms (i.e. subjects and predicates) that are at each of the ends of series of predications, namely ultimates and primaries, it is possible to reciprocate (ἀντιστρέφειν) terms and convert the predication. (PsA., A, 19, 82a15-20) h) Antipredication. Antipredication means that in a predication (S is P), the subject becomes the predicate of its predicate (P is S) in the same category its predicate was predicated on it. For example, if P is in the category of quality, antipredication means that S be predicated of P in the category of quality. In other words, P is a quality of S and S is a quality of P. Aristotle rejects this. (PsA., A, 22, 83a36-b3) i) Self-predication versus other-predication. Aristotle distinguishes between a predication in which a term is said of itself and a predication in which a term is said of another. (Phy., Δ, 2, 209a31-33) j) Predicablity (Cat., 5, 3a36-b2): 1) Primary substances and individuals are not predicable. 2) Secondary substances are of two kinds: genus and species i) Genus is predicable able both of the species and of the individuals. ii) Species is predicable of the individual. 3) Differentiae are predicable both of the species and of the individuals. 8) Predication as classification a) Richard Patterson believes that Aristotle’s so repeated construction using hoper (estin A hoper B) in Topics (120a23 sq., 122b19, 26sq., 123a, 124a18, 125a29, 126a21, 128a35. Also in Posterior Analytics (83a24-30) (Brunschwig’s list. ‘expresses the fact that A is a kind of B (esti A B tis), that A is a species of the genus B.’ 9) Universal predication Aristotle defines universal predication (κατὰ παντὸς κατηγορεῖσθαι) as such: ‘wherever no instance of the subject (τῶν τοῦ ὑποκειμέμνου) can be found of which the other term cannot be asserted.’ (PrA., A, 24b27-29) In this predication, the subject is included in another as in a whole (ἐν ὃλῳ εἶναι) and the predicate is predicated of all of the subject (κατὰ παντὸς κατηγορεῖσθαι). (PrA., A, 24b26-27) Attach another discussion we had about ἐν ὃλῳ here. 10) Quantity of predication A predication, truly stated, has a quantity, which is the number of objects under the name of the subject of which the predicate is predicated. The quantity of subject can be stated in four ways: a. Indefinite: when the predicate belongs or does not belong to the subject without any mark to show to haw many of the particulars under the name of the subject it does or does not belong. E.g. ‘Man is white’; ‘Man is not white.’ (PrA., A, 24a20; OI., I, 7, 17b8-12) b. Universal quantity: When the predicate belongs to all or none of the subject. E.g. ‘Every man is animal’; ‘No man is animal.’ (PrA., A, 24a18-19; OI., I, 7, 17b5-6) The contrary of a predication of a universal quality is a predication of a universal quality. E.g. the contrary of ‘Every man is white’ is ‘No man is white.’ (OI., I, 7, 17b20-23) c. Particular quantity: When the predicate belongs (or does not belong) to some of the subject. E.g. ‘Some men are white’; ‘Some men are not white.’ (PrA., A, 24a19-20) d. Single quantity: when the subject is a proper name of only one object. E.g. ‘Socrates is white’; ‘Socrates is not white.’ The contrary of this predication is of a single quantity: ‘Socrates is not white.’ (OI., I, 7, 17b38-18a4) 11) Convertibility of predication. Some predications are convertible, that is, it is possible to change the place of subject and predicate in a true proposition so that the converted proposition remains true. This is supposed to mean that given the truth of a predication, the truth of the converted predication is inferable. The convert form of a predication depends on its quantity. a. Indefinite quantity: This predication has no strictly true convert because its quantity is not stated. b. Universal quantity: It can be converted in two ways: i) A negative universal can be converted to a negative universal in which the terms are changed. E.g. ‘No pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘No good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a5-8 and a14-19) ii) An affirmative universal can be converted to an affirmative particular in which the terms are changed. E.g. ‘Every pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘Some good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a7-9) c. Particular quantity: If it is negative, it cannot be converted but if it is affirmative, it can be converted to an affirmative predication with particular quantity. E.g. ‘Some pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘Some good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a10-13 and a20-24) d. Single quantity: It cannot be converted. 12) Characteristics of relations between subject and predicate 1. A predicate is of a wider range than its subject. It is based on this fact that Aristotle: a) Prevents individuals to be predicate because there is nothing of which an individual be of a wider range. In other words, it is due to the fact that since an individual is only ‘one particular’ thing and, thus, cannot be of a wider extent than anything that Aristotle prevents them of being a predicate. Matthews, however, thinks we cannot use Socrates, a substance and an individual, in the place of predicate and say it of Socrates because ‘Socrates does not classify Socrates: it names him.’ b) Prevents differentia, species and things under species to be predicated of genus. (To., Z, 6, 144a27-) c) Prevents the species and the things under it to be predicated of the differentia. (To., Z, 6, 144b1-4) d) Also about the effect because it is wider than its subject. (PsA., B, 17, 99a) e) Each attribute is wider than every individual it is predicated on, though several attributes, collectively considered, might not be wider but exactly the substance of a thing. (PsA., B, 13, 96a32-b1) 2. The predicate of a predicate of a subject will be predicated of the subject too: ‘whenever one thing is predicated of another as of a subject, all things said of what is predicated will be said of the subject too.’ (Cat., 3, 1b10-15) In fact, it is due to its predication of the subject that it is predicated of its predicate. (Cat., 5, 2a36-b1) Moreover, what is not predicated of the predicate of a subject cannot be predicated of it as well. (PrA., A, 27, 43b22-27) Thus, what, for example, is not predicated of animal, cannot be predicated of man. 3. The predicate of a subject can be predicated of its predicates as well. (Cat., 5, 3a1-6) For example, you call the individual man grammatical and, thence, you call both a man and an animal grammatical. Nonetheless, the predicate of a subject belongs to it more properly than to its higher predicates. (PrA., A, 27, 43a27-32) 4. It is only the subject that can be distributed and not the predicate. (PrA., A, 27, 43b16-22; OI, I, 7, 17b12-16) Therefore, we can say e.g. ‘Every man is animal’ but we cannot say ‘Every man is every animal.’ 5. It is the reason of the relation between subjects and predicates, that is the reason of predication, which is the subject of inquiry. (Met., Z, 1041a20-24) In other words, since it is a meaningless inquiry to ask why a thing is itself (Met., Z, 1041a14-15), the only remaining meaningful inquiry is to ask why something is something else, i.e. to ask about the reason of predication. 6. A subject cannot categorize its predicate in the same category in which it is categorized by it. If e.g. A is a quality of B, B cannot be a quality of A. Therefore, there is no reciprocation in the same category. (PsA., A, 22, 83a36-39) 13) Characteristics of series of predications 1. A series of secondary accidental predication cannot go ad infinitum for not even more than two terms can be comnbined. For an accident is not an accident of an accident, unless it be because both are accidents of the same subject. (Met., Γ, 1007b1-4) 2. Infinite series cannot be traversed in thought. (PsA., A, 22, 83b6-7) 3. The predications of genera on each other must be ended and cannot go to infinity because otherwise not only substances would not be definable but also a genus would be equal to one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) Therefore, a series of predication of genera on each other must be limited on both sides. There must be an upward limit in general categories as well as a downward limit in individual because they cannot be predicated of others. Whatever lies between these limits can both be predicated of others and others be predicated of them. (PrA., A, 27, 43a36-43) 4. The order of predicates matters: it makes a difference whether the series be ABC or BAC. (PsA., B, 13, 96b25-32) . (shrink)

The INBIOSA project brings together a group of experts across many disciplines who believe that science requires a revolutionary transformative step in order to address many of the vexing challenges presented by the world. It is INBIOSA’s purpose to enable the focused collaboration of an interdisciplinary community of original thinkers. This paper sets out the case for support for this effort. The focus of the transformative research program proposal is biology-centric. We admit that biology to date has been more fact-oriented (...) and less theoretical than physics. However, the key leverageable idea is that careful extension of the science of living systems can be more effectively applied to some of our most vexing modern problems than the prevailing scheme, derived from abstractions in physics. While these have some universal application and demonstrate computational advantages, they are not theoretically mandated for the living. A new set of mathematical abstractions derived from biology can now be similarly extended. This is made possible by leveraging new formal tools to understand abstraction and enable computability. [The latter has a much expanded meaning in our context from the one known and used in computer science and biology today, that is "by rote algorithmic means", since it is not known if a living system is computable in this sense (Mossio et al., 2009).] Two major challenges constitute the effort. The first challenge is to design an original general system of abstractions within the biological domain. The initial issue is descriptive leading to the explanatory. There has not yet been a serious formal examination of the abstractions of the biological domain. What is used today is an amalgam; much is inherited from physics (via the bridging abstractions of chemistry) and there are many new abstractions from advances in mathematics (incentivized by the need for more capable computational analyses). Interspersed are abstractions, concepts and underlying assumptions “native” to biology and distinct from the mechanical language of physics and computation as we know them. A pressing agenda should be to single out the most concrete and at the same time the most fundamental process-units in biology and to recruit them into the descriptive domain. Therefore, the first challenge is to build a coherent formal system of abstractions and operations that is truly native to living systems. Nothing will be thrown away, but many common methods will be philosophically recast, just as in physics relativity subsumed and reinterpreted Newtonian mechanics. -/- This step is required because we need a comprehensible, formal system to apply in many domains. Emphasis should be placed on the distinction between multi-perspective analysis and synthesis and on what could be the basic terms or tools needed. The second challenge is relatively simple: the actual application of this set of biology-centric ways and means to cross-disciplinary problems. In its early stages, this will seem to be a “new science”. This White Paper sets out the case of continuing support of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for transformative research in biology and information processing centered on paradigm changes in the epistemological, ontological, mathematical and computational bases of the science of living systems. Today, curiously, living systems cannot be said to be anything more than dissipative structures organized internally by genetic information. There is not anything substantially different from abiotic systems other than the empirical nature of their robustness. We believe that there are other new and unique properties and patterns comprehensible at this bio-logical level. The report lays out a fundamental set of approaches to articulate these properties and patterns, and is composed as follows. -/- Sections 1 through 4 (preamble, introduction, motivation and major biomathematical problems) are incipient. Section 5 describes the issues affecting Integral Biomathics and Section 6 -- the aspects of the Grand Challenge we face with this project. Section 7 contemplates the effort to formalize a General Theory of Living Systems (GTLS) from what we have today. The goal is to have a formal system, equivalent to that which exists in the physics community. Here we define how to perceive the role of time in biology. Section 8 describes the initial efforts to apply this general theory of living systems in many domains, with special emphasis on crossdisciplinary problems and multiple domains spanning both “hard” and “soft” sciences. The expected result is a coherent collection of integrated mathematical techniques. Section 9 discusses the first two test cases, project proposals, of our approach. They are designed to demonstrate the ability of our approach to address “wicked problems” which span across physics, chemistry, biology, societies and societal dynamics. The solutions require integrated measurable results at multiple levels known as “grand challenges” to existing methods. Finally, Section 10 adheres to an appeal for action, advocating the necessity for further long-term support of the INBIOSA program. -/- The report is concluded with preliminary non-exclusive list of challenging research themes to address, as well as required administrative actions. The efforts described in the ten sections of this White Paper will proceed concurrently. Collectively, they describe a program that can be managed and measured as it progresses. (shrink)

In the social sciences, within the explanatory paradigm of structural individualism, a theory of action – like rational choice theory – models how individuals behave and interact at the micro level in order to explain macro observations as the aggregation of these individuals actions. A central epistemological issue is that such theoretical models are stuck in a dilemma between falsity of their basic assumptions and triviality of their explanation. On the one hand, models which have a great empirical success often (...) rest on unrealistic or even knowingly false assumptions; on the other hand, more complex models, with additional more realistic hypotheses, can (trivially) adapt to a wide range of situations and thus loose their explanatory power. Our purpose here is epistemological and consists in wondering to which extent demanding realistic assumptions in such cases is a relevant criterion with respect to the acceptance of a given explanatory model. Via an analogical reasoning with physics, we argue that this criterion seems too strong and actually irrelevant. General physical principles are not just idealized or unrealistic, they can also be formulated in many different yet equivalent ways which do not imply the same fundamental unobservable entities or phenomena. However, the classification of phenomena that such principles allow to highlight does not depend, at the end, on any particular formulation of these basic assumptions. This suggests that some hypotheses in theoretical models are actually not genuine empirical statements that could be independently tested but only substrates of modeling embodying a classification principle. Thus, we develop a structural invariance criterion that we then apply to rational choice models in the social sciences. We argue that this criterion allows to escape from the epistemological dilemma without condemning formal approaches like rational choice theory for their lack of realisticness nor being stuck to any antirealist viewpoint. (shrink)

Ce n'est pas en pensant que nous créons des mondes. C'est en comprenant le monde que nous apprenons à penser. La cosmovision est un terme qui devrait désigner un ensemble de fondements d'où émerge une compréhension systémique de l'Univers, de ses composantes comme la vie, le monde dans lequel nous vivons, la nature, le phénomène humain et leurs relations. C'est donc un champ de la philosophie analytique nourri par les sciences, dont l'objectif est cette connaissance agrégée et épistémologiquement soutenable de (...) tout ce que nous sommes et contenons, qui nous entoure, et qui nous concerne de quelques manières que ce soit. C'est quelque chose d'aussi vieux que la pensée humaine et, en plus d'utiliser des éléments de la cosmologie scientifique, il englobe tout ce qui, dans la philosophie et la science, se réfère à l'univers et à la vie. Une cosmovision n'est pas un ensemble d'idées, d'hypothèses et de suppositions, mais un système établi sur l'observation, l'analyse, la preuve et la démonstration. Aucune cosmovision n'entend définir, établir ou proposer, mais seulement comprendre, analyser et interpréter. Chacun de nous construit et transporte sa cosmovision tout au long de sa vie, sans établir de forme, comme toile de fond de nos pensées et de nos comportements. Linguistiquement, le terme « cosmovision » dériverait de l'allemand, équivalent au concept de « Weltanschauung », tel qu'il a été utilisé par plusieurs philosophes. Cependant, cette relation linguistique n'est pas applicable, car elle contredit ce que nous proposons comme cosmovision. Ce mot allemand fait référence à une vision prélogique ou proto-expérimentale de la réalité, avec un contexte intuitif et loin des connaissances critiques encore inexistantes au moment de sa formulation. Sans aucun doute, les cosmovisions, au sens où nous les entendons, abritent et utilisent ces éléments proto-expérimentaux ou prélogiques qui incluent l'histoire, l'inconscient collectif et tous les archétypes que nous portons. Or, dans le concept que nous appliquons ici, la cosmovision va bien au-delà de ce contenu, d'abord en le soumettant constamment à la pensée critique actuelle et enfin en faisant de l'expérience analytique (et non de la pensée elle-même ou de l'intuition) son univers réel. António Lopes expose l'étendue de ce contenu : [ ] « Les cosmovisions ne sont pas le produit de la pensée. Ils ne naissent pas du simple désir de savoir. L'appréhension de la réalité est un moment important dans sa configuration, mais, néanmoins, ce n'en est qu'un. Elle vient de la conduite vitale, de l'expérience de la vie, de la structure de notre totalité psychique. L'élévation de la vie à la conscience dans la connaissance de la réalité, dans l'évaluation de la vie et dans la réalité volitive est le travail lent et ardu que l'humanité a fait dans le développement des conceptions de la vie. (W.Dilthey, 1992 [1911] : 120). Dans cet ouvrage, nous cherchons à esquisser une cosmovision fondée sur les réalités que la science offre aujourd'hui. Nous ne proposons, à aucun moment, de faire de la science ; ou théoriser la philosophie, mais nous chercherons toujours à être soutenus par eux ou, du moins, protégés par eux des distorsions cognitives que nous portons habituellement. -/- . (shrink)

FERTILIDADE EM VACAS LEITEIRAS: FISIOLOGIA E MANEJO -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- A fertilidade das vacas com aptidão leiteira tem apresentado queda de quase 1% ao ano nos últimos 30 anos como apresentam os estudos acerca da reprodução de bovinos leiteiros; essa diminuição tem coincidido com um aumento sustentado na produção de leite. Estudos realizados a partir da década de 1960 pelo NRC, demonstraram que nos rebanhos leiteiros da América do Norte, nessa década, era conseguido emprenhar até 65% das vacas inseminadas, enquanto, (...) atualmente, a porcentagem de concepção é em torno de 30%. Na literatura e por meio de pesquisas foi-se comprovado que de 80 a 90% dos ovócitos são fertilizados, entretanto, uma alta proporção de embriões morre antes do 18º dia após a inseminação. Com isso, as vacas apresentam um novo ciclo, isto é, regressam ao estro em um período equivalente a um ciclo estral normal, devido ao fato de que a morte do embrião ocorre antes do reconhecimento materno da gestação (figura 1). -/- 1. ESTIMATIVA DA FERTILIDADE EM BOVINOS LEITEIROS -/- Em bovinos leiteiros, existem diferentes métodos de estimar a fertilidade e cada um deles fornece uma visão parcial do problema; neste trabalho pretendo descrever os principais estimadores da fertilidade. -/- 1.1 Porcentagem de concepção -/- Refere-se à proporção de vacas que apresentaram prenhez, isto é, vacas gestantes do total inseminado e é calculado no momento de diagnóstico da gestação. É difícil estipular ou impor uma meta para esse método, uma vez que depende de vários fatores que podem variar -/- entre os rebanhos e, também, é afetado pela época do ano. Entretanto, nos últimos anos, uma boa meta global de porcentagem de concepção deve estar entre 35 e 40%, porém esse valor é um parcial, uma vez que diante o manejo e os custos opta-se sempre por uma porcentagem maior de vacas prenhes no momento de diagnóstico de gestação. A taxa ou porcentagem de concepção é obtida pela divisão do total de vacas prenhes com o total de vacas inseminadas e multiplicado por 100. % concepção = Total de vacas prenhes/Total de vacas inseminadas x 100 -/- Figura 1: A principal causa de falha reprodutiva é a morte embrionária precoce. Cerca de 80 a 90% dos ovócitos são fertilizados. Apenas 50% dos embriões sobrevivem até o momento de diagnóstico da gestação. Além disso, entre 20 e 30% das vacas diagnosticadas prenhes perdem a gestação nos meses seguintes. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- 1.2 Taxa de prenhez -/- A taxa de prenhez representa a proporção de vacas prenhes pós-inseminação, do total elegível para a inseminação durante um período equivalente a um ciclo estral (± 21 dias). Essa taxa é um parâmetro resultante de dois aspectos: a eficiência na detecção do cio ou estro à campo visual do comportamento das vacas e/ou pelos métodos modernos de identificação como os marcadores; e a porcentagem de concepção. A taxa de prenhez é calculada multiplicando a eficiência na detecção de estros pela porcentagem de concepção e dividindo o valor dessa multiplicação por 100. Assim, um rebanho com uma eficiência na detecção de cio ou estro de 50% e com uma porcentagem de concepção de 30%, obtém-se uma taxa de prenhez de 15%. Esse número indica que das vacas elegíveis que manifestam cio e são inseminadas em um período de 21 dias, apenas 15% delas emprenham. Uma taxa de prenhez aceitável é de 21%, entretanto, o índice almejado é de 35%. O primeiro cio deve se manifestar aos 40 dias pós-parto. As taxas de detecção de cios devem estar entre 70%, mas podem variar entre 30 e 80% dependendo da forma que é realizada. Existem diferentes métodos de observação visual com diferentes porcentagens de detecção (tabela 1). -/- Existem alguns fatores que limitam a detecção de estros por todos e quaisquer métodos de observação, sendo eles o horário, tempo e número das observações, número de vacas em estro, tamanho dos lotes e piquetes, temperatura ambiente e olho clínico do observador. Dada uma boa detecção de estros teremos, consequentemente, boas taxas de prenhez (tabela 2). -/- As duas formas do cálculo: Taxa de prenhez = % detecção de estro x % concepção100 Taxa de prenhez = Total de vacas prenhes/Total de vacas aptas à reprodução x 100 -/- EXEMPLO PRÁTICO: em uma determinada fazenda um lote de 100 vacas está apto para inseminação, desse total 55 vacas foram inseminadas, de modo que a taxa de inseminação foi de 55% que equivale a taxa de serviço. Calcularemos a taxa de concepção e prenhez. -/- 1º taxa de concepção: de 55 vacas, no momento de diagnóstico da gestação, observou-se que 17 emprenharam, de modo que a taxa de concepção será: 17 vacas prenhes55 vacas inseminadas x 100 = 30,9% 2º taxa de prenhez: usando a % de detecção de estro de 30% e a porcentagem de concepção obtida acima, temos uma taxa de prenhez de 9,3%. Usando a segunda forma, encontraremos 17%. 1.3 Porcentagem de vacas gestantes -/- A porcentagem de vacas gestantes é um parâmetro que oferece uma visão genérica da condição de fertilidade do rebanho. Este indicador é calculado a partir das vacas positivas no momento de diagnóstico de gestação (60 dias depois do último serviço) e inclui as vacas secas. Assim, multiplica-se 7 (os meses restantes de gestação da vaca) pela porcentagem de vacas que devem estar gestando cada mês (7 x 8) do qual resulta 56%. A meta esperada desse parâmetro reprodutivo é entre 50 e 60% de vacas gestantes em qualquer momento do ano. Outra forma de conhecer a fertilidade é mediante a estimativa da porcentagem de vacas gestantes por mês. Para manter a população estável, devem estar gestantes mensalmente 8% das vacas (número de vacas/intervalo entre partos). -/- 1.4 Dias abertos -/- Este parâmetro indica os dias que transcorrem do parto ao dia em que a vaca fica gestante. Ao calcular os dias abertos deve-se ser cuidadoso, já que há duas maneiras de fazê-lo. Na primeira, calcula-se considerando só as vacas que ficam gestantes, pelo qual há uma subestimação do parâmetro; este cálculo produz resultados satisfatórios (120 ou 130 dias abertos), já que não considera as vacas que têm mais de 200 dias de leite e não estão prenhes. Na segunda forma de estimativa, são consideradas vacas gestantes e as não gestantes (abertas). Este segundo método é o mais exato, já que o parâmetro obtido se aproxima mais da realidade. A meta deste parâmetro, considerando as vacas em gestação e as vacas abertas, é de 150 dias. -/- 1.5 Intervalo entre partos (IEP) -/- Este parâmetro refere-se ao tempo decorrido entre dois partos consecutivos na mesma vaca. É um parâmetro tão geral que não permite fazer uma análise dos problemas reprodutivos, nem facilita a tomada de decisões. Este parâmetro sobrestima a fertilidade porque para sua obtenção só são consideradas as vacas que têm dois partos consecutivos e não as vacas que permanecem abertas por longos períodos e, inclusive, que chegam a ser descarta- das e as inférteis. Há cerca de 30 anos atrás, o intervalo entre os partos recomendado era de 12 meses. Atualmente, ter um curto intervalo entre partos não é sempre conveniente, uma vez que se obtém menor volume acumulado de leite, e é frequente que muitas vacas cheguem ao momento da secagem com altas produções. Neste sentido, em gados leiteiros explorados intensivamente, a meta é alcançar um intervalo entre os partos de 13,5 meses; propõe-se que as lactações prolongadas com intervalos entre os partos de 18 meses sejam economicamente rentáveis, embora ainda não existam dados suficientes que corroborem esta proposta. -/- 1.6 Dias em leite -/- Os dias no leite é a média de dias em lactação, de todas as vacas em produção do rebanho. Este parâmetro é calculado somando os dias em lactação que cada vaca tem e se divide pelo total de vacas. Em um rebanho com uma distribuição uniforme dos partos durante o ano, haverá vacas com diferentes dias no leite (frescas, de média lactação e lactação avançada). A meta de dias em leite é de 160 a 170 a qualquer momento do ano. Ao contrário dos dias abertos ou o intervalo entre os partos, que são geralmente calculados sem considerar as vacas vazias, os dias no leite incluem todas as vacas, independentemente do seu estado reprodutivo. Em rebanhos leiteiros comerciais muitas vezes este parâmetro é de mais de 200 dias. Um aumento no número médio de dias no leite indica um aumento do número de vacas com lactação de mais de 365 dias, o que obedece a longos períodos abertos e, especificamente, a problemas de fertilidade. Os dias no leite, brindam, de forma prática e rápida, um parâmetro da fertilidade do rebanho. -/- 1.7 Porcentagem de vacas secas -/- Espera-se que 15% das vacas estejam no grupo das vacas secas, a qualquer momento do ano. Dentro dessa porcentagem são consideradas novilhas de reposição (12,5% vacas secas e 2,5% de novilhas). Um aumento na proporção de vacas secas indica falta de homogeneidade na distribuição de partos durante o ano ou um aumento do tempo (mais de dois meses) de permanência no grupo seco, o que está relacionado com problemas de fertilidade; isto é, vacas que teriam secado por baixa produção e com pouco tempo de gestação. Pelo contrário, uma diminuição da proporção de vacas secas indica que não se está cumprindo a porcentagem de vacas gestantes por mês. Dito de outra forma, reflete um aumento do número de vacas abertas devido, frequentemente, à elevada incidência de abortos nos estábulos. -/- 2. FATORES ASSOCIADOS À FERTILIDADE -/- Esses fatores estão associados com o impacto sobre a fertilidade individual ou do rebanho, seja de forma positiva ou negativa. Estão em relação com os parâmetros raciais, genéticos ou ambientais. -/- 2.1 Produção de leite -/- A vaca especializada na produção de leite foi transformada e melhorada nos últimos 40 anos. O melhoramento genético, a utilização de dietas com maior concentração de nutrientes e melhoria dos sistemas de manejo permitiram um aumento significativo da produção de leite. Metabolicamente a vaca de hoje, com potencial genético para produzir 12 mil kg de leite/ano, é diferente da vaca de 40 anos atrás. Observou-se que vacas com maior mérito genético têm concentrações sanguíneas do hormônio do crescimento mais elevadas do que as vacas menos selecionadas, e esta diferença é independente das alterações do balanço energético. O metabolismo das vacas altamente selecionadas difere do das vacas menos selecionadas, pelo que parece torná-las mais adaptadas para mobilizar reservas energéticas corporais e para enfrentar as altas demandas de energia próprias da lactação. Estas mudanças no metabolismo animal, que assegura a disponibilidade adequada de nutrientes para a produção de leite, podem ter efeitos negativos para a função reprodutiva, especialmente quando associam a um mau manejo da alimentação. Por exemplo, as vacas selecionadas para maior produção de leite são mais propensas a ter um atraso no tempo do parto à primeira ovulação. Recentemente foi-se demonstrado uma correlação entre os valores previstos de touros para intervalo entre partos, dias à primeira inseminação e número de inseminações por concepção com a probabilidade que têm os ovócitos de suas filhas para se desenvolver até à fase de blastocisto, o que indica uma clara influência genética na fertilidade. Sem dúvida, a seleção de um rebanho maior produtor de leite também selecionou vacas menos férteis. No entanto, a participação relativa da genética, como uma causa de baixa fertilidade do efetivo leiteiro, é inferior aos fatores relacionados com a intensificação do manejo em rebanhos modernos. -/- 2.2 Número de vacas por rebanho -/- Ao mesmo tempo que aumentou-se a produção de leite por vaca, a pecuária leiteira também tem experimentado um crescimento no número de cabeças por rebanho. No Brasil tem sido observado nos últimos anos um crescimento dos rebanhos e o estabelecimento de outros novos com mais de 1000 vacas em ordenha (figura 2). O crescimento dos rebanhos faz com que as práticas mais elementares de manejo não se realizem corretamente. Um exemplo de erros de manejo, devido ao tamanho do rebanho, é durante a administração de hormônios para a sincronização da ovulação e inseminação a tempo fixo. O manejo de lotes grandes faz com que algumas vacas recebam uma injeção errada e em outros casos (não raros) que algumas vacas recebam PGF2α quando estão prenhes. O tamanho do rebanho provoca outros tipos de problemas associados ao manejo geral. Ao ser o rebanho maior e ao ter práticas de manejo mais intensivo (rebanhos com três ordenhas), os trabalhadores perdem mais facilmente o controle das vacas. Por outro lado, o confinamento em grandes grupos também pode afetar a fertilidade, já que se sabe, por exemplo, que o confinamento está associado à incidência de diferentes condições que afetam a reprodução (exemplo: retenção da placenta e infecções uterinas). -/- Figura 2: O problema da fertilidade se agravou nos últimos anos devido ao crescimento dos rebanhos leiteiros. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- 2.3 Início da atividade ovariana pós-parto -/- O intervalo do parto para a primeira ovulação foi associado com a fertilidade. Assim, as vacas que ovulam rápido após o parto, têm mais ciclos estrais antes da primeira inseminação, o que as torna mais férteis que as vacas que têm menos ciclos estrais. O tempo médio do parto à primeira ovulação aumentou nos últimos 40 anos; assim, em 1964 era de 30 dias e atualmente é de 40 dias. O intervalo do parto para a primeira ovulação é afetado principalmente por alterações metabólicas que ocorrem durante o período de transição. Observou-se que a perda de condição corporal superior a 1 ponto (escala 1 a 5) durante as quatro primeiras semanas pós- -parto, prolonga o período do parto até à primeira ovulação. -/- 2.4 Número de serviços -/- No passado, a baixa fertilidade era uma condição que se limitava às vacas repetidoras (vacas com mais de três serviços inférteis), atualmente, sabe-se que este problema é crítico desde o primeiro serviço, no qual, com frequência, a porcentagem de concepção não é superior a 30%. Nos atuais rebanhos leiteiros é frequente que as vacas do terceiro e quarto serviço tenham uma porcentagem de concepção maior do que o primeiro e o segundo serviço. O efeito do número de serviços indica que algumas causas de infertilidade nas vacas leiteiras estão relacionadas com a proximidade do período pós-parto, desta forma ao acumular mais dias em leite observa-se uma melhoria na fertilidade. As vacas nos primeiros dois serviços estão mais expostas a fatores que podem conduzir a uma concepção deficiente, tais como o balanço energético negativo ou qualquer problema relacionado com o puerpério; enquanto as vacas com três ou mais serviços estão mais distantes de serem influenciadas por tais fatores. Há evidência de que o balanço energético negativo afeta a função do corpo lúteo do segundo e terceiro ciclos pós-parto e diminui o potencial dos ovócitos para desenvolver embriões viáveis (tabela 3 e figura 3). -/- Tabela 3: Porcentagem de concepção por número de serviços em vacas leiteiras Número de serviços Vacas inseminadas Vacas gestantes % de concepção 1 3154 943 30b 2 2037 633 31b 3 1278 464 36c ≥ 4 1738 615 35c -/- b, c - valores que não compartilham a mesma literal, são diferentes (P<0,05). Fonte: TIXI et al., 2009. -/- Figura 3: A porcentagem de conceção é aumentada à medida que transcorrem os dias pós-parto. Este fenômeno se deve a que com o passar dos dias após o parto a vaca se afasta das patologias do puerpério, já que com as ondas foliculares vão sendo eliminados os folículos e ovócitos afetados pelo balanço negativo de energia e começam a desenvolver outros com maior potencial para desenvolver embriões saudáveis. Elaborado pelo autor. 2.5 Concentrações séricas de progesterona -/- As causas da baixa fertilidade na vaca leiteira são de natureza diversa; entretanto, muitas delas estão relacionadas com a alta produção de leite e com concentrações séricas baixas de progesterona. As vacas leiteiras têm níveis subnormais de progesterona sérica devido à elevada taxa de eliminação hepática determinada pelo elevado consumo de matéria seca (tabela 4; figuras 4 e 5). Foi demonstrado que as vacas em lactação têm concentrações séricas de progesterona inferiores às das novilhas ou às vacas que não estão em lactação. As baixas concentrações de progesterona têm sido relacionadas com anormalidades do desenvolvimento embrionário precoce e com menor secreção de IFN-τ mas, o efeito da progesterona na fertilidade não se limita à influência que este hormônio possui no desenvolvimento embrionário, mas também está associada com alterações na dinâmica folicular. As vacas com níveis subnormais de progesterona sérica ovulam folículos que têm mais dias de dominação que vacas com níveis normais de progesterona. Sabe-se que os folículos com mais dias de domínio liberam ovócitos com menor potencial para desenvolver um embrião saudável. Além disso, as vacas que têm uma fase lútea com níveis elevados de progesterona pré-inseminação tendem a ser mais férteis do que vacas com níveis mais baixos. -/- Figura 4: Uma das principais causas da falha na concepção é o baixo nível de progesterona sérica, o qual deve-se à disfunção do corpo e à rápida eliminação da progesterona no fígado. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- A participação relativa das concentrações subnormais de progesterona sérica, como causa de infertilidade, é maior nas vacas de primeiro serviço que nas vacas de maior serviço, devido que as de primeiro serviço estão mais próximas do balanço energético negativo e do pico de lactação. Tabela 4: Diferenças de algumas características reprodutivas entre vacas em lactação e novilhas Características reprodutivas Vacas em lactação Novilhas Duração do estro (h) 8,7 13,8 Dupla ovulação (%) 20 1 Partos gêmeos (%) 8 1 Porcentagem de concepção 30 - 35 65 - 70 Perdas gestacionais (%) 20 5 Tamanho do folículo ovulatório (mm) 18,5 14,9 Concentração máxima de estradiol (pg/ml) 7,9 11,3 Volume do corpo lúteo (mm3) 11,1 7,3 Concentração máxima de progesterona (ng/ml) 5,6 7,3 -/- Fonte: WILTBANK et al., 2006. -/- Figura 5: O elevado consumo de matéria seca na vaca leiteira provoca um aumento do fluxo hepático, acelerando assim a eliminação dos hormônios esteroides. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- 2.6 Nutrição -/- Independentemente do efeito das alterações metabólicas causadas pelo balanço energético negativo, as dietas oferecidas às vacas de alta produção também podem afetar a fertilidade. Um consumo excessivo de proteína degradável (>18%) e uma deficiência relativa de carboidratos provoca um aumento de amoníaco no rúmen. Este composto é absorvido pela parede ruminal e no fígado é convertido em ureia. Outra fonte de ureia é a gerada no fígado durante o processo de catabolismo dos aminoácidos. Assim, as vacas alimentadas com altos níveis de proteína degradável têm altas concentrações de ureia no sangue, que diminui o potencial dos ovócitos para desenvolver embriões saudáveis e afeta a viabilidade embrionária. Fornecer todos os nutrimentos às vacas com altos níveis de produção obriga a oferecer dietas altas em energia (dietas energéticas), baseadas em grãos como o milho. Desta forma, ocorre frequentemente acidose ruminal subclínica, o qual também está associada com a baixa fertilidade. A associação entre acidose e fertilidade não é clara, mas pode ser determinada por absorção de endotoxinas e liberação de prostaglandinas. A semente e caroço de algodão são usados em dietas de vacas em sistemas intensivos de produção. Esta semente/caroço, além de ser uma excelente fonte de energia, proteína e fibra, contém altas concentrações de gossipol. Esta substância é altamente tóxica em espécies monogástricas, no entanto, os ruminantes são relativamente resistentes ao gossipol, uma vez que este pigmento é inativado pelos microrganismos do rúmen. A quantidade de semente de algodão contida nas dietas comuns oferecidas às vacas leiteiras (10% da matéria seca) provocam concentrações de gossipol no plasma dentro da margem de segurança (< 5 μg/ml). No entanto, a utilização de maiores quantidades de sementes de algodão ou a utilização de variedades com maior conteúdo deste pigmento, geram concentrações plasmáticas de gossipol superior a > 5 μg/ml, que diminuem a porcentagem de concepção. Observações em gados leiteiros na Califórnia, com dietas que continham sementes de algodão com maior teor de gossipol, mostraram uma diminuição significativa da fertilidade. -/- 2.7 Estresse calórico -/- O gado leiteiro é altamente sensível às altas temperaturas, a prova disso é a redução da fertilidade quando os animais se encontram em climas quentes ou durante a época do ano com maior temperatura. A porcentagem de concepção chega a cair de 30% obtido nos meses temperados ou frios, para 10 ou 15% durante o verão. Os efeitos do estresse calórico na reprodução do gado leiteiro aumentaram nos últimos anos, o que coincidiu com o aumento da produção de leite. Verificou-se que o aumento do peso vivo das vacas leiteiras e o aumento na produção de leite refletiu em um aumento da produção de calor metabólico. Desta forma, as vacas com maiores pesos e produções têm um aparelho digestivo com maior capacidade, o que lhes permite consumir e digerir mais alimento. Durante o metabolismo dos nutrientes gera-se calor, o qual contribui com a manutenção da temperatura corporal, condição favorável em climas frios; no entanto, em climas quentes o calor deve ser removido para manter a temperatura corporal dentro dos intervalos normais. Como a capacidade de termorregulação da vaca leiteira é limitada, é comum que, nas vacas sujeitas a estresse calórico, a temperatura corporal alcance valores entre 39,5 e 41,5 °C (figura 6), lembrando que a temperatura corporal normal dos bovinos é de 37,5 a 38,5 ºC em adultos e de 38,5 a 39,5 ºC em animais jovens. -/- Figura 6: Vacas com estresse calórico. Nestas vacas é frequente que a temperatura corporal chegue a 41,5 ºC. Medidas de ventilação e bem-estar devem ser tomadas para prevenir. Observe a respiração ofegante a fim de dissipar o calor interno. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- O aumento da temperatura corporal tem efeitos negativos na reprodução. No Brasil há regiões onde é evidente o efeito negativo do estresse calórico na fertilidade; assim, em regiões muito quentes e de clima com caráter árido ou semiárido é observada uma redução da porcen- tagem de concepção nos meses quentes e secos do ano. Em outras regiões do centro-sul do país, ainda não é observada visualmente uma redução da fertilidade nos meses quentes e secos; contudo, dado que as vacas apresentam uma tendência ascendente na produção de leite e, consequentemente, na geração de calor, além do aumento da temperatura ambiental é possível que nos próximos anos comece a ser observado este fenômeno. Uma redução da fertilidade durante o verão já é observada e relatada em regiões dos Estado Unidos e Canadá, onde até alguns anos atrás não era evidente esse efeito. Em condições in vivo, o estresse calórico, durante os dias um a sete após o estro, afeta o desenvolvimento embrionário em vacas superovuladas. In vitro, a exposição dos embriões a temperaturas equivalentes à temperatura retal das vacas, sob estresse calórico (41 °C), diminui a proporção de embriões que chegam ao estágio de blastocisto. A suscetibilidade dos embriões ao estresse calórico diminui conforme estes avançam em seu desenvolvimento. Assim, os embriões de duas células são mais suscetíveis do que os embriões no estágio de mórula. Também, o estresse calórico diminui a capacidade dos embriões para produzir IFN-τ. O efeito do estresse calórico na fertilidade não é apenas observado durante os meses mais quentes, mas também é evidente um efeito a longo prazo (efeito residual), uma vez que as vacas submetidas ao estresse calórico durante o verão mantêm baixa fertilidade durante o outono. Este efeito pode ser explicado pelo efeito negativo das altas temperaturas nos ovócitos durante as diferentes etapas do desenvolvimento folicular (figura 7). -/- Figura 7: O estresse calórico tem efeito a longo prazo (efeito residual); assim, as vacas sujeitas a estresse calórico durante o verão também mostram baixa fertilidade na primeira metade do outono. Este efeito pode ser explicado pelo efeito negativo das altas temperaturas nos ovócitos, durante as diferentes etapas do desenvolvimento folicular. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- O estresse calórico pode afetar a reprodução indiretamente através das alterações que provoca no consumo voluntário. As vacas sob estresse calórico reduzem o consumo de matéria seca o que torna o balanço energético negativo mais agudo. Assim, os efeitos do estresse calórico na reprodução combinam-se com os efeitos do balanço energético negativo. Por exemplo, o anestro pós-parto se prolonga em vacas com balanço energético negativo e se agrava durante o verão, resultando em um período anovulatório mais longo (figura 8). -/- Figura 8: Diferentes efeitos do estresse calórico na reprodução das vacas leiteiras. Fonte: Adaptação de DE RENSIS & SCARAMUZZI, 2003. -/- 2.8 Estratégias para diminuir o efeito do estresse calórico na fertilidade -/- 2.8.1 Sombreamento -/- A diminuição da exposição à radiação solar direta usando sombreamento é o método mais simples. Existem vários projetos de sombreamento, mas o que sempre deve ser considerado é uma boa altura, por exemplo do telhado em relação ao solo, para que o ar flua, boa orientação, para que o sol incida no piso, e deve oferecer espaço suficiente para todos os animais (figura 9). O benefício do sombreamento, seja natural ou artificial, na reprodução tem sido demonstrado em diversos estudos; no entanto, as sombras só diminuem os efeitos do estresse calórico em condições de temperatura e umidade não extremas (por exemplo, em climas temperados ou em regiões com baixa umidade relativa). -/- Figura 9: Currais com sombreamento artificial, ótima opção para regiões áridas e/ou semiáridas do país. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- 2.8.2 Ventilação forçada -/- O movimento do ar favorece a perda de calor por convecção e em condições de baixa umidade ambiental, permite a eliminação de calor por evaporação (figura 10, 11 e 12). -/- Figura 10: Currais com ventiladores instalados no teto (ventilação forçada). Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 11: Currais com ventiladores instalados no teto (ventilação forçada). Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 12: Currais com ventiladores instalados no teto (ventilação forçada). Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- 2.8.3 Refrescamento/banhos em tanques -/- Este método consiste na construção de tanques, para que as vacas permaneçam em imersão durante curtos períodos (figura 13 e 14). É um método eficaz para que as vacas percam calor nas horas mais quentes do dia, mas é pouco prático já que as vacas devem se mover de seus alojamentos. É mais empregado em regiões de intenso calor dos Estados Unidos com ótimos índices de bem-estar para as vacas e viabilidade tanto para a fertilidade quanto para a financeira. A questão do deslocamento dos animais está relacionada ao manejo. -/- Figura 13: Tanques de refrescamento no Norte da Flórida, Estados Unidos. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 14: Tanques de refrescamento no Norte da Flórida, Estados Unidos. Arquivo pessoal do autor. 2.8.4 Refrescamento com umidade/aspersão de água e ventilação forçada -/- As aspersões de água para umedecimento só favorecem a perda de calor quando a umidade relativa é baixa. Em condições com umidade relativa elevada, deve-se combinar o umedecimento com a ventilação forçada. Existem duas possibilidades para combinar estas técnicas: a primeira consiste na utilização de um sistema que gera pequenas gotas (nebulizadores) que, quando evaporadas, arrefecem o ar permitindo a eliminação de calor por convecção (perda de calor por diferença de temperatura entre a superfície do animal e do ar); este sistema é mais eficaz quando se introduz uma corrente de ar fresco (figura 15). A segunda consiste na aspersão de água para umedecer a pele, combinada com ventilação forçada. Este sistema pode ser usado nos alojamentos e na área de espera da sala de ordenha (figura 16). -/- Figura 15: Instalações com refrescamento por aspersão e ventilação forçada em condições semiáridas. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- A utilização de sistemas de arrefecimento conseguiu reduzir parcialmente os efeitos negativos do estresse calórico na reprodução, mas a fertilidade continua a ser inferior comparada à dos meses frescos do ano. Foram, portanto, exploradas outras estratégias dentro das quais se destaca a utilização de substâncias antioxidantes. Existe evidência de que administrar antioxidantes às vacas leiteiras pode aumentar as porcentagens de concepção; provavelmente, ao reduzir as concentrações de radicais livres que aumentam a nível celular como consequência das altas temperaturas. Por outro lado, dado que o estresse calórico afeta o embrião durante os primeiros dias de desenvolvimento (primeiros 4 dias), foi-se efetuada uma avaliação da transferência de embriões produzidos na época fresca do ano ou produzidos in vitro com resultados encorajadores, mas esta estratégia ainda tem limitações técnicas e econômicas que impedem a sua aplicação rotineira. -/- Figura 16: Arrefecimento com aspersão e ventilação forçada no espaço ou sala de espera da ordenha em condições semiáridas. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- 2.9 Estresse oxidativo -/- Cerca de 2% do oxigênio utilizado no metabolismo animal é convertido em espécies reativas de oxigênio entre as quais encontram os íons de oxigênio, os radicais livres e os peróxidos. Estas moléculas são removidas por vários sistemas bioquímicos presentes nas células e nos fluidos extracelulares, conhecidos como antioxidantes. A produção excessiva de moléculas oxidantes e a deficiência de substâncias antioxidantes leva à sua acumulação e dano celular, o que é conhecido como estresse oxidante. A acumulação de espécies reativas de oxigênio pode ser uma causa de baixa eficiência reprodutiva, porque eles podem afetar a síntese de hormônios esteroides, taxa de fertilização e desenvolvimento precoce do embrião. Dentro dos sistemas antioxidantes estão o selênio, vitamina E e β-carotenos. No entanto, estes antioxidantes estão presentes nas dietas dos bovinos, porém a sua administração exógena intramuscular melhora o desempenho reprodutivo. As vacas leiteiras altas produtoras necessitam de maiores quantidades de substâncias antioxidantes, porque o seu metabolismo oxidativo é maior dado ao elevado consumo de energia metabolizável. Em testes de campo com vacas leiteiras, a complementação com selênio e vitamina E, antes e depois do parto, diminuiu as patologias do puerpério e melhorou a fertilidade; além disso, a sua administração em vacas superovuladas melhora a qualidade embrionária. Além disso, a inclusão de β-carotenos na dieta melhora a fertilidade em vacas sob estresse calórico. -/- 2.10 Momento e técnica da inseminação artificial -/- Em 1948, Trimberger recomendou o esquema de inseminação artificial am-pm e pm-am, o que significa que as fêmeas observadas em estro na parte da manhã são inseminadas na parte da tarde e as da tarde são inseminadas na manhã seguinte. Este horário de inseminação é utilizado desde então; no entanto, nas condições atuais não é o ideal. A inseminação deve ser realizada durante o período de receptividade sexual, que dura de 8 a 18 horas. A ovulação ocorre de 28 a 30 horas após o início do estro e o ovócito tem uma vida de 8 a 10 horas. Por outro lado, os espermatozoides têm uma viabilidade de 24 a 36 horas e para que alcancem a maior capacidade de fertilização, devem permanecer, pelo menos, seis horas na região do istmo, antes da ovulação para se capacitarem. De tal modo que o depósito do sêmen, 12 horas após o início do estro, assegura o encontro de um espermatozoide com capacidade fertilizante e um ovócito com o máximo potencial para desenvolver um embrião saudável. No entanto, devido às graves deficiências que existem na detecção de estros, não se sabe se as vacas detectadas no cio encontram-se nas primeiras ou nas últimas horas do estro. No primeiro caso, se as vacas forem inseminadas 12 horas depois, estariam no momento ideal, mas no segundo caso, adiar 12 horas a inseminação tem consequências negativas sobre a fertilidade, uma vez que aumenta a probabilidade de fertilização de ovócitos velhos, resultando em morte embrionária precoce. Nestes casos é aconselhável inseminar no turno imediato à detecção do estro e evitar que transcorram 12 horas. A boa eficiência na detecção de estros permite inseminar no esquema am-pm e pm-am, ou inclusive em um único turno de inseminação pela manhã (10:00), com bons resultados em concepção (figura 17). Outro erro consiste em inseminar as vacas quando não apresentam estro. A determina- ção das concentrações de progesterona sérica no momento do serviço indica que de 5 a 20% das vacas têm concentrações de progesterona > 1 ng/ml, o que indica que não estão em estro. -/- Figura 17: Com a penetração do espermatozoide ativa-se o mecanismo de bloqueio da polispermia. Este mecanismo consiste na liberação de substâncias contidas nos grânulos corticais, que evitam a penetração de mais espermatozoides (A e B). O bloqueio da polispermia é menos eficaz à medida que o óvulo envelhece, de tal forma que, após 10 horas de liberação, este mecanismo falha. A consequência da polispermia é a morte embrionária precoce, devido a alterações de natureza genética (C). Elaborado pelo autor. -/- Os programas de inseminação a tempo fixo têm o risco de que se podem inseminar vacas em anestro. Por outro lado, em alguns rebanhos leiteiros toma-se, como único critério para a inseminação, o desaparecimento da pintura (marcador) da garupa, o que provoca que cerca de 10% das vacas retornem em estro nos próximos 15 dias. A taxa de fertilização indicada para o gado leiteiro foi obtida em observações experimentais, nas quais foram controlados diversos fatores que não podem ser controlados nos rebanhos comerciais, o que obriga a perguntar-se se realmente a falha na fertilização contribui apenas com 10 a 20% das falhas reprodutivas; é provável que uma proporção maior dos fracassos na concepção são devidos à baixa taxa de ovócitos fertilizados. Por outra parte, as causas da falha na fertilização também estão relacionadas com deficiências no manejo da técnica de inseminação. Não é raro que o manejo da inseminação seja deficiente e que, frequentemente, o nível de nitrogênio diminua abaixo do nível de segurança. Também é comum verificar que as doses são descongeladas sem seguir o protoco- lo e que o sêmen é depositado na vagina ou no colo do útero (figuras 18, 19 e 20). -/- 2.11 Condição corporal e fertilidade -/- A qualificação visual da condição corporal no gado leiteiro permite estimar a porcentagem de gordura corporal. As mudanças na condição corporal estão positivamente correlacionadas com as concentrações séricas de insulina, IGF-I e leptina. Estes hormônios agem como sinais que chegam ao hipotálamo e modificam a frequência de secreção do GnRH. Também se sabe que a insulina e o IGF-I estimulam o desenvolvimento folicular, a maturação do ovócito e o desenvolvimento embrionário (figura 21). -/- Figura 18: Frequentemente, os problemas de fertilidade têm origem na técnica de inseminação. O trabalho dos inseminadores deve ser supervisionado regularmente. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 19: Os técnicos inseminadores devem ser retreinados com frequência. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 20: O sêmen deve ser depositado no corpo do útero. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 21: A perda de condição corporal nos 30 dias pós-inseminação diminui a taxa de concepção. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- As vacas que ganham ou mantêm a mesma condição corporal, entre o dia da inseminação e o dia 30 depois do serviço, são mais férteis que as vacas que perdem condição corporal (tabela 5). Tabela 5: Porcentagem de concepção de vacas que ganharam, mantiveram ou perderam condição corporal nos seguintes 30 dias pós-inseminação -/- Ganharam Mantiveram Perderam % 62,1 56,6 25,1 Nº de observações (154/248) (43/76) (122/486) -/- Fonte: URZÚA et al., 2009. -/- 2.12 Mastite -/- Na vaca, a mastite não só provoca perdas econômicas pelo custo dos tratamentos, eliminação do leite, diminuição da produção e qualidade do leite e aumento da taxa de resíduos, mas também pelo efeito que tem na fertilidade. Existem diferentes estudos que demonstraram uma correlação negativa entre a mastite e a fertilidade. Assim, as vacas que tiveram mastite clínica antes do primeiro serviço, e entre o primeiro serviço e o diagnóstico de gestação foram menos férteis do que as vacas que não sofreram mastite. Da mesma forma, as vacas com mastite clínica, entre a inseminação e o diagnóstico de gestação, tiveram maior risco de perder a gestação. O mecanismo pelo qual a mastite clínica afeta a fertilidade é desconhecido, no entanto, são propostos diferentes possibilidades. O aumento da temperatura corporal secundária à mastite pode afetar a maturação dos ovócitos e o desenvolvimento embrionário, tal como ocorre em vacas expostas a estresse calórico; as substâncias produzidas pelas células durante o processo inflamatório afetam a maturação dos ovócitos e diminuem a proporção de embriões que chegam à etapa de blastocisto; as citocinas promovem a liberação de cortisol, o qual afeta a secreção do LH; A PGF2α (liberada durante o processo infeccioso) pode causar luteólise, o que pode explicar a maior incidência de abortos em vacas com mastite. A diminuição da fertilidade é observada não só nas vacas que sofrem de mastite clínica, mas também naquelas que apresentam a forma subclínica. As vacas que sofreram mastite subclínica antes da inseminação tiveram maior risco de perder a gestação entre os dias 28 a 45. Além disso, a mastite subclínica afeta a síntese de estradiol nos folículos e o intervalo do estro à ovulação, o que poderia ocasionar uma assimetria entre a inseminação e o momento da ovulação. -/- 2.13 Endometrite -/- Entre 20 a 30% das vacas sofrem de endometrite subclínica. As vacas com este problema mostram menor fertilidade do que as vacas saudáveis. Provavelmente, as mudanças no endométrio causadas pelo processo inflamatório afetam a viabilidade embrionária. -/- 2.14 Dinâmica folicular pré-serviço e pós-serviço -/- A sobrevivência embrionária também está associada com a dinâmica folicular, antes e depois do serviço. A fertilidade é maior nas vacas que apresentam três ondas foliculares antes do serviço do que naquelas que têm duas. Em outras palavras, a fertilidade é maior nas vacas que ovulam folículos da terceira onda do que da segunda onda. Isto ocorre porque os folículos ovulatórios das vacas com duas ondas têm mais dias de dominação do que os de três ondas, o que afeta o potencial dos ovócitos para desenvolver um embrião viável (figuras 22 e 23). Da mesma forma, o número de ondas foliculares após o serviço também influencia a fertilidade, de tal forma que as vacas que apresentam três ondas foliculares têm uma fase lútea mais longa e são mais férteis do que as de duas ondas. -/- Figura 22: A porcentagem de concepção é maior quando a vaca tem um ciclo estral pré-serviço com três ondas foliculares do que quando tem duas ondas. Isto obedece a que os folículos ovulatórios das vacas com duas ondas têm mais dias de dominação do que os de três ondas, o que afeta o potencial dos ovócitos para desenvolver um embrião viável. Esta figura mostra uma vaca com três ondas foliculares que ovula um folículo que teve quatro dias de dominação. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- Figura 23: Esta figura mostra uma vaca com duas ondas foliculares no ciclo estral pré-serviço, que ovula um folículo que teve sete dias de dominação. A porcentagem de concepção será menor nestas vacas do que naquelas com três ondas foliculares no ciclo anterior. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- 2.15 Número de folículos antrais: indicador da fertilidade nas vacas -/- Durante o ciclo estral, o número de folículos antrais (>3 mm de diâmetro) varia amplamente entre as vacas; em uma onda folicular pode flutuar de 5 a 50, em ambos os ovários. Esta característica é repetível na mesma vaca, e está correlacionada positivamente com o número total de folículos viáveis e com a fertilidade. Em observações feitas em vacas leiteiras pós-parto verificou-se que o número de folículos antrais presentes na primeira onda folicular está correlacionado positivamente com a fertilidade, de tal forma que as vacas com mais folículos antrais tiveram maior porcentagem de conceção, menos dias abertos e menos serviços por concepção do que vacas com poucos folículos. Além disso, as concentrações séricas de progesterona são mais elevadas nas vacas que têm mais folículos antrais do que aquelas que têm menos folículos. Em outras observações com vacas superovuladas foi-se correlacionado positivamente o número de folículos antrais anteriores ao tratamento com FSH com o número de ovulações e de embriões transferíveis. A causa da variação na oferta de folículos antrais não é conhecida, mas propõe-se que têm origem desde o desenvolvimento embrionário; assim, pode-se dever a diferenças na proliferação das ovogônias ou à variação na taxa de atresia dos folículos primordiais. O ambiente materno durante a fase embrionária e fetal não só é determinante para que nasça um bezerro viável, mas também tem efeitos a longo prazo na progênie. No ser humano, o ambiente fetal determina o risco de doenças na vida adulta, tais como problemas cardiovasculares, obesidade e diabetes. Na vaca tem sido observado que a má nutrição durante a vida fetal determina o número de folículos antrais. Além disso, a coincidência do desenvol- vimento embrionário com a fase mais crítica do estresse lactacional está associada com características da bezerra na vida adulta, como sobrevivência, produção de leite e número de células somáticas. O manejo reprodutivo na vaca leiteira tem como meta que a vaca tenha um intervalo entre partos de 385 dias, o que significa que a vaca deve ficar gestante na etapa mais crítica de sua vida: isto é durante o pico de lactação e quando ainda se encontra em balanço negativo de energia. Desta forma, o desenvolvimento do folículo ovulatório, ovulação, fertilização, desenvolvimento embrionário e desenvolvimento fetal precoce, ocorrem quando a vaca tem maiores carências. Tomando a informação referida em conjunto, é possível que as bezerras que tiveram seu desenvolvimento embrionário e fetal, no período mais crítico da vaca, sejam animais com baixa fertilidade na sua vida adulta. -/- 2.16 Anormalidades do aparelho reprodutor -/- A falha na concepção também se deve a anomalias congênitas e adquiridas do aparelho reprodutor. Embora as anormalidades congênitas nas vacas adultas sejam raras, elas devem ser sempre consideradas na revisão de vacas inférteis. O cérvix duplo é uma anormalidade de desenvolvimento devido a um falha na fusão dos condutos de Müller. O duplo cérvix pode ser completo, no qual cada conduto comunica-se com o seu respectivo corno uterino, ou parcial, onde os orifícios externos se comunicam com um único canal cervical. É uma condição pouco frequente e raramente interfere com a fertilidade, embora quando se apresenta na forma completa pode afetá-la sempre que se insemina do lado oposto do ovário que contém o folículo ovulatório. Na literatura é reportado casos de distocia devido a esta anormalidade (figura 24). A aplasia segmentar também é uma anormalidade rara, caracterizada pela falta de desenvolvimento de um corno uterino. Se a ovulação ocorre do lado onde está o corno uterino completo, a vaca pode ficar gestante e parir sem complicações, mas quando a ovulação ocorre do lado da aplasia, a concepção fracassa e a vaca apresenta anestro, já que não tem o corno uterino a PGF2α não atinge o ovário com um padrão luteolítico (figura 25). -/- Figura 24: Duplo cérvix completo em uma vaca leiteira. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 25: Aplasia segmentar. Se a ovulação ocorrer do lado onde está o corno uterino saudável a vaca pode ficar gestante, mas quando a ovulação ocorre do lado da aplasia, a concepção falha e a vaca apresenta anestro. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- As anomalias do aparelho reprodutor são frequentes nas vacas leiteiras adultas e causam infertilidade e eliminação das vacas do rebanho. Dentro destas patologias destacam-se salpingite e aderências ováricas. A salpingite é a inflamação do oviduto e pode ser unilateral ou bilateral. Quando é unilateral a vaca pode ficar gestante se a ovulação ocorre do lado saudável, mas quando é bilateral, ocasiona esterilidade. A causa da salpingite está relacionada com a injeção de estrogênio em vacas com infecções pós-parto. Observam-se variantes da salpingite como piossalpinge, caracterizada pela dilatação do oviduto por acumulação de exsudado purulento, e hidrossalpinge, caracterizada por acumulação de líquido (figuras 26 e 27). As aderências ováricas são consequência de processos inflamatórios geralmente provocados por infecções ascendentes. O ovário pode ficar preso ao oviduto ou à bolsa ovárica, o que interfere com a ovulação e com o transporte do ovócito. Assim como a salpingite, se a afetação for unilateral, a vaca pode eventualmente ficar gestante, mas quando é bilateral a vaca fica estéril (figura 28). -/- Figura 26: Algumas infecções uterinas chegam a encapsular-se e formam-se abcessos. Esta patologia pode ocasionar infertilidade. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 27: Inflamação do oviduto. A causa desta patologia está relacionada com a injeção de estrogênios em vacas com infecções pós-parto. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- Figura 28: As aderências ováricas são consequência de processos inflamatórios geralmente provoca- dos por infecções ascendentes. Arquivo pessoal do autor. -/- 3. TRATAMENTOS HORMONAIS PARA MELHORAR A PORCENTAGEM/TAXA DE CONCEPÇÃO -/- Existem diversos tratamentos para melhorar a porcentagem de concepção, que têm como objetivo principal diminuir a mortalidade embrionária; no entanto, devido ao fato de a etiologia da morte embrionária ser diversa, os resultados são pouco consistentes e na maioria dos casos em que se observa efeito favorável, este é cerca de 10% (figura 29). -/- Figura 29: Os tratamentos para melhorar a porcentagem de concepção estão orientados a diminuir os efeitos negativos dos fatores que provocam a morte embrionária durante os primeiros 16 dias pós-inseminação. Elaborado pelo autor. 3.1 Progesterona -/- Foram desenvolvidos tratamentos para aumentar o nível sérico de progesterona. Assim, a progesterona foi administrada em dispositivos intravaginais o que induz um corpo lúteo acessório através de uma injeção de hCG no dia cinco após o estro. No primeiro, os resultados foram variáveis, enquanto no segundo caso obteve-se um aumento consistente da fertilidade, particularmente nas vacas de primeiro serviço. -/- 3.2 hCG no quinto dia pós-inseminação -/- Para além do aumento do nível sérico de progesterona nas vacas tratadas com hCG no dia 5, a luteinização do folículo dominante no dia 5, com hCG, faz com que uma elevada proporção das vacas apresente três ondas foliculares e uma fase lútea mais longa. De tal forma que o aumento da porcentagem de concepção pode ser promovido pelo aumento da progesterona sérica e pela modificação da dinâmica folicular. Independentemente do mecanismo de ação do hCG, esta é uma opção eficaz para melhorar a fertilidade das vacas leiteiras (figura 30 e tabela 6). -/- Figura 30: A injeção de hCG no dia 5 pós-inseminação tem como propósito provocar a ovulação do folículo dominante e a formação de um corpo lúteo acessório. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- Tabela 6: Porcentagem de concepção no 30º dia em vacas de primeiro serviço tratadas com hCG no 5º dia Estudo Tratamento Porcentagem de concepção SANTOS et al., 2001 hCG 45,8a Controle 38,7b URZÚA et al., 2009 hCG 55,9a Controle 41,0b -/- a, b Diferença literal na mesma coluna indica diferença estatística (P < 0,05). -/- 3.3 GnRH ou hCG no momento da inseminação -/- Esta forma de enfrentar a falha na concepção se fundamenta no conhecimento de que estes hormônios sincronizam a ovulação com o momento da inseminação, bem como previ- nem problemas de ovulação retardada e melhoraram o desenvolvimento do corpo lúteo. No entanto, a fertilidade obtida com estes tratamentos é variável entre estudos. -/- 3.4 GnRH ou hCG nos dias 12 a 14 pós-inseminação -/- Foi proposto que um dos fatores que contribui com a falha na concepção é a incapaci- dade do embrião para evitar a regressão do corpo lúteo. Desta forma, a inibição da cascata da secreção da PGF2α poderia melhorar as porcentagens de concepção, já que ao embrião se daria mais tempo para alcançar o estado ótimo de desenvolvimento, que lhe permita estabelecer eficazmente o mecanismo de reconhecimento materno da gestação. Este é o princípio dos tratamentos com GnRH ou hCG entre 12 e 14 dias pós-inseminação, que provoca a ovulação ou a luteinização dos folículos, que resulta na diminuição das concentrações séricas de estradiol. Na prática, foram avaliados tratamentos com GnRH ou hCG nos dias 12 a 14; no entanto, os resultados em fertilidade também são variáveis. -/- 3.5 Hormônio bovino do crescimento (bGH) ou somatotropina bovina (bST) -/- No gado leiteiro é comum o uso da bST para aumentar a produção de leite. A utilização deste hormônio em forma periódica aumenta de 10 a 20% a produção láctea. Alguns dos efeitos da bST na produção de leite obedecem à ação direta deste hormônio. No entanto, o maior efeito é provocado pelo IGF-I, que aumenta em resposta ao tratamento com bST. A bST e o IGF-I também desempenham funções importantes no controle da reprodução. Os dois hormônios, participam na regulação do desenvolvimento folicular, na função do corpo lúteo e, especialmente, nas primeiras etapas do desenvolvimento embrionário. Estudos in vitro e in vivo mostram efeitos favoráveis do IGF-I no desenvolvimento embrionário. O IGF-I evita o efeito negativo de algumas substâncias tóxicas para os embriões presentes no meio uterino. A aplicação de 500 mg de bST, no dia da inseminação, tem demonstrado eficácia para aumentar a porcentagem de concepção em vacas repetidoras e em vacas com mais de 100 dias em leite; em contraste, este tratamento não teve êxito nas vacas de primeiro serviço (tabelas 7 e 8). -/- Tabela 7: Porcentagem de concepção de vacas repetidoras tratadas com 500 mg de bST no dia da inseminação Estudo Grupos n Porcentagem de concepção MORALES et al., 2001 bST 201 36a Controle 309 25b MENDOZA, 2000 bST 175 46a Controle 141 35b -/- a, b P < 0,05. -/- Tabela 8: Porcentagem de concepção de vacas de primeiro serviço tratadas com 500 mg de bST no dia da inseminação Estudo Grupos n Porcentagem de concepção MENDOZA, 2000 bST 195 39 Controle 167 35 RODRÍGUEZ et al., 2001 bST 185 36 Controle 250 35 BELL et al., 2001 bST 100 29 Controle 100 31 -/- Não há diferença estatística entre grupos de cada estudo (P > 0,05). -/- 4. MORTE FETAL -/- Quando o embrião morre nos primeiros 18 dias de gestação, considera-se como morte embrionária precoce; nestes casos, apenas é observado que a vaca apresenta estro de 21 a 24 dias após a inseminação. Se o embrião morrer entre os dias 24 a 42 (antes da organogênese estar completa), considera-se morte embrionária tardia; nestas vacas ocorre a reabsorção intrauterina do embrião e só se observa um atraso do retorno ao estro. Se a morte do embrião ocorrer após o dia 45, é um caso de morte fetal. Quando os fetos morrem nos primeiros quatro meses é frequente passarem despercebidos, já que são muito pequenos e se perdem nos pisos dos currais, nestes casos observa-se que as vacas regressam ao estro (figura 31). O aborto é definido como a expulsão uterina do feto antes do termo fisiológico da gestação. De 20 a 25% das vacas diagnosticadas gestantes, no dia 45 pós-inseminação, perdem a gestação nos seguintes meses. A principal causa de abortos é de natureza infecciosa e neste trabalho serão abordadas, de forma breve, quatro doenças que os causam (figura 32). -/- Figura 31: Terminologia utilizada para as perdas de gestações na vaca. Elaborado pelo autor. -/- Figura 32: De 20 a 25% das vacas diagnosticadas gestantes no dia 45 pós-inseminação, perdem a gestação nos meses seguintes. Acervo do autor. 4.1 Brucelose -/- A brucelose bovina é uma doença causada por Brucella abortus. A Brucella abortus é uma bactéria intracelular que é transmitida pelo contato das mucosas com fetos abortados, placentas e com fluidos genitais eliminados após o aborto. Os fluidos uterinos pós-aborto contêm concentrações de bactérias superiores à dose infectante. Embora a bactéria possa estar nas instalações, a transmissão por este meio tem importância epizootiológica menor. Após o contágio, a bactéria é localizada nos nódulos linfáticos regionais, seguido de bacteremia e do estabelecimento da bactéria na placenta. A infecção em uma vaca suscetível provoca o aborto ou o nascimento de bezerros fracos. O aborto ocorre normalmente no terceiro trimestre da gestação; o feto apresenta autólise mínima e há retenção de placenta. A bactéria pode ser localizada no úbere e causar uma leve mastite, por sua vez, as crias podem ser contagiadas pelo consumo de leite de vacas infectadas. Embora o touro possa ser infectado, a transmissão venérea não é de importância epizootiológica. A vacinação é o instrumento mais importante de controle e erradicação da brucelose. As vacinas RB-51 e Cepa 19 são preparações eficazes para prevenir a doença; a desvantagem da Cepa 19 implica na realização de testes de diagnóstico adicionais para ser capaz de distinguir entre uma infecção natural ou uma resposta vacinal. Em 1996, a RB-51 começou a ser utilizada nos Estados Unidos devido à baixa prevalência da doença e a seriedade de seus programas de erradicação, uma vez que a utilização da RB-51 facilita a diferenciação dos animais doentes dos vacinados. A norma brasileira permite a utilização de ambas as vacinas, a sua escolha depende do programa que o veterinário aplicar. Os especialistas recomendam que em países com alta prevalência e com programas de controle marginais, como o Brasil, a vacina de escolha é a Cepa 19, porque proporciona proteção ligeiramente maior. É muito importante não suspender a vacinação só porque se alcançou uma prevalência baixa, a experiência demonstra que quando isso é feito há um ressurgimento da doença. O programa elementar de controle consiste na vacinação com RB-51 ou com Cepa 19 com dose completa em bezerras (RB-51 de 4 a 12 meses ou Cepa 19 de 3 a 6 meses de idade) e meia dose em vacas adultas (a correspondente RB-51 ou Cepa 19). Em regiões com prevalência maior que 10%, as bezerras vacinadas devem ser revacinadas com meia dose uma única vez, a partir dos 22 meses. A vacina não tem efeitos colaterais, embora alguns veterinários têm registrados uma diminuição da produção de leite e ocasionalmente abortos. Os machos não são vacinados porque não têm papel importante na transmissão da doença. A vacinação por si só não é suficiente para o controle da brucelose bovina, são necessárias outras disposições como a identificação e a separação dos animais positivos e medidas elementares de biossegurança. -/- 4.2 Diarreia viral bovina (DVB ou BVD) -/- A diarreia viral bovina (BVD) é uma doença causada por um pestivirus (RNA). Nos gados leiteiros, a prevalência sorológica flutua entre 40 e 90%; estima-se que cause perdas similares às provocadas pela mastite. De acordo com o efeito que o vírus tem em cultura de tecidos, são reconhecidos dois biotipos: citopático e não citopático. O vírus não citopático constitui 95% dos isolamentos em campo. Uma vez que o vírus da BVD sofre mutações frequentes, existem variações (cepas), o que determina a diferença no quadro clínico e o diferente grau de resposta imune às vacinas utilizadas. Os animais afetados mostram diarreia aguda, doença respiratória, imunossupressão, síndrome trombocitopênica, infecção persistente e infecções reprodutivas. As consequências das infecções reprodutivas dependem da fase reprodutiva em que ocorre a infecção. A BVD provoca inflamação ovariana, inflamação dos folículos, necrose das células granulosas e do corpo lúteo. Durante a onda folicular, diminui o tamanho e número de folículos recrutados, de tal forma que o resultado de infecção ovárica resulta em infertilidade. A infecção durante o desenvolvimento embrionário precoce provoca a morte do embrião. Em vacas soronegativas a infecção do feto no primeiro trimestre pode causar morte fetal, aborto, mumificação fetal e bezerros com tolerância imunológica ao vírus (animais persistentemente infectados). Se a infecção ocorrer no segundo trimestre, os bezerros nascem com defeitos congênitos (hipoplasia cerebelar) e se ocorrer no último trimestre, o feto pode ser infectado e nascer com anticorpos contra o vírus da BVD, os abortos nesta fase são raros. Os animais persistentemente infectados são a fonte mais importante de contágio da doença, já que estão eliminando constantemente o vírus. A maioria dos animais persistente- mente infectados morrem no primeiro ano de vida; no entanto, cerca de 10% atinge a idade adulta tornando-se disseminadores ativos do vírus. A identificação e eliminação destes animais é o primeiro passo para controlar a doença no rebanho. No entanto, as técnicas para este fim são complexas e de difícil acesso no Brasil. Nestas circunstâncias, a vacinação é a ferramenta mais prática para diminuir o impacto desta doença, uma vez que reduz as manifestações clínicas, além de prevenir ou diminuir infecções fetais e melhorar a qualidade do colostro. Tais práticas, juntamente com medidas rigorosas de biossegurança, permitem a atenuação do efeito deste vírus. -/- 4.3 Neosporose -/- A neosporose é uma doença causada por Neospora caninum (N. caninum). Este protozoário foi identificado pela primeira vez vez no cão em 1984 e cinco anos depois foi associado com um surto de abortos em um rebanho leiteiro no Novo México. Desde então, é considerado a causa mais importante de abortos em gado leiteiro. A doença foi diagnosticada pela primeira vez no Brasil em 1997, no estado de São Paulo, através do teste sorológico de IFI. A soroprevalência no Brasil é de 15%. O cão e alguns canídeos selvagens são hospedeiros definitivos enquanto a vaca é um hóspede intermediário. O cão é infectado por via oral e elimina cistos com capacidade infectante. Embora o cão seja potencialmente transmissor do parasita na vaca, a via de infecção relacionada com abortos é principalmente transplacentaria. Em estudos recentes foi identificado o protozoário no lúmen uterino e no ovário. Desta forma, a bezerra nasce infectada e quando atinge a idade reprodutiva e fica gestante, a infecção se reativa e afeta o feto. É possível que a imunossupressão das vacas gestantes, a nível uterino, favoreça o recrudescimento da infecção. Assim, os surtos de abortos se apresentariam mais pela reativação da infecção em vacas cronicamente infetadas, e menos por uma infecção recente transmitida por um cão. Os abortos ocorrem principalmente do terceiro ao nono mês, embora seja mais comum entre o quinto e o sexto. É frequente que os fetos infectados durante o último terço da gestação sobrevivam e se convertam em animais persistentemente infectados, o que garante a permanência da infecção no rebanho. Em vacas infectadas o risco do aborto é maior na primeira gestação do que nas seguintes. A vacinação contra N. caninum aumenta os títulos de anticorpos, o que diminui a reativação da infecção e, assim, reduz o risco de aborto. Nota-se que a vacinação não impede a transmissão transplacentária, pelo que a doença persistirá no rebanho. No entanto, já que a causa de surtos de abortos é pela reativação da infecção, uma medida de biossegurança é a expulsão de cães dentro do rebanho, com isso também é conseguido mitigar a incidência de abortos. -/- 4.4 Leptospirose -/- A leptospirose bovina compreende um grupo de doenças causadas por diversas sorovariedades de Leptospira interrogans; atualmente é uma das zoonoses mais frequentes a nível mundial. Existem sorovariedades adaptadas a hospedeiros (reservatórios) e não adaptadas (infecções acidentais), e as diferentes síndromes dependem do tipo de sorovarieda- de envolvida. A sorovariedade Hardjo tipo Hardjo-bovis, é a que possui a maior prevalência sorológica em rebanhos de bovinos leiteiros, frequentemente associadas a abortos e partos prematuros. As sorovariedades que causam infecções incidentais, associadas com abortos, são pomona, canicola, grippotyphosa, e bratislava. Na base do ciclo epizootiológico da leptospirose encontra-se o animal excretor renal, ou seja, os animais portadores crônicos da bactéria que eliminam esta, permanentemente, pela urina. A infecção é adquirida por contato das mucosas (conjuntival, nasal, vaginal e peniana) com urina, secreções genitais e leite de animais doentes, além de que também pode haver transmissão transplacentária. Alguns dos sinais da doença aguda são icterícia, hemoglobinú- ria, anemia, febre e mastite; no entanto, os abortos geralmente ocorrem sem sinais clínicos da doença. A infecção fetal pode resultar em aborto (gestações de quatro meses para o fim) e nascimento de bezerros fracos. Nota-se que os abortos provocados por sorovariedades adaptadas ocorrem de forma esporádica e são raros os casos de surtos rápidos de abortos; no entanto, as infecções acidentais podem provocar abortos com este padrão. Os fetos abortados mostram um grau avançado de autólise, estão ictéricos e edematosos. O diagnóstico da doença é estabelecido principalmente por sorologia. O isolamento da bactéria é complicado e impraticável. A interpretação dos resultados da sorologia deve ter em conta o estatuto de vacinação do rebanho, uma vez que é frequente nos rebanhos leiteiros serem aplicadas várias vacinas por ano contra diferentes sorovariedades de Leptospira, o que contribui, em todos os casos, com resultados positivos. Dentro das medidas de prevenção, a vacinação é a estratégia mais importante para reduzir a eliminação da bactéria pela urina, e para mitigar as perdas de gestação. Recomenda-se a vacinação em todos os animais jovens entre os cinco e os seis meses de idade e de seis em seis meses, a revacinação dos animais adultos. Alguns laboratórios desenvolveram vacinas com sorovariedades de leptospira endêmicas (autovacinas) em diferentes bacias leiteiras. -/- 4.5 Maceração fetal -/- A maceração fetal é uma patologia rara da gestação da vaca. Esta patologia caracteriza-se pela morte fetal durante a segunda metade da gestação, seguida de contaminação ascendente por bactérias piogênicas, retenção do feto e persistência do corpo lúteo. As vacas com um feto macerado podem apresentar exsudação purulenta por via vaginal. À palpação retal sente-se uma saliência do corno uterino e crepitação, a qual é provocada pelo choque dos ossos. O prognóstico destas vacas é reservado, pois, mesmo que elimine-se o feto, os danos causados ao endométrio são severos. Não é aconselhável tratar estas vacas, no entanto, alguns criadores insistem nisso. Se isso acontecer, o tratamento indicado consiste na administração de uma dose luteolítica de PGF2α. Em alguns casos chega-se a eliminar a totalidade do feto, embora o mais frequente é a vaca reter partes ósseas do mesmo. Nota-se que as vacas podem manter o feto ou parte dele, sem ter um corpo lúteo funcional (figura 33). -/- Figura 33: Feto macerado de uma vaca leiteira. Acervo pessoal do autor. -/- 4.6 Mumificação fetal -/- Esta pato. (shrink)

In AI safety research, the median timing of AGI arrival is often taken as a reference point, which various polls predict to happen in the middle of 21 century, but for maximum safety, we should determine the earliest possible time of Dangerous AI arrival. Such Dangerous AI could be either AGI, capable of acting completely independently in the real world and of winning in most real-world conflicts with humans, or an AI helping humans to build weapons of mass destruction, or (...) a national state coupled with AI-based government system. In this article, I demonstrate that the earliest timing of Dangerous AI, corresponding to 10 per cent of its arrival probability, is before 2030. Several partly independent sources of information are in accordance: 1. The growth of the hardware available for AI research makes human-brain-equivalents of compute available for AI research in the 2020s. It is fuelled by specialized AI-chips, the use of many chips in one processing unit, and the larger research budgets, among other things. 2. The neural network performance and other characteristics, like the number of parameters, is quickly increasing every year, and extrapolating this tendency suggests that roughly human-level performance in a few years, around 2025. 3. Expert polls show around 10 per cent of the probability of an early appearance of artificial general intelligence (AGI) in the next decade, that is, before 2030. 4. Hyperbolic growth in different big history models converges around 2025-2030 (the technological singularity). 5. Anthropic arguments (similar to the Doomsday argument) suggest that qualified observers are more likely to appear near the end of the AI research epoch, as the number of such observers grew exponentially. This number doubles every 5-10 years, and thus we are likely to find ourselves around a decade before the end of AI research, which will happen consequently around 2030. (shrink)

In the sea trade, the traditional paper-based bill of lading has played an important role across the globe for centuries, but with the advent of advanced commercial modes of transportation and communication, the central position of this document is under threat. The importance of the bill of lading still prevails as does the need of the functions that this document served in the past, although in a changed format. In the recent past, the world has witnessed a lot of debate (...) about replacing this traditional paper-based document with an electronic equivalent that exhibits all of its functions and characteristics, both commercial and legal. More specifically, unlike many rival travel documents, such as the Sea Waybill, a bill of lading has two prominent features, that is to say, its negotiability and its acceptability as a document of title in certain legal jurisdictions that are required to be retained in an electronic bill of lading so as to also retain the prominence of this document in the future landscape. This thesis is, however, more concerned about the legal aspects of adopting the electronic bill of lading as a traditional paper-based legal document as well as an effective legal document in the present age. However, the scope of this debate remains primarily focused on the USA and UK jurisdictions. In the course of this thesis, it is observed that, in the past, the bill of lading has been subject to a variety of international regimes, such as The Hague Rules and The Hague-Visby Rules, and presently efforts are being made to arrive at a universal agreement under the umbrella of The Rotterdam Rules, but such an agreement is yet to arrive among the comity of nations. On the other hand, efforts made by the business community to introduce an electronic bill of lading are much louder and more evident. The private efforts, such as the SeaDocs System, CMI Rules, and the BOLERO Project, etc., were, however, received by the fellow business community with both applause as well as suspicion. At the same time, there are a number of concerns voiced by the international business community on the legislative adoptability in national and international jurisdictions and the courts’ approach in adjudicating cases involving electronic transactions and these are making the task of adoption of electronic bill of lading in the sea-based transactions a difficult task. Therefore, in the absence of any formal legal backing from national and international legislations, these attempts could not achieve the desired results. In this thesis, the present situation of the acceptability of electronic transactions in general, and of the electronic bill of lading specifically, has also been discussed with reference to certain national jurisdictions, such as Australia, India, South Korea and China, in order to present comparative perspectives on the preparedness of these nations. On the regional level, the efforts made by the European Union have also been discussed to promote electronic transactions within its jurisdiction. All the discussion, however, leads to the situation where the level of acceptability of electronic bill of lading in the near future is found to be dependent upon the official efforts from the national governments and putting these efforts towards arriving at an agreement on Rotterdam Rules as early as possible. The other area of importance revealed in this thesis is the need for change in juristic approach by the courts while interpreting and adjudicating upon cases involving electronic transactions. On the whole, this thesis has provided a cohesive and systematic review, synthesis and analysis of the history of the bill of lading, its importance as a document of title, and attempts to incorporate its important functions within the fast-paced electronic shipping commerce of today. In such a way it has provided a valuable contribution to the literature by providing a comprehensive resource for jurists, policy-makers and the business community alike, as they work towards adapting the bill of lading so that it might be successfully applied in electronic form. (shrink)

The vacuum energy density of free scalar quantum field Φ in a Rindler distributional space-time with distributional Levi-Cività connection is considered. It has been widely believed that, except in very extreme situations, the influence of acceleration on quantum fields should amount to just small, sub-dominant contributions. Here we argue that this belief is wrong by showing that in a Rindler distributional background space-time with distributional Levi-Cività connection the vacuum energy of free quantum fields is forced, by the very same background (...) distributional space-time such a Rindler distributional background space-time, to become dominant over any classical energy density component. This semiclassical gravity effect finds its roots in the singular behavior of quantum fields on a Rindler distributional space-times with distributional Levi-Cività connection. In particular we obtain that the vacuum fluctuations Φ2 have a singular behavior at a Rindler horizon R 0 : 2 ( ) 4 , 2 , δ = Φ δ δ − δ  c a a→∞ . Therefore sufficiently strongly accelerated observer burns up near the Rindler horizon. Thus Polchinski’s account doesn’t violate the Einstein equivalence principle. (shrink)

The motivation comes from the analogy (equivalence?) of the A-series to ontologically private qualia in Dualism. This leads to the proposal that two quantum systems, no matter how small, mutually observe each other when and only when they come to share the same A-series. McTaggart's A-series and B-series can be varied independently so they cannot be the same temporal variable.

The higher number of species on Earth is equivalent to the higher number of possibilities humans can take inspiration from for innovations. Many technological innovations have been successfully generated based on inspirations from wildlife species, such as parasitic wasp-inspired needles, gecko-inspired surgical glue, peacock-inspired biosensors, fiddler crab-inspired artificial vision system, etc. Or, why don’t you imagine what human societies would have been without Penicillin if Alexander Fleming had not observed the Petri dishes containing Staphylococcus bacteria and noticed something strange. Therefore, (...) it is argued that conserving biodiversity sustains our livelihood and contributes to advancing human civilizations. (shrink)

In three empirical studies we examined how people reason about prior convictions in child abuse cases. We tested whether the disclosure of similar prior convictions prompts a mental representation or an additive probative value (Criminal Justice Act, 2003). Asymmetrical use of similar priors were observed in three studies. A pilot study showed that disclosure of a second prior did not contribute a weight equivalent to that of the first disclosure. Study 1 showed jurors did not see left-handed evidence (i.e. matching (...) victim bruising) as more indicative of guilt than right-handedness unless a prior conviction was present, and the presence of priors suppressed the generation of alternative possibilities indicative of innocence. Study 2 showed that disclosure did not decrease community ratings of reoffending propensity and dangerousness as much as a similar prior conviction increased them. We consider the results in the context of a new psychological theory of prior conviction bias and the consequences for the implementation of Section 100 of the Criminal Justice Act (2003). (shrink)

Here, we present some results in continuation of 1.Epistemological Observation About Mind-Machine Equivalence 2.F.Didehvar, Morality, Equality, Mind and Machine, 3.F.Didehvar, on defining “I” On definition of Mind, and Physicalism. -/- .

The vacuum energy density of free scalar quantum field phgr in a Rindler distributional space-time with distributional Levi-Cività connection is considered. It has been widely believed that, except in very extreme situations, the influence of acceleration on quantum fields should amount to just small, sub-dominant contributions. Here we argue that this belief is wrong by showing that in a Rindler distributional background space-time with distributional Levi-Cività connection the vacuum energy of free quantum fields is forced, by the very same background (...) distributional space-time such the Rindler distributional background space-time, to become dominant over any classical energy density component. This semiclassical gravity effect finds its roots in the singular behavior of quantum fields on a Rindler distributional space-times with distributional Levi-Cività connection. In particular we obtain that the vacuum fluctuations 〈phgr2〉 has a singular behavior on a Rindler horizon. Therefore sufficiently strongly accelerated observer burns up near the Rindler horizon. Thus Polchinski's account doesn't violate of the Einstein equivalence principle. (shrink)