Horwich gibt eine feine Analyse von Wittgenstein (W) und ist ein führender W-Stipendiat, aber meinerMeinung nach sind sie alle hinter einer vollen Wertschätzung zurück, wie ich in dieser Rezension und vielen anderen ausführlich erkläre. Wenn man W (und vorzugsweise auch Searle) nicht versteht, dann sehe ich nicht, wie man mehr als ein oberflächliches Verständnis von Philosophie und höherem Denken und damit von allem komplexen Verhalten (Psychologie, Soziologie, Anthropologie, Geschichte, Literatur, Gesellschaft) haben könnte. Kurz gesagt, W hat gezeigt, dass, wenn Sie (...) gezeigt haben, wie ein Satz im Zusammenhang mit Interesse verwendet wird, es nichts mehr zu sagen gibt. Ich beginne mit ein paar bemerkenswerten Zitaten und gebe dann, was ich denke, sind die minimalen Überlegungen notwendig, um Wittgenstein zu verstehen, Philosophie und menschliches Verhalten. Zunächst könnte man feststellen, dass es verdächtig sein sollte, "Meta" vor jedes Wort zu stellen. W bemerkte z.B., dass Metamathematik Mathematik wie jede andere ist. Die Vorstellung, dass wir aus der Philosophie austreten können (d.h. die beschreibende Psychologie des Denkens höherer Ordnung), ist selbst eine tiefe Verwirrung. Eine weitere Irritation hier (und während des akademischen Schreibens in den letzten 4 Jahrzehnten) ist der ständige umgekehrte sprachliche Sexismus von "ihrem" und "ihr" und "sie" oder "er/sie" usw., wo "sie" und "ihre" und "sie" gut machen würden. Ebenso, wird die Verwendung des französischen Wortes "Repertoire", bei dem das englische "Repertoire" recht gut funktioniert. Der größte Mangel ist das (wenn auch sehr häufige) völlige Versäumnis, das zu verwenden, was ich als die enorm leistungsfähige und intuitive Zwei-System-Ansicht von HOT und Searles Framework betrachte, die ich oben skizziert habe. Dies ist besonders ergreifend im Kapitel über die Bedeutung p111 ff. (besonders in den Fußnoten 2-7), wo wir in sehr schlammigem Wasser ohne den Rahmen von automatisierten echten nur S1, propositional DispositionS, COS usw. schwimmen. Man kann auch einen besseren Blick auf das Innere und das Äußere bekommen, indem man z.B. Johnston oder Budd liest (siehe meine Rezensionen). Horwich macht jedoch viele einschneidende Kommentare. Besonders gefiel mir seine Zusammenfassung der Bedeutung von Wes antitheoretischer Haltung auf P65. Er muss "On Certainty" stärker in den Vordergrund stellen, das kürzlich von Daniele Moyal- Sharrock, Coliva und anderen mit viel Aufwand beworfen und in meinen jüngsten Artikeln zusammengefasst wurde. Horwich ist erstklassig und seine Arbeit lohnt sich. Man hofft, dass er (und alle) Searle und einige moderne Psychologie sowie Hutto, Read, Hutchinson, Stern, Moyal-Sharrock, Stroll, Hacker und Baker etc. studieren werden, um eine breite moderne Sicht des Verhaltens zu erreichen. Die meisten ihrer Papiere sind auf academia dot edu und philpapers dot org, aber für PMS Hacker siehe http slash slash info dot sjc dot ox dot ac dot uk slash scr slash hacker slash DownloadPapers dot html Er gibt eine der schönsten Zusammenfassungen, wo uns ein Verständnis von Wittgenstein hinterlässt, das ich je gesehen habe. "Es darf keinen Versuch geben, unsere sprachliche/konzeptionelle Tätigkeit (PI 126) zu erklären, wie in Freges Reduktion der Arithmetik auf logik; kein Versuch, ihr erkenntnistheoretische Grundlagen zu geben (PI 124), wie sie auf der Grundlage von Berichten über ein vormethodikes Wissen beruhen; kein Versuch, idealisierte Formen davon (PI 130) als in gewissem Sinne Logiken zu charakterisieren; kein Reformversuch (PI 124, 132) wie in Mackies Fehlertheorie oder Dummetts Intuitionismus; kein Versuch, sie zu straffen (PI 133) wie in Quines Existenzbericht; kein Versuch, es konsistenter zu machen (PI 132) wie in Tarskis Antwort auf die Lügner-Paradoxien; und kein Versuch, es vollständiger zu machen (PI 133) wie bei der Klärung von Fragen der persönlichen Identität für bizarre hypothetische 'Teleportation'-Szenarien." Abschließend möchte ich vorschlagen, dass W mit der Perspektive, die ich hier gefördert habe, im Zentrum der zeitgenössischen Philosophie und Psychologie steht und nicht obskur, schwierig oder irrelevant ist, sondern schillernd, tiefgründig und kristallklar ist und dass es ist, eines der größten intellektuellen Abenteuer zu verpassen, das möglichist. Wer aus der modernen zweisystems-Sichteinen umfassenden, aktuellen Rahmen für menschliches Verhalten wünscht, kann mein Buch "The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mindand Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle' 2nd ed (2019) konsultieren. Diejenigen,die sich für mehr meiner Schriften interessieren, können 'Talking Monkeys--Philosophie, Psychologie, Wissenschaft, Religion und Politik auf einem verdammten Planeten --Artikel und Rezensionen 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) und Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) und andere sehen . (shrink)

Is the societal-level of analysis sufficient today to understand the values of those in the global workforce? Or are individual-level analyses more appropriate for assessing the influence of values on ethical behaviors across country workforces? Using multi-level analyses for a 48-society sample, we test the utility of both the societal-level and individual-level dimensions of collectivism and individualism values for predicting ethical behaviors of business professionals. Our values-based behavioral analysis indicates that values at the individual-level make a more significant contribution to (...) explaining variance in ethical behaviors than do values at the societal-level. Implicitly, our findings question the soundness of using societal-level values measures. Implications for international business research are discussed. (shrink)

Freud, kendini Kopernik ve Darwin’in de dahil olduğu merkezsizleştirici düşünce hareketi içinde görmekteydi. Ünlü bir pasajında, psikanalizin, “egoya kendi evinin bile efendisi olmadığını, ancak aklında, bilinçten uzak bir biçimde olup bitenlerin kıt bilgisi ile yetinmesi gerektiğini kanıtlamaya çabaladığını” söyler. Kendimizin önemli olduğu hissi veya özdenetim duygumuz, gerçekten kendimize karşı şeffaf olduğumuz inancına mı dayanmaktadır? Bilinç dışının keşfi neden arzularımızın keşfine değersizlik eklemek zorundadır?Freud thought of himself as part of the same “decentering” movement of thought to which Copernicus and Darwin belonged. (...) In a famous passage, he says that psychoanalysis “seeks to prove to the ego that it is not even master in its own house, but must content itself with scanty information of what is going on unconsciously in its mind.” Does our sense of our importance, or our capacity for self-control, really depend on the belief that we are transparent to ourselves? Why should the discovery of the unconscious add humiliation to the discovery of the passions? (shrink)

Conceptualism is the thesis that, for any perceptual experience E, (i) E has a Fregean proposition as its content and (ii) a subject of E must possess a concept for each item represented by E. We advance a framework within which conceptualism may be defended against its most serious objections (e.g., Richard Heck's argument from nonveridical experience). The framework is of independent interest for the philosophy of mind and epistemology given its implications for debates regarding transparency, relationalism and representationalism, (...) demonstrative thought, phenomenal character, and the speckled hen objection to modest foundationalism. (shrink)

Der berühmte Ameisenmann E.O. Wilson war schon immer einer meiner Helden - nicht nur ein hervorragender Biologe, sondern eine der winzigen und verschwindenden Minderheit von Intellektuellen, die es zumindest wagt, die Wahrheit über unsere Natur anzudeuten, die andere nicht verstehen oder, soweit sie es verstehen, aus politischen Gründen unermüdlich vermeiden. Leider beendet er seine lange Karriere auf äußerst schäbige Weise als Partei eines ignoranten und arroganten Angriffs auf die Wissenschaft, der zumindest teilweise durch die religiöse Inbrunst seiner Harvard-Kollegenmotiviertist. Es zeigt (...) die abscheulichen Folgen, wenn Universitäten Geld von religiösen Gruppen annehmen, Wissenschaftszeitschriften von großen Namen so bewundert sind, dass sie eine ordnungsgemäße Peer Review vermeiden und wenn Egos außer Kontrolle geraten dürfen. Es führt uns in die Natur der Evolution, die Grundlagen der wissenschaftlichen Methodik, wie Mathematik mit Wissenschaft zusammenhängt, was eine Theorie ausmacht, und sogar, welche Einstellungen zu Religion und Großzügigkeit angemessen sind, wenn wir uns unaufhaltsam dem Zusammenbruch der industriellen Zivilisation nähern. Ich fand Abschnitte in 'Conquest' mit dem üblichen prägnanten Kommentar (obwohl nichts wirklich Neues oder Interessantes, wenn man seine anderen Werke gelesen hat und auf biologie im Allgemeinen ist) in der oftgestylten Prosa, die sein Markenzeichen ist, aber war ziemlich überrascht, dass der Kern des Buches seine Ablehnung inklusiver Fitness (die seit über 50 Jahren ein Standbein der Evolutionsbiologie ist) zugunsten der Gruppenauswahl ist. Man nimmt an, dass von ihm kommen und mit den articles er bezieht sich auf veröffentlicht von sich selbst und Harvard Mathematik Kollege Nowak in großen Peer-Review-Zeitschriften wie Nature, muss es ein wesentlicher Fortschritt sein,, trotz der Tatsache, dass ich wusste, Gruppenauswahl wurde fast überall abgelehnt, da mit jeder großen Rolle in der Evolution. Ich habe zahlreiche Rezensionen im Netz gelesen und viele haben gute Kommentare, aber die, die ich am meisten sehen wollte, war, dass von renommierten Wissenschaftsautor und Evolutionsbiologe Richard Dawkins. Im Gegensatz zu den meisten von Fachleuten, die in Zeitschriften nur für diejenigen mit Zugang zu einer Universität zur Verfügung stehen, ist es leicht im Netz verfügbar, obwohlanscheinend, entschied er sich, es nicht in einer Zeitschrift zu veröffentlichen, da es angemessen abscheulich ist. Leider findet man eine vernichtende Ablehnung des Buches und den acerbic Kommentar über einen wissenschaftlichen Kollegen, den ich je von Dawkins gesehen habe -- über alles in seinem vielen Austausch mit dem verstorbenen und unbeklagten Demagogen und Pseudowissenschaftler Stephan Jay Gould. Obwohl Gould für seine persönlichen Angriffe auf seinen Harvard-Kollegen Wilson berüchtigt war, stellt Dawkins fest, dass ein Großteil von "Conquest" einen unbequem an Goulds häufige Verfehlungen in "bland, unfocussed ecumenicalis" erinnert. Dasselbe gilt mehr oder weniger für Wilsons populäres Schreiben, einschließlich seines jüngsten Buches "The Meaning of Human Existence" – eine weitere schamlose Eigenwerbung seiner diskreditierten Ideen zu Inklusiver Fitness (IF). Dawkins weist darauf hin, dass das berüchtigte 2010-Papier von Nowak, Tarnita und Wilson in Nature von über 140 Biologen, die einen Brief unterzeichnet haben, fast überall abgelehnt wurde und dass es in Wilsons Buch kein Wort darüber gibt. Auch in den folgenden 4 Jahren mit Artikeln, Vorträgen und mehreren Büchern haben sie dies nicht korrigiert. Es gibt keine andere Wahl, als Dawkins trenchant Kommentar zuzustimmen: "Für Wilson nicht zu zugeben, dass er für sich selbst gegen die große Mehrheit seiner professionellen Kollegen spricht - es schmerzt mich, dies von einem lebenslangen Helden zu sagen -- ein Akt mutwilligen Arroganz." Angesichts von Nowaks späterem Verhalten muss man ihn auch einbeziehen. Ich habe das Gefühl, dass einer der fassungslosen Menschen, die man im Fernsehen sieht, interviewt wird, nachdem der nette Mann von nebenan, der seit 30 Jahren alle Kinder babysitten, als Serienmörder entlarvt wird. Dawkins weist auch darauf hin (wie er und andere seit vielen Jahren), dass inklusive Fitness mit dem Neo-Darwinismus (d.h. logischerweise folgt) entsteht und nicht abgelehnt werden kann, ohne die Evolution selbst abzulehnen. Wilson erinnert uns erneut an Gould, der Kreationisten von der einen Seite seines Mundes anprangerte, während er ihnen Trost spendete, indem er endlosen ultraliberalen marxistisch gefärbten Kauderwelsch über Spandrels, unterbrochenes Gleichgewicht und Evolutionspsychologie von der anderen ausspeist. Die Unbestimmtheit und mathematische Opazität (für die meisten von uns) der Mathematik der Gruppen- oder Mehrebenenauswahl ist genau das, was die Sanftmütigen ihnen ermöglichen wollen, dem rationalen Denken in ihren endlosen antiwissenschaftlichen Gerüchten und (in der Wissenschaft) postmodernen Wortsalate zu entkommen. Schlimmer noch, Wilsons "Eroberung" ist ein schlecht durchdachtes und schlampig geschriebenes Durcheinander voller Nonsequiturs, vager Streifzüge, Verwirrungen und Inkohärenz. Eine gute Bewertung, die einige davon im Detail ist, dass von Absolvent Gerry Carter, die Sie im Netz finden können. Wilson hat auch nichts mit unserem gegenwärtigen Verständnis der Evolutionspsychologie (EP) zu tun (siehe z.B. die letzten 300 Seiten von Pinkers 'The Better Angels of our Nature'). Wenn Sie eine seriöse Buchlänge Bericht über die soziale Evolution und einige relevante EP von einem Experten wollen, siehe 'Principles of Social Evolution' von Andrew F.G. Bourke, oder ein nicht ganz so ernster und zugegebenermaßen fehlerhafter und irrender Bericht, aber ein Muss,das Robert Trivers dennoch lesen muss—'The Folly of Fools: The Logic of Deceit and Self-Deception in Human Life' und ältere, aber immer noch aktuelle und durchdringende Werke wie 'The Evolutionof Cooperation':Revised Edition by Robert Axelrod and 'The Biology ofMoral Systems' von Richard Alexander. (shrink)

In 1949, the Department of Philosophy at the University of Manchester organized a symposium “Mind and Machine” with Michael Polanyi, the mathematicians Alan Turing and Max Newman, the neurologists Geoff rey Jeff erson and J. Z. Young, and others as participants. Th is event is known among Turing scholars, because it laid the seed for Turing’s famous paper on “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”, but it is scarcely documented. Here, the transcript of this event, together with Polanyi’s original statement and his (...) notes taken at a lecture by Jeff erson, are edited and commented for the fi rst time. Th e originals are in the Regenstein Library of the University of Chicago. Th e introduction highlights elements of the debate that included neurophysiology, mathematics, the mind-body-machine problem, and consciousness and shows that Turing’s approach, as documented here, does not lend itself to reductionism. (shrink)

Po pół wieku w zapomnieniu, natura świadomości jest teraz najgorętszym tematem w naukach behawioralnych i filozofii. Począwszy od pionierskiej pracy Ludwiga Wittgensteina w latach 30-tych (Blue and Brown Books) i od lat 50-tych do chwili obecnej przez jego logicznego następcę Johna Searle'a, stworzyłem poniższą tabelę jako heurystykę do dalszego tego badania. Wiersze pokazują różne aspekty lub sposoby studiowania, a kolumny pokazują mimowolne procesy i dobrowolne zachowania obejmujące dwa systemy (podwójne procesy) logicznej struktury świadomości (LSC), które można również uznać za logiczną (...) strukturę racjonalności (LSR-Searle), zachowania (LSB), osobowości (LSP), rzeczywistości (LSOR), celowości (LSI) -filozoficznego klasycznego terminu, opisowa psychologia świadomości (DPC) , Psychologia Opisowa Myśli (DPT) - lub lepiej, Język Psychologii Opisowej Myśli (LDPT), terminy wprowadzone tutaj i w moich innych bardzo ostatnich pism. Ci, którzy chcą kompleksowych, aktualnych ram dla ludzkich zachowań z nowoczesnego widoku dwóch systems, mogą zapoznać sięz moją książką "Logiczna struktura filozofii, psychologii, mind ijęzyka w Ludwig wittgenstein i John Searle' 2nd ed (2019). Osoby zainteresowane bardziej moimi pismami mogą zobaczyć "Talking Monkeys - Filozofia, Psychologia, Nauka, Religia i Polityka na Skazanej Planecie - Artykuły i recenzje 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) i Suicidal Utopian Urojenia w 21wieku 4th th ed (2019) i inne. (shrink)

Eine kurze Zusammenfassung dieses Buches finden Sie auf S. 135 oder 326. Wenn Sie in der Evolutionspsychologie nicht auf dem neuesten Standsind, sollten Sie zunächst einen der zahlreichen aktuellen Texte mit diesem Begriff im Titel lesen. Eines der besten ist "The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology" 2nd ed by Buss. Bis vor etwa 15 Jahren waren "Erklärungen" des Verhaltens überhaupt keine Erklärungen für mentale Prozesse, sondern eher vage und weitgehend nutzlose Beschreibungen dessen, was Menschen taten und was sie sagten, ohne ein (...) Einsicht in das Warum. Man könnte sagen, dass sich die Menschen versammeln, um an ein Ereignis zu erinnern, Gott zu preisen, seine (oder ihre) Segnungen zu empfangen usw.. , aber nichts davon beschreibt die relevanten mentalen Prozesse, so könnten wir sagen, dass es Erklärungen in der gleichen Weise, dass es erklärt, warum ein Apfel fällt auf den Boden, wenn wir sagen, es, weil wir es freigegeben, und es ist schwer-es gibt keinen Mechanismus und keine erklärende oder prädiktive Kraft. Dieses Buch setzt die Aufklärung der genetischen Grundlagen menschlichen Verhaltens fort, die von Wissenschaft, Religion, Politik und Öffentlichkeit fast überall ignoriert und geleugnet wurde (siehe Pinkers ausgezeichnetes Buch ''The Blank Slat''). Seine Aussage (p3), dass es bedeutungslos ist zu fragen, ob Religion genetisch ist, ist falsch, da der Prozentsatz der Variation eines Verhaltens aufgrund von Genen und Umwelt untersucht werden kann, genau wie sie für alle anderen Verhaltensweisen sind (siehe z.B. Pinker). Der Titel sollte "Preliminary Attempts to Explain Some Aspects of Primitive Religion"lauten, da er überhaupt kein höheres Bewusstsein behandelt (z.B. Satori, Erleuchtung usw.), die bei weitem die interessantesten Phänomene und der einzige Teil der Religion von persönlichem Interesse für intelligente, gebildete Menschen im 21. Jahrhundert sind. Wenn man dieses ganze Buch liest, würde man nie ahnen, dass es solche Dinge gibt. Ebenso, für das immense Feld der Drogen und Religion. Es fehlt ein Rahmen für Rationalität und erwähnt nicht die dualen Denksysteme, die jetzt so produktiv sind. Für diemeine eigenen jüngsten Papiere schlage ich vor. Dennoch hat das Buch großesInteresse, und trotz der Verabginkung ist immer noch lesenswert. Wer aus der modernen zweisystems-Sichteinen umfassenden, aktuellen Rahmen für menschliches Verhalten wünscht, kann mein Buch "The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mindand Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle' 2nd ed (2019) konsultieren. Diejenigen,die sich für mehr meiner Schriften interessieren, können 'Talking Monkeys--Philosophie, Psychologie, Wissenschaft, Religion und Politik auf einem verdammten Planeten --Artikel und Rezensionen 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) und Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) und andere sehen. (shrink)

Ich beginne mit einigen berühmten Kommentaren des Philosophen (Psychologen) Ludwig Wittgenstein, weil Pinker mit den meisten Menschen (aufgrund der Standardeinstellungen unserer entwickelten angeborenen Psychologie) bestimmte Vorurteile über das Funktionieren desGeistes teilt und weil Wittgenstein einzigartige und tiefgründige Einblicke in das Wirken von Sprache, Denken und Wirklichkeit bietet (die er als mehr oder weniger koextensiv ansah), die er nirgendwo sonst findet. Diere bezieht sich nur auf Wittgenstein in diesem Band, was sehr bedauerlich ist, wenn man bedenkt, dass er der brillanteste und (...) originellste Analytiker der Sprache war. Im letzten Kapitel fasst er anhand der berühmten Metapher von Platons Höhle das Buch auf wunderbare Weise mit einem Überblick darüber zusammen, wie der Geist (Sprache, Denken, absichtliche Psychologie) – ein Produkt blinden Egoismus, nur geringfügig durch automatisierten Altruismus für nahe Verwandte, die Kopien unserer Gene tragen (Inclusive Fitness)– automatisch arbeitet, aber versucht, mit einer optimistischen Note zu enden, indem er uns Hoffnung gibt, dass wir dennoch seine enormen Fähigkeiten nutzen können, um zusammenzuarbeiten. Pinker ist sich dessen sicherlich bewusst, sagt aber wenig darüber aus, dass weit mehr über unsere Psychologie weggelassen wird als eingeschlossen. Unter den Fenstern in die menschliche Natur, die ausgelassen oder minimale Aufmerksamkeit gegeben werden, sind Mathematik und Geometrie, Musik und Klänge, Bilder, Ereignisse und Kausalität, Ontologie (Klassen von Dingen oder was wir wissen), die meisten der Erkenntnistheorie (wie wir wissen), Dispositionen (glauben, Denken, Richten, Beabsichtigen etc.) und der Rest der absichtlichen Handlungspsychologie, Neurotransmitter und Entheogene, spirituelle Zustände (z.B. Satori und Erleuchtung, Hirnstimulation und -aufzeichnung, Hirnschäden und Verhaltensdefizite und -störungen, Spiele und Sport, Entscheidungstheorie (inkl. Spieltheorie und Verhaltensökonomie), Tierverhalten (sehr wenig Sprache, aber eine Milliarde Jahre geteilte Genetik). Viele Bücher wurden über jeden dieser Bereiche der absichtlichen Psychologie geschrieben. Die Daten in diesem Buch sind Beschreibungen, keine Erklärungen, die zeigen, warum unser Gehirn es auf diese Weise tut oder wie es gemacht wird. Woher wissen wir, die Sätze auf ihre unterschiedliche Weise zu verwenden (d.h. alle ihre Bedeutungen zu kennen)? Dies ist die Evolutionspsychologie, die auf einer grundlegenderen Ebene arbeitet – der Ebene, auf der Wittgenstein am aktivsten ist. Und der Kontext, in dem Worte verwendet werden, ist kaum beachtet = eine Arena, die Wittgenstein als Pionier emittierte. Dennoch, ist dies ein klassisches Werk und mit diesen Vorsichtsmaßnahmen ist immer noch lesenswert. Wer aus der modernen zweisystems-Sichteinen umfassenden, aktuellen Rahmen für menschliches Verhalten wünscht, kann mein Buch "The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle' 2nd ed (2019) konsultieren. Die jenigen,die sich für mehr meiner Schriften interessieren, können 'Talking Monkeys--Philosophie, Psychologie, Wissenschaft, Religion und Politik auf einem verdammten Planeten --Artikel und Rezensionen 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) und Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) und andere sehen. (shrink)

Ameryka i świat są w trakcie upadku z nadmiernego wzrostu populacji, większość z nich w ostatnim stuleciu, a teraz wszystko to ze względu na 3-cia ludzi świata. Konsumpcja zasobów i dodanie jednego lub dwóch miliardów więcej około 2100 upadnie cywilizacji przemysłowej i doprowadzić do głodu, chorób, przemocy i wojny na oszałamiającą skalę. Miliardy umrą, a wojna nuklearna jest pewna. W Ameryce jest to znacznie przyspieszone przez masową imigrację i reprodukcję imigrantów, w połączeniu z nadużyciami możliwymi przez demokrację. Zdeprawowana ludzka natura (...) nieubłaganie zamienia marzenie o demokracji i różnorodności w koszmar przestępczości i ubóstwa. Główną przyczyną upadku jest niezdolność naszej wrodzonej psychologii do przystosowania się do współczesnego świata, która prowadzi ludzi do traktowania osób niepowiązanych tak, jakby mieli wspólne interesy. To, plus nieznajomość podstawowej biologii i psychologii, prowadzi do złudzeń inżynierii społecznej częściowo wykształconych, którzy kontrolują demokratyczne społeczeństwa. Niewielu rozumie, że jeśli pomożesz jednej osobie, skrzywdzisz kogoś innego — nie ma darmowego lunchu, a każdy przedmiot, który ktoś zużywa, niszczy ziemię nie do naprawienia. W związku z tym polityka społeczna na całym świecie jest niezrównoważona i wszystkie społeczeństwa bez rygorystycznej kontroli egoizmów popadną w anarchię lub dyktaturę. Bez dramatycznych i natychmiastowych zmian nie ma nadziei na zapobieżenie upadkowi Ameryki ani żadnego kraju, który podąża za systemem demokratycznym. Stąd mój esej "Samobójstwo przez demokrację". Jest również teraz jasne, że siedmiu socjopatów, którzy rządzą Chinami, wygrywa 3 wojnę światową, a więc mój esej końcowy na ich temat. Jedynym większym zagrożeniem jest sztuczna inteligencja, którą krótko komentuję. Kluczem do wszystkiego o nas jest biologia, i to jest niepamięć do niego, że prowadzi miliony inteligentnych wykształconych ludzi, takich jak Obama, Chomsky,Clinton, Partii Demokratycznej i papieża do espouse samobójcze utopijne ideały, które nieubłaganie prowadzić prosto do piekła na Ziemi. Jak zauważył W, to, co jest zawsze na naszych oczach, że jest najtrudniejsze do zobaczenia. Żyjemy w świecie świadomego deliberacyjnego systemu językowego 2, ale rządzi nieświadomy, automatyczny system refleksyjny 1. Jest to źródło uniwersalnej ślepoty opisanej przez Searle's The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Blank Slate Pinkera oraz Tooby and Cosmides' Standard Social Science Model. Pierwsza grupa artykułów próbuje dać pewien wgląd w to, jak się zachowujemy, że jest w miarę wolny od teoretycznych urojeń. W kolejnych trzech grupach komentuję trzy główne urojenia uniemożliwiające zrównoważony świat: technologię, religię i politykę (grupy spółdzielcze). Ludzie wierzą, że społeczeństwo może być zapisane przez nich, więc podam kilka sugestii w pozostałej części książki, dlaczego jest to mało prawdopodobne poprzez krótkie artykuły i recenzje ostatnich książek znanych pisarzy. Inna sekcja opisuje religijne złudzenie – że jest jakaś super moc, która nas uratuje. W następnej sekcji opisano cyfrowe urojenia, które mylą gry językowe Systemu 2 z automatyzmami Systemu Pierwszego, a więc nie mogą odróżnić maszyn biologicznych (tj. ludzi) od innych rodzajów maszyn (tj. komputerów). Inne cyfrowe urojenia są takie, że zostaniemy zbawieni od czystego zła (egoizm) systemu 1 przez komputery / AI / robotyka / nanotech / inżynieria genetyczna stworzona przez System 2. No Free Lunch główny mówi nam, że będą poważne i ewentualnie śmiertelne konsekwencje. Ostatnia część opisuje "The One Big Happy Family Delusion", czyli to, że jesteśmy wybierani do współpracy ze wszystkimi, a eufonialne ideały Demokracji, Różnorodności i Równości doprowadzą nas do utopii, jeśli po prostu dobrze zarządzamy rzeczami (możliwością polityki). Ponownie, No Free Lunch Zasada powinna ostrzegać nas to nie może być prawdą, i widzimy w całej historii i na całym współczesnym świecie, że bez ścisłej kontroli, egoizm i głupota zdobyć przewagę i wkrótce zniszczyć każdy naród, który obejmuje te urojenia. Ponadto małpi umysł gwałtownie dyskontuje przyszłość, dlatego współpracujemy przy sprzedaży dziedzictwa naszego potomka dla tymczasowych udogodnień, znacznie pogłębiając problemy. (shrink)

Przed skomentowaniem książki, oferuję uwagi na temat Wittgenstein i Searle i logicznej struktury racjonalności. Eseje tutaj są w większości już opublikowane w ciągu ostatniej dekady (choć niektóre zostały zaktualizowane), wraz z jednym niepublikowanym elementem, i nic tutaj nie będzie zaskoczeniem dla tych, którzy nadążyli za jego pracą. Podobnie jak W, jest uważany za najlepszego filozofa standupu swoich czasów, a jego twórczość pisemna jest solidna jak skała i przełomowa w całym. Jednak jego brak podjęcia później W wystarczająco poważnie prowadzi do pewnych (...) błędów i zamieszania. Tylko kilka przykładów: na p7 dwukrotnie zauważa, że nasza pewność co do podstawowych faktów wynika z przytłaczającej wagi rozumu na poparcie naszych roszczeń, ale W pokazał definitywnie w "Na pewności", że nie ma możliwości wątpliwości co do prawdziwej tylko aksjomatycznej struktury naszego systemu 1 postrzegania, wspomnień i myśli, ponieważ sam w sobie jest podstawą do osądu i nie może być osądzony. W pierwszym zdaniu na p8 mówi nam, że pewność jest re prostu, ale tego rodzaju "pewność", którą moglibyśmy nazwać Certainty2, jest wynikiem rozszerzenia naszej aksjomatycznej i niepodróżnej pewności (Pewność1) poprzez doświadczenie i jest zupełnie inna, ponieważ jest propositional (prawda lub fałsz). Jest to oczywiście klasyczny przykład "walki z urzekaniem naszej inteligencji przez język", którą W wielokrotnie demonstrował. Jedno słowo- dwa (lub wiele) różnych zastosowań. -/- Jego ostatni rozdział "Jedność propozycji" (wcześniej niepublikowane) również skorzystają znacznie z czytania W "Na pewność" lub dwóch książek DMS na OC (patrz moje recenzje), ponieważ jasno różnica między prawdziwymi tylko zdania opisujące S1 i prawdziwe lub fałszywe propozycje opisujące S2. To uderza mnie jako znacznie lepsze podejście do S biorąc S1 postrzegania jako propositional ponieważ tylko się T lub F po raz zaczyna myśleć o nich w S2. Jednak jego punkt, że propozycje pozwalają na oświadczenia rzeczywistej lub potencjalnej prawdy i fałszu, przeszłości i przyszłości i fantazji, a tym samym stanowić ogromny postęp w stosunku do społeczeństwa pre lub protolinguistic, jest przekonujący. Jak mówi: "Propozycja jest w ogóle czymś, co może określić warunek satysfakcji... i warunek satysfakcji... jest to, że tak i tak jest." Lub, trzeba dodać, że może być lub może być lub może być wyobrażane, że tak jest. -/- Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, PNC jest dobrym podsumowaniem wielu znaczących postępów w Wittgenstein wynikających z pół wieku pracy S, ale moim zdaniem, W nadal jest niezrównany, gdy uchwycić, co mówi. Idealnie, powinny być czytane razem: Searle dla jasnej prozy spójne i uogólnienia, zilustrowane perspicacious przykłady W i genialny aforyzmów. Gdybym był dużo młodszy, napisałbym książkę, która właśnie to robi. -/- Ci, którzy chcą kompleksowych, aktualnych ram dla ludzkich zachowań z nowoczesnego widoku dwóch systems, mogą zapoznać sięz moją książką "Logiczna struktura filozofii, psychologii, mind ijęzyka w Ludwig wittgenstein i John Searle' 2nd ed (2019). Osoby zainteresowane bardziej moimi pismami mogą zobaczyć "Talking Monkeys - Filozofia, Psychologia, Nauka, Religia i Polityka na Skazanej Planecie - Artykuły i recenzje 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) i Suicidal Utopian Urojenia w 21wieku 4th th ed (2019) i inne. (shrink)

Przed skomentowaniem książki, oferuję uwagi na temat Wittgenstein i Searle i logicznej struktury racjonalności. Eseje tutaj są w większości już opublikowane w ciągu ostatniej dekady (choć niektóre zostały zaktualizowane), wraz z jednym niepublikowanym elementem, i nic tutaj nie będzie zaskoczeniem dla tych, którzy nadążyli za jego pracą. Podobnie jak W, jest uważany za najlepszego filozofa standupu swoich czasów, a jego twórczość pisemna jest solidna jak skała i przełomowa w całym. Jednak jego brak podjęcia później W wystarczająco poważnie prowadzi do pewnych (...) błędów i zamieszania. Tylko kilka przykładów: na p7 dwukrotnie zauważa, że nasza pewność co do podstawowych faktów wynika z przytłaczającej wagi rozumu na poparcie naszych roszczeń, ale W pokazał definitywnie w "Na pewności", że nie ma możliwości wątpliwości co do prawdziwej tylko aksjomatycznej struktury naszego systemu 1 postrzegania, wspomnień i myśli, ponieważ sam w sobie jest podstawą do osądu i nie może być osądzony. W pierwszym zdaniu na p8 mówi nam, że pewność jest re prostu, ale tego rodzaju "pewność", którą moglibyśmy nazwać Certainty2, jest wynikiem rozszerzenia naszej aksjomatycznej i niepodróżnej pewności (Pewność1) poprzez doświadczenie i jest zupełnie inna, ponieważ jest propositional (prawda lub fałsz). Jest to oczywiście klasyczny przykład "walki z urzekaniem naszej inteligencji przez język", którą W wielokrotnie demonstrował. Jedno słowo- dwa (lub wiele) różnych zastosowań. Jego ostatni rozdział "Jedność propozycji" (wcześniej niepublikowane) również skorzystają znacznie z czytania W "Na pewność" lub dwóch książek DMS na OC (patrz moje recenzje), ponieważ jasno różnica między prawdziwymi tylko zdania opisujące S1 i prawdziwe lub fałszywe propozycje opisujące S2. To uderza mnie jako znacznie lepsze podejście do S biorąc S1 postrzegania jako propositional ponieważ tylko się T lub F po raz zaczyna myśleć o nich w S2. Jednak jego punkt, że propozycje pozwalają na oświadczenia rzeczywistej lub potencjalnej prawdy i fałszu, przeszłości i przyszłości i fantazji, a tym samym stanowić ogromny postęp w stosunku do społeczeństwa pre lub protolinguistic, jest przekonujący. Jak mówi: "Propozycja jest w ogóle czymś, co może określić warunek satysfakcji... i warunek satysfakcji... jest to, że tak i tak jest." Lub, trzeba dodać, że może być lub może być lub może być wyobrażane, że tak jest. -/- Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, PNC jest dobrym podsumowaniem wielu znaczących postępów w Wittgenstein wynikających z pół wieku pracy S, ale moim zdaniem, W nadal jest niezrównany, gdy uchwycić, co mówi. Idealnie, powinny być czytane razem: Searle dla jasnej prozy spójne i uogólnienia, zilustrowane perspicacious przykłady W i genialny aforyzmów. Gdybym był dużo młodszy, napisałbym książkę, która właśnie to robi. -/- Ci, którzy chcą kompleksowych, aktualnych ram dla ludzkich zachowań z nowoczesnego widoku dwóch systems, mogą zapoznać sięz moją książką "Logiczna struktura filozofii, psychologii, mind ijęzyka w Ludwig wittgenstein i John Searle' 2nd ed (2019). Osoby zainteresowane bardziej moimi pismami mogą zobaczyć "Talking Monkeys - Filozofia, Psychologia, Nauka, Religia i Polityka na Skazanej Planecie - Artykuły i recenzje 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) i Suicidal Utopian Urojenia w 21wieku 4th th ed (2019) i inne. (shrink)

Przed komentowaniem szczegółowo na making Social World (MSW) będę najpierw zaoferować kilka uwag na temat filozofii (psychologii opisowej) i jej związek ze współczesnymi badaniami psychologicznymi, jak przykładem w pracach Searle (S) i Wittgenstein (W), ponieważ czuję, że jest to najlepszy sposób, aby umieścić Searle lub komentator na zachowanie, w odpowiedniej perspektywie. To bardzo pomoże, aby zobaczyć moje recenzje PNC, TLP, PI, OC, TARW i innych książek przez tych dwóch geniuszy psychologii opisowej. -/- S nie odnosi się do wyrozumiałego zdania W. (...) jako mechanizmu w TLP i jego zniszczenia w jego późniejszej pracy. Od W, S stał się głównym dekonstruktorem tych mechanicznych poglądów na zachowanie, a najważniejszym psychologiem opisowym (filozofem), ale nie zdaje sobie sprawy, jak całkowicie W go przewidział, ani nie, ogólnie rzecz biorąc, robić innych (ale zobacz wiele dokumentów i książek Proudfoot i Copeland na W, Turing i AI). Praca S jest znacznie łatwiejsza do naśladowania niż W, i choć jest jakiś żargon, to jest w większości spektakularnie jasne, jeśli zbliżysz się do niego z właściwego kierunku. Zobacz moje recenzje W S i innych książek, aby uzyskać więcej informacji. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, MSW jest dobrym podsumowaniem wielu znaczących postępów w Wittgenstein wynikających z pół wieku pracy S, ale moim zdaniem, W nadal nie ma sobie równych w podstawowej psychologii, gdy zrozumiesz, co mówi (patrz moje recenzje). Idealnie,, powinny one być odczytywane razem: Searle dla jasnej prozy spójnej i uogólnień na temat działania S2/S3, zilustrowane przenikliwymi przykładami W działania S1/S2 i jego genialnymi aforyzmami. Gdybym był dużo młodszy, napisałbym książkę, która właśnie to robi. -/- Ci, którzy chcą kompleksowych, aktualnych ram dla ludzkich zachowań z nowoczesnego widoku dwóch systems, mogą zapoznać sięz moją książką "Logiczna struktura filozofii, psychologii, mind ijęzyka w Ludwig wittgenstein i John Searle' 2nd ed (2019). Osoby zainteresowane bardziej moimi pismami mogą zobaczyć "Talking Monkeys - Filozofia, Psychologia, Nauka, Religia i Polityka. (shrink)

"Between Descartes and Berkeley: A Forgotten Chapter in the History of the British Early-Modern Philosophy" The aim of this paper is to suggest how the internal logic and dynamics of the development of Cartesian philosophy can be reconstructed by means of the historical-theoretical analysis of one of the most forgotten lines of reception of Cartesianism, leading through the philosophy of British thinkers minorum gentium: Arthur Collier, John Norris, Richard Burthogge etc. Such analysis of the particular stages of the evolution (...) of post-Cartesian thought – within one intellectual-cultural context, makes it possible to situate Berkeley’s system (considered as a culminating point of the development of post-Cartesian British idealism) in the stream of the widely understood Cartesian thought. At the same time the analysis provides sufficient data to draw some general conclusions regarding the logic of the development of Cartesian-inspired philosophical systems. (shrink)

W swoim artykule przedstawiłam w skróconej formie problem społeczeństwa żydowskiego z przełomu lat 1933-1945 na terenie niemieckiego miasta Bayreuth, znanego w świecie jako miejsce corocznych festiwali wagnerowskich. Osoby zajmujące się historią, a w szczególności okresem II wojny światowej oraz ci, których pasjonuje z różnych powodów muzyka Ryszarda Wagnera, natkną się z pewnością na ślady historii miasta Bayreuth, będącego w tym czasie niemal świątynią kultu ideologii nazistowskiej. To tu właśnie tworzył wybitny, a zarazem uwielbiany przez Hitlera Niemiec: Ryszard Wagner. Fakt ten (...) pełnił dość istotną funkcję wspomagającą manipulację masami ludzkimi. Przypisywanie kompozytorowi oraz jego sztuce antysemityzmu okazało się czystym środkiem do celu, jakim było wyniszczenie narodu żydowskiego. Podsycanie nienawiści, propaganda, bojkoty ze strony nazistów, brutalna dyskryminacja społeczeństwa żydowskiego i niszczenie jego długowiecznego dobytku kulturowego przyniosło zamierzone efekty w postaci emigracji tej ludności na zachód, do Ameryki, Kanady oraz Izraela. Liczne deportacje i eksterminacja Żydów sprawiły, że niewielu wróciło po wojnie do Bayreuth. Szybko odrodziła się tu jednak kultura żydowska i znalazła po wojnie pełną akceptację społeczeństwa. Warto dodać, że Bayreuth cieszy się dziś ogólnym uznaniem w świecie muzyki. Co roku napływają tu rzesze zwolenników twórczości Ryszarda Wagnera z całego świata, podziwiając piękno jego muzyki oraz urocze krajobrazy Zielonego Wzgórza. (shrink)

Die anhaltende Popularität von juristisch geprägter Literatur zeigt, dass das Ringen um die Gerechtigkeit im Recht ein brisantes Thema ist, das gesellschaftliche Aufmerksamkeit auf sich zieht, provoziert und immer wieder neu zum Nachdenken herausfordert. Zeitgenössisch sind es Autor*innen wie Juli Zeh, Bernhard Schlink, Georg Oswald oder Ferdinand von Schirach (sogenannte Dichterjurist*innen 1 ), die die Frage nach Recht und Gerechtigkeit literarisch verbinden und deren Problemkontexte beleuchten. Juli Zeh lässt ihrem Roman Spieltrieb die Erzählerinstanz sprechen: „Das Recht ist kein Kreißsaal für (...) die Gerechtigkeit […]“ (2013, 518). Auch Ferdinand von Schirach bemüht sich herauszustellen, dass für ihn Recht nicht gleich Gerechtigkeit bedeutet. Als Strafverteidiger sagt er über die Justiz: „[W]ir sprechen […] nicht Gerechtigkeit, sondern Recht“ (Heise 2009).3 In seinen Bestsellern (angefangen von z. B. Der Fall Collini über Terror bis zu seinem neusten Stück Gott) provoziert er das Gerechtigkeitsempfinden seiner Leser*innen und lässt sie am Ende gerne selbst das Urteil fällen. In Terror (2016) soll das Publikum als Jury selbst entscheiden, ob der Kampfpilot das entführte Passagierflugzeug, das auf ein voll besetztes Fußballstadion zugesteuert ist, hätte abschießen dürfen. Hier geraten u. a. die Gewissensentscheidung des Piloten und die Rechtsgrundlage in einen Konflikt. Nicht selten macht er den Leser*innen das Recht schwer erträglich, wenn er z. B. wie im Erzählband Schuld (2017) auf brutale Weise beschreibt, wie eine minderjährige Kellnerin auf einem Volksfest von einer Gruppe von Männern vergewaltigt wird, aber aus Beweismangel letztendlich keiner dieser Männer schuldig gesprochen werden kann. In der Literatur werden vielfältige Zugänge zum Verhältnis von Recht und Gerechtigkeit eröffnet – wie kann sich die christliche Sozialethik positionieren? (shrink)

Cieľom state je navrhnúť systematickú a vyčerpávajúcu klasifikáciu definícií. Táto klasifikácia vychádza z typológie, ktorú vypracoval Richard Robinson vo svojej knihe o definíciách, no v rôznych aspektoch ju ďalej dopracováva. Nová klasifikácia je založená na dvoch kritériách, a to kritériu predmetnosti a kritériu ilokučnej sily. Podľa kritéria predmetnosti možno definovať výrazy, pojmy, resp. objekty ; podľa kritéria ilokučnej sily možno zase rozlíšiť definície, ktoré opisujú existujúci systém, a definície, ktoré transformujú daný systém na nový systém. Napokon sa podľa týchto (...) dvoch kritérií vyhodnocujú niektoré známe druhy definícií. (shrink)

Το ερώτημα πώς μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν οι λειτουργίες του νου και σύμφωνα με ποιες αρχές θα ήταν χρήσιμο να κατηγοριοποιηθούν είναι διττό και αφορά τόσο στην επιστήμη, όσο και την φιλοσοφία: στην πρώτη, εφόσον μέλημά της είναι η αναζήτηση συμπερασμάτων διαμέσου του πειράματος και της ανάλυσης και στην δεύτερη, εφόσον η αποσαφήνιση επιστημονικών εννοιών και ορισμών διευθετείται κυρίως φιλοσοφικά. Προϋπόθεση για μία τέτοια συσχέτιση είναι οι αρχές της επιστήμης να συμβαδίζουν προς τις αρχές της εμπειρίας και οι κατευθύνσεις της φιλοσοφίας (...) να μην αντίκειται προς τους όρους του επιστημονικού πειράματος: να προσφέρει δηλαδή, η φιλοσοφία, τους ορισμούς της πραγματικότητας, σύμφωνα με τους επιστημονικούς κανόνες που διέπουν αυτούς τους ορισμούς. Επιστήμη και φιλοσοφία οφείλουν να ενσωματώνουν και να γενικεύουν πληροφορίες κατά τρόπο ανάλογο προς τις προτάσεις και της εκφράσεις μιας φυσικής γλώσσας. Ωστόσο, σε μία εποχή όπου τα συμπεράσματα της επιστήμης ξεπερνούν την δυνατότητα των αισθήσεων να ανατρέχουν σε προϋπάρχουσες εμπειρίες και να επιβεβαιώνονται διαμέσου αυτών, δημιουργούνται συζητήσεις γύρω από το εάν η φιλοσοφία, μπορεί να συνεχίσει να στέκεται δίπλα στην εννοιολογική γνώση και να ταξινομεί με ακρίβεια τα αποτελέσματά της. Εξετάζοντας το σύνολο των σχέσεων μεταξύ αισθητικών και λογικών μορφών, στην μελέτη που ακολουθεί θα εξηγήσουμε γιατί η φιλοσοφία, διαμέσου μιας μεθοδολογίας που είναι αποτέλεσμα ιστορικής κληρονομιάς αλλά και κοινωνικής πρακτικής, όχι μόνον αφήνει χώρο, αλλά ενθαρρύνει την δημιουργία νέων συντακτικών σχέσεων με την επιστήμη, ανοίγοντας δρόμο για την αισθητική κατανόηση της επιστημονικής μέτρησης, αλλά και της ειδικής φύσης του μετρούμενου. Δεν ξέρω εάν υπάρχει μεγαλύτερο χάρισμα για τον άνθρωπο από την ικανότητα να εξισορροπεί τις λειτουργίες του νου του: τη λογική με το σκοπό και τη διασκεπτική ενέργεια με τη βούληση. Αρκεί να αναλογιστούμε ότι, καμία σκοπιμότητα δεν στερείται λογικών κρίσεων και αντίστροφα: κάθε λογική κρίση οδηγείται από πρακτικές σκοπιμότητες, από αξιολογικές συνιστώσες. Πώς όμως μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν οι λειτουργίες του νου και ακόμη περισσότερο, σύμφωνα με ποιες αρχές μπορούν να κατηγοριοποιηθούν; Πρόκειται για ένα ερώτημα επιστημονικό, εφόσον αναζητά λύση διαμέσου του πειράματος και της ανάλυσης, ταυτόχρονα όμως και φιλοσοφικό, δεδομένου ότι οι επιστημονικές έννοιες, όπως αποκαλύπτει η χρήση τους, βασίζονται κατά κύριο λόγο στις κατευθύνσεις της φιλοσοφίας. Προϋπόθεση σε μία τέτοια συσχέτιση είναι οι κατευθύνσεις και τα συμπεράσματα της φιλοσοφίας να μην αντίκειται στα αποτελέσματα και τις μετρήσεις του επιστημονικού πειράματος: ρόλος της επιστήμης είναι η λογική μελέτη και ανάλυση των φυσικών φαινομένων, και της φιλοσοφίας η αποσαφήνιση των εννοιών. Η επιστήμη αυτοκαθορίζεται, δηλαδή ανατρέχει στις βάσεις της επιβεβαιώνοντας ή αναθεωρώντας τα δεδομένα, διατηρώντας έτσι ζωντανά τα ερωτήματά της. Σκοπός της επιστήμης είναι, διαμέσου της ανάκλησης των ερωτημάτων της, να καλύπτει όσο το δυνατό περισσότερα κενά. Έτσι κινείται η επιστήμη: μεταβαίνοντας από το απλούστερο στο συνθετότερο και αντίστροφα, προκειμένου να επιβεβαιώνει τις παρατηρήσεις της με βάση την πρόβλεψη. Και πώς λειτουργεί η εννοιολογική γνώση; Ό, τι κάνει ο νους είναι να αντιλαμβάνεται τη φυσική επαναληπτικότητα, την περιοδικότητα των φαινομένων και να αναζητά τα αίτιά τους. Προσδιορίζοντας τα αίτια στο περιβάλλον του χωροχρόνου, ο άνθρωπος κατανοεί τις συνθήκες, δηλαδή τις προϋποθέσεις της επαναληπτικότητας και βάσει αυτής της κατανόησης, προβλέπει το πώς θα αντιδράσει η ύλη όταν βρεθεί κάτω από παρόμοιες συνθήκες. Η πρόβλεψη, επομένως, βασίζεται στη μελέτη της επαναληπτικότητας των φαινομένων. Είναι ωστόσο η εμπειρία μας, ασφαλής βάση άντλησης πληροφοριών; Τα φυσικά φαινόμενα ιδωμένα ως εμπειρικά αποτελέσματα αλληλεπιδράσεων, κατηγοριοποιούνται με κριτήριο τις μεταβολές που προκαλούν. Ωστόσο, ο συνδυασμός των δυνάμεων της φύσης, προκειμένου να κατανοηθεί, πρέπει να βρει ένα ασφαλές διασκεπτικό μονοπάτι, μία οικεία κατάσταση, σε σχέση με την εμπειρία. Και πώς ο άνθρωπος κατανοεί τις γνώσεις που αποκτά διαμέσου της παρατήρησης; Έχοντας κατανοήσει ότι η φύση, για τη διατήρηση των ισορροπιών της, συντηρεί και εφαρμόζει τους ίδιους μηχανισμούς με τους οποίους έχει εφοδιάσει τον άνθρωπο, ο άνθρωπος συσχετίζει τις μεταβολές που συμβαίνουν στο περιβάλλον με τις μεταβολές που προκαλεί ο ίδιος με τις πράξεις του, οι οποίες είναι αποτελέσματα βουλητικών σκοπιμοτήτων. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά ερμηνεύονται από τη λογική ως σχέσεις μεταξύ σκοπών-αποτελεσμάτων. Παρατηρώντας τα αποτελέσματα των φυσικών μηχανισμών στον εαυτό του, ο άνθρωπος, μπορεί να επιτύχει ασφαλή πρόβλεψη των αποτελεσμάτων των λειτουργιών των ίδιων μηχανισμών σε άλλα επίπεδα της φύσης. Επομένως, κάθε φαινόμενο μπορεί να προβλεφθεί, εφόσον περιέχει αναγνωρισμένα για την αποτελεσματικότητά του επίπεδα ασφαλούς σύγκρισης. Άλλωστε ο όρος φυσικός νόμος, φέρει το ειδικό βάρος του σκοπού, της τελικότητας, που είναι πέρα για πέρα χαρακτηριστικό του βουλητικού μας νου: η φύση δεν βούλεται, επομένως δεν μπορεί να παράγει νόμους. Ό,τι βούλεται είναι ο άνθρωπος, ο οποίος είναι προσανατολισμένος από την φύση να αναγνωρίζει λογικές σχέσεις στην αλληλεπίδραση των φυσικών φαινομένων. Επομένως όχι η φύση, αλλά ο άνθρωπος δημιουργεί τους νόμους, με βάση την αρχή της λογικής τακτοποίησης των παρατηρήσεών του. Πιο αναλυτικά, η καταγραφή και κατηγοριοποίηση των αποτελεσμάτων της παρατήρησης της ύλης, με βάση τους όρους παρατήρησης του εαυτού μας, συνιστά χρήσιμο εργαλείο κατανόησης του περιβάλλοντος: παρατηρώντας τα φαινόμενα, ο νους ανακαλεί τις εμπειρίες του, συνθέτοντας και ανασυνθέτοντάς τες. Όταν τα αποτελέσματα των παρατηρήσεων συμφωνούν με τις προβλέψεις, παράγεται γνώση. Έτσι ο νους μετατρέπει την γνώση των φαινομένων, σε αρχή τεκμηρίωσης συμπερασμάτων, την οποία χρησιμοποιεί για περαιτέρω αναλύσεις και συνθέσεις. Οι γνώσεις που αποκτώνται από την παρατήρηση, ανακαλούνται αυτόματα όταν ο νους αντιληφθεί ότι υπάρχει ιδανική σχέση ανάμεσά τους ώστε να συνδυαστούν. Πώς όμως λειτουργεί η εμπειρία; Η εμπειρία ομοιομορφίας της ύλης, δίνει την εντύπωση ότι οι μεταβολές στο περιβάλλον συνδέονται με κάποιου είδους σκοποθεσία. Ωστόσο, οι φυσικοί νόμοι δεν είναι παρά οι εννοιολογικές διατυπώσεις του πώς αντιλαμβανόμαστε εμείς οι ίδιοι την πραγματικότητα και με ποιους τρόπους μπορούμε να τη μεταβάλλουμε προς όφελός μας. Αναφέρονται δε, οι φυσικοί νόμοι, μόνο στη μία πλευρά του πανάρχαιου κοσμογονικού προβλήματος της αποσαφήνισης των τρόπων αλληλεπίδρασης των αισθητών. Μιας αλληλεπίδρασης που κινείται στα όρια μεταξύ συμφωνίας και αντιπαράθεσης, δεδομένου ότι η βεβαιότητα της φυσικής σταθερότητας δεν είναι τίποτε περισσότερο από μία προοπτική κατανόησης της πραγματικότητας σε μία δεδομένη στιγμή. Τι συμβαίνει ωστόσο όταν υπάρχει διάσταση μεταξύ προβλέψεων και αποτελεσμάτων; Στην περίπτωση αυτή, η θεωρία ανατρέχει στις εμπειρίες και τις ανασυνθέτει έτσι ώστε να επιτύχει τον πλησιέστερο δυνατό συνδυασμό. Έτσι λειτουργεί η λογική: ως πρωτότυπη εφαρμογή των δεδομένων της εμπειρίας, σε σχέση προς τον θεωρητικό κανόνα των προβλέψεων. Και ποια είναι η προϋπόθεση της πρωτοτυπίας όσον αφορά στον νου; Η προϋπόθεση αυτή δεν είναι άλλη από τη δημιουργικότητα: ο δημιουργικός νους, διαμέσου της παρατήρησης, αποκαλύπτει τους τρόπους με τους οποίους η ύλη αλληλεπιδρά, και δημιουργεί κάτι εντελώς διαφορετικό, όχι ως προς την πρώτη ύλη, αλλά ως προς την μορφή. Αυτή είναι δημιουργικότητα: η ενσάρκωση των λογικών συνθέσεων, το αποτύπωμα του νου στην ύλη. Εδώ εισέρχεται ο ρόλος της φιλοσοφίας, με σκοπό την αποσαφήνιση νέων και πιο σύνθετων μορφών και εννοιών, με γνώμονα τον βαθμό αποσαφήνισής τους. Ωστόσο αποσαφήνιση σημαίνει ταυτόχρονα και συστηματοποίηση, δηλαδή δημιουργική ενίσχυση των γνώσεων διαμέσου μιας ακλόνητης διαβεβαίωσης που θα ονομάζαμε προ-λογική ή καλύτερα αισθητική. Αποτελεί ωστόσο η βεβαιότητα που προκαλεί η αισθητική εποπτεία ισάξιο κριτήριο γνώσης με την λογική, ώστε να τοποθετεί τα συμπεράσματά της δίπλα στα επιστημονικά; Προσεγγίζοντας το ζήτημα από την επιστημονική σκοπιά, παρατηρούμε ότι από την περίοδο της ανθρωπιστικής επανάστασης και έπειτα, βρίσκεται σε εξέλιξη μία συστηματική προσπάθεια ανάδειξης της λογικής ως μοναδικής κατηγορίας του νου, η οποία λειτουργεί σε βάρος της γενικής προεπιστημονικής κοσμοθεωρίας περί ύπαρξης μιας ακλόνητα επιβεβαιωμένης γνώσης, που εμπειρικά προηγείται των εννοιών. Ο νους, για τους θεωρητικούς της επιστημονικής προσέγγισης, συνδέεται με τα αποτελέσματα των μελετών της ανατομίας του εγκεφάλου, οι οποίες αποκαλύπτουν σε σημαντικό βαθμό τα κέντρα των νοητικών διεργασιών. Στο περιβάλλον αυτό αντιπαρατέθηκαν οι δύο θεωρίες προσέγγισης των λειτουργιών του νου: ο δυϊσμός, με κύριο εισηγητή τον Descartes, ο οποίος υποστήριζε την αλήθεια των προεπιστημονικών αντιλήψεων, περί ενός νου ελεύθερου να ανατρέχει σε μη συμβατές προς την επιστημονική κοσμοθεωρία υποθέσεις όταν η λογική αδυνατεί να επιλύσει τα λογικά αδιέξοδα, και ο μονισμός, που εξέφραζε ότι η βιολογική ενότητα νου και πνεύματος είναι εν δυνάμει ικανή να καλύψει κάθε λογική αδυναμία. Σύμφωνα με τον δυϊσμό, εγκέφαλος και νόηση αποτελούν διαφορετικές υποστάσεις, οι οποίες συναντώνται και αλληλεπιδρούν μεταξύ τους: εγκέφαλος και νους, ύλη και πνεύμα συνθέτουν αλλά και συντίθενται στο περιβάλλον της ζώσας πραγματικότητας, και εκδηλώνονται ως γνώσεις. Ο νους χρησιμοποιεί ως πρώτη ύλη τον εγκέφαλο, ενώ ο εγκέφαλος μετέρχεται εξωλογικών υποθέσεων που φαντάζουν ικανές να περιγράψουν την υπερβατική προέλευση των αρχών που διέπουν την λειτουργία του. Δεδομένου ότι δεν υπήρχε αποδεδειγμένα σημείο αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ των δύο υποστάσεων, της υλικής και της υπερβατικής, ο Descartes υπέθεσε ότι η λογική ψυχή συνδέεται με την υλική υπόσταση στο εσωτερικό του εγκεφάλου και συγκεκριμένα στην περιοχή της επίφυσης. Στην πραγματικότητα, ο λόγος ήταν ότι κανείς δεν γνώριζε τίποτε για την λειτουργία της επίφυσης -ούτε σήμερα γνωρίζουμε επακριβώς τον ρόλο της- επομένως εύκολα μπορούσε να θεωρηθεί ως μηχανισμός σύνδεσης μεταξύ ψυχής και σώματος. Από την άλλη μεριά, οι οπαδοί της μονιστικής θεώρησης αναρωτήθηκαν πώς είναι δυνατόν μια άυλη υπόσταση όπως είναι η λογική ψυχή, να εντοπίζεται και να προκαλεί μεταβολές στο εσωτερικό του φθαρτού σώματος; Απάντηση στο λεγόμενο καρτεσιανό παράδοξο περί αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ των δύο υποστάσεων του ανθρώπου, άυλης και φθαρτής, επιχείρησαν να δώσουν κυρίως οι Γάλλοι εγκυκλοπαιδιστές και οι Γερμανοί υλιστές φιλόσοφοι, οι θέσεις των οποίων οδήγησαν σταδιακά στην αποπνευματοποίηση της νόησης. Από εκεί και έπειτα πειραματισμοί της βιολογίας και της νευροφυσιολογίας απέδειξαν την εξέλιξη του νευρικού συστήματος κατά την πορεία των γεωλογικών αιώνων από τα πρώιμα στάδια συγκέντρωσης νευρικών συμπλεγμάτων στις κατώτερες περιοχές του εγκεφαλικού φλοιού, προς τα ανώτερα. Αξίζει ωστόσο να σημειωθεί, ότι παρόλη την πρόοδο των νευροεπιστημών, πολλά ερωτήματα που αφορούν στη σύνδεση μεταξύ εγκεφάλου-νόησης και ερμηνείας νοητικών λειτουργιών που συνδέονται με την παραπάνω σχέση, παραμένουν αναπάντητα ακόμη και σήμερα. Ο μονισμός επιμένει ότι ο νους αποτελεί παράγωγο της ύλης και απορρίπτει ως μεταφυσική κάθε τοποθέτηση πέρα από τα όρια της ζώσας πραγματικότητας. Δεν προσπαθούμε να επιλύσουμε την παραπάνω διαμάχη, δεδομένου ο κύριος λόγος μελέτης και αποσαφήνισης θεμελιωδών ορισμών γύρω από την ποσότητα και το είδος της ενέργειας που διοχετεύεται στους νευρώνες δημιουργώντας ό,τι ο Honderich περιγράφει ως ενσυνείδητες εκδηλώσεις, βρίσκεται στα χέρια της επιστήμης. Η εγκεφαλοποίηση της νόησης, αν και -ορθά- συνδέθηκε με τα επιτεύγματα της λογικής, εντούτοις δημιούργησε μία αυτοπεποίθηση για την ανωτερότητα της λογικής ως μεθόδου ικανής, όχι μόνο να ερμηνεύει, αλλά και να κατευθύνει τα πράγματα, λειτουργώντας a priori ως μηχανισμός που εμπεριέχεται στο εσωτερικό τους. Τούτη η προοπτική, αν και κατευθυνόμενη από επιστημονικούς κύκλους και -κατά κανόνα- αντίθετη προς την φιλοσοφική μεθοδολογία, εντούτοις εκδηλώθηκε ως φιλοσοφία, διαιρεμένη μάλιστα σε κινήματα ή σχολές, με κοινό χαρακτηριστικό την βεβαιότητα, ότι η λογική ενυπάρχει μέσα στην φύση των πραγμάτων, και εκδηλώνεται νομοτελειακά. Μιλώ για τα κινήματα του θετικισμού, του λογικού θετικισμού και του ιστορικισμού, τα οποία συστηματοποιήθηκαν κατά τα μέσα του εικοστού αιώνα και εξάντλησαν την επιχειρηματολογία τους σε σύντομο χρονικό διάστημα. Και πώς η φιλοσοφία υπερασπίζεται το δικαίωμά της να αποσαφηνίζει επιστημονικές έννοιες με γνώμονα την δημιουργική προοπτική; Η απάντηση της φιλοσοφίας προέρχεται από μία ιστορική πορεία χιλιετιών, με βαθιές πολιτισμικές και κοινωνικές ρίζες. Ο νους, ως κινητήριος αρχή της γνώσης αλλά και των αξιών, της ηθικής, συνδέεται με έργα που έχουν ένα κοινό χαρακτηριστικό: είναι όλα παράγωγα αισθητικής και λογικής γνώσης. Φιλοσοφικά, ο νους, αρχικά, προσλαμβάνει αισθητικά το περίγραμμα, την μορφή μιας ιδέας, έπειτα την επεξεργάζεται λογικά, και εν τέλει την πραγματοποιεί. Η αισθητική δραστηριότητα, ως φιλοσοφική κατηγορία, εντοπίζεται στο αρχικό στάδιο της νοητικής λειτουργίας, ενώ η πραγματοποίηση στο τελικό. Τόσο η αισθητική δραστηριότητα, όσο και η λογική λειτουργούν σύμφωνα με έναν σκοπό: τη διασάφηση των ορίων πραγματικότητας· και βούληση είναι η λειτουργία, που ενεργοποιεί το υποκείμενο να πράξει σύμφωνα με τις επιταγές του σκοπού αυτού. Η διαίρεση του νου σε κατηγορίες έχει αφετηρία την σκέψη του Αριστοτέλη. Ο εισηγητής της λογικής επιστήμης πρότεινε τον διαχωρισμό των αρχών του νου, σύμφωνα με τον χαρακτήρα τους σε θεωρητικό, πρακτικό και ποιητικό. Ο νους, στο θεωρητικό επίπεδο επεξεργάζεται συλλογισμούς που οδηγούν σε περιγραφές γεγονότων, στο πρακτικό, συλλογισμούς που οδηγούν σε ηθικές αξιολογήσεις ενώ στο ποιητικό, συλλογισμούς που αποσκοπούν στη δημιουργία καλλιτεχνικών εκφράσεων και γενικότερα, ωφέλιμων έργων. Ο Benedetto Croce στο έργο του Estetica, σημειώνει ότι οι δύο μορφές του θεωρητικού πνεύματος η αισθητική εποπτεία και η λογική αποτελούν διαφορετικές, πλην ισότιμες μορφές γνώσης: κάθε έννοια περιέχει μία πλευρά αισθητική. Ως γνώση, η αισθητική εποπτεία δεν έχει ανάγκη λογικής επιβεβαίωσης· αντίθετα, η λογική επιβεβαίωση κατηγοριοποιεί, κατατάσσει και αναλύει αισθητικές πληροφορίες για να κατανοήσει τους νόμους που διέπουν το περιβάλλον. Ο πρώτος βαθμός του θεωρητικού μας νου, επομένως, χρησιμοποιεί ποικίλους τρόπους αποσαφήνισης των εισερχόμενων πληροφοριών, προκειμένου να δημιουργήσει και να μεταδώσει επικοινωνιακά μία μορφή. Το ερώτημα εδώ είναι εάν η αισθητική εποπτεία, περιέχει όλα εκείνα τα στοιχεία που μπορούν να γίνουν κατανοητά και να γενικευθούν κατά τον ίδιο τρόπο. Οι θεωρητικές βάσεις για την ανάδειξη ενός καθολικού κριτηρίου που επιβεβαιώνει την ομοιογένεια των αισθητικών γνώσεων τέθηκαν από τον David Hume. Ο Hume διαπίστωσε ότι όλοι έχουμε μέσα μας ένα έμφυτο προγνωστικό κριτήριο, το οποίο μας επιτρέπει να προσλαμβάνουμε τα συναισθήματα των συνανθρώπων μας. Διαμέσου της Συμπάθειας (empathy) όπως ονόμασε ο Hume την ενέργεια αυτή του νου, αλληλεπιδρούμε με τον συναισθηματικό κόσμο των συνανθρώπων μας, ακόμη και όταν δεν έχουμε ίδια γνώση των εμπειριών τους. Πρόκειται για έναν ενσυναίσθητο τρόπο επικοινωνίας, βασισμένο στην -κατά κύριο λόγο- ανάμνηση βιωμάτων καταγεγραμμένων στην προ-λογική περιοχή της εμπειρίας μας. Σήμερα η γενετική έχει ερμηνεύσει τη δυνατότητα αναγνώρισης των συναισθημάτων μεταξύ των ανθρώπων ως ειδική εκδήλωση ενός έμφυτου αλτρουισμού, ο οποίος είναι προγραμματισμένος να προσανατολίζει το θυμικό προς ό,τι ωφελεί το είδος μας, ενώ η νευροβιολογία ερευνά το ενδεχόμενο ύπαρξης εγκεφαλικών δομών που επεξεργάζονται και ενσωματώνουν τις ηθικές αξίες διαμέσου διαδικασιών ανταλλαγής-αφομοίωσης συμπεριφορών. Είναι επομένως, το συναίσθημα ενδιάθετος τρόπος επικοινωνίας; Παρόλο που ο Hume υπέθεσε ορθά μία προλογική λειτουργία, στην οποία «απευθύνεται η σκέψη», δηλαδή μία λειτουργία που προϋπάρχει και επιβεβαιώνει κάθε εννοιολογική αρχή, στην συνέχεια συνέδεσε αυτή την λειτουργία όχι με προλογικά χαρακτηριστικά, δηλαδή γνώσεις, αλλά με συναισθηματικές ποιότητες, δηλαδή ψυχολογικά αποτυπώματα εμπειριών. Δεν είναι ωστόσο το συναίσθημα ό,τι μεταδίδει την ενσυναίσθηση, αλλά η αισθητική εποπτεία. Συναισθηματικές εκδηλώσεις παρατηρούνται και σε άλογα είδη, συνδεδεμένες μάλιστα με συγκεκριμένες εμπειρίες ωφέλιμων ή μη ωφέλιμων καταστάσεων. Σε καμία περίπτωση ωστόσο αυτές οι εκδηλώσεις δεν είναι να δυνατόν να γενικευθούν μεταξύ των ζώων, να αποτελέσουν δηλαδή γνώση. Το συναίσθημα δεν λειτουργεί ως παραγωγός αισθητικών γνώσεων, ούτε ως γνωσιακός αναμεταδότης μεταξύ των κοινωνικών ατόμων, αλλά μάλλον ως λειτουργικός εκδείκτης του γεγονότος της αισθητικής εποπτείας. Συνοψίζουμε λοιπόν, αναφέροντας ότι με τον όρο αισθητική εποπτεία, φιλοσοφικά, συχνά εννοούμε την άμεση επιβεβαιωμένη εμπειρία, η οποία δεν χρειάζεται την λογική ανάλυση προκειμένου να αποκτήσει καθολική ισχύ: η βεβαιότητα για τον χρόνο, τον χώρο, τη μορφή των αντικειμένων, προέρχεται από παραστάσεις του νου που έχουμε σχηματίσει διαμέσου αισθητικής εποπτείας της πραγματικότητας, δηλαδή γνώσης των μορφών. Σύμφωνα με τον Croce, η λογική, όπως και η αισθητική εποπτεία, αποτελούν κατηγορίες του θεωρητικού μας νου. Η αισθητική εποπτεία αφορά στην ατομική στιγμή, ενώ η λογική στην καθολική. Αντίστοιχα, η βούληση και η ηθική, αναφέρονται στο πρακτικό επίπεδο του νου, και λειτουργούν η πρώτη ατομικά και η δεύτερη καθολικά. Η ατομικότητα του πρακτικού νου, της βούλησης, κατά τη γενίκευσή της, παράγει ηθική. Το γεγονός ότι τα κίνητρα των πράξεών μας μπορούν να αναλυθούν εννοιολογικά, να επιβεβαιωθούν διασκεπτικά ως προς το κύρος, την καθαρότητα και την αποτελεσματικότητά τους, είναι δηλωτικό του ότι η πρακτικότητα αλληλεπιδρά με τη λογική· πρόκειται για μία αλληλεπίδραση τόσο έντονη, ώστε κάθε διαχωρισμός της βούλησης από τη λογική, του σκοπού από τη γνώση που συνεπάγεται η ενέργειά της, να καθίσταται δυσχερής. Γιατί; Ο νους χρησιμοποιεί τις δυνάμεις του μεμονωμένα ή σε συνδυασμό, προκειμένου να εξυπηρετεί κατ’ αρχήν, τις ανάγκες της στιγμής. Αυτή η λειτουργία, παρόλο που αποτελεί a priori προδιάθεση, η οποία προηγείται κάθε σκοπού, εντούτοις αποτελεί ταυτόχρονα και σκοπό. Καταλήγουμε επομένως στο πρώτο συμπέρασμα, ότι η τάση του ανθρώπου να θέτει σκοπούς, αποτελεί παρακλάδι του ίδιου κορμού από τον οποίο προέρχονται οι φυσικές προδιαθέσεις. Και δεν θα ήταν δύσκολο να απαντούσαμε στο πώς η τάση αυτή μπορεί να συμπλεύσει με τη νοητότητα, εάν εξειδικεύαμε το ερώτημα από το γενικό στο ειδικό. Λέμε λοιπόν ότι, σημασία δεν έχει η πρώτη ύλη που χρησιμοποιεί ο νους, ούτε η προέλευσή της, αλλά η επεξεργασία της: αντίθετα με τα άλογα είδη, ο άνθρωπος μπορεί να παρατηρεί και να αναγνωρίζει τα δεδομένα των παρατηρήσεών του. Παρατηρώντας τον εαυτό του ως ειδικό μέρος του περιβάλλοντος στο οποίο ανήκει, ο άνθρωπος συνειδητοποιεί ότι είναι αυτόνομος ως προς το να σκέπτεται, να προβλέπει, να κρίνει, να θέτει σκοπούς και να πράττει. Η εμπειρία είναι η στέρεη βάση των αισθητικών προσλήψεων, των λογικών προβλέψεων και της βουλητικής πρακτικότητας, της ίδιας της ηθικής: διαμέσου των αποτελεσμάτων των μετρήσεων των φυσικών φαινομένων αναγνωρίζουμε τις ποιότητες, τις διαστάσεις και τις δυνάμεις της ύλης και κατανοούμε το περιβάλλον. Τι είναι όμως η ύλη και κατ’ επέκταση το περιβάλλον; Ύλη είναι η εμπειρία της αλληλεπίδρασης των δυνάμεων της περιρρέουσας ενέργειας στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο και μονοδιάστατο προς τα εμπρός χρόνο, τα συγχρονισμένα αποτελέσματα των οποίων αναγνωρίζουμε διαμέσου των αισθήσεών μας ως μορφές. Ό,τι λοιπόν δίνει υπόσταση στην ύλη είναι ο τρόπος με τον οποίο την προσλαμβάνουμε αισθητικά· και ο τρόπος με τον οποίο συσχετίζουμε τα αποτελέσματα των αισθητικών προσλήψεων είναι η λογική. Κατέχουμε επομένως την καθαρή γνώση των πραγμάτων; Αυτό είναι αδύνατο να συμβαίνει, δεδομένου ότι η φύση μας έχει εφοδιάσει με πρωταρχικά με μηχανισμούς παραγωγής γνώσεων μόνο χρήσιμων για την επιβίωσή μας. Η υπό όρους επαφή μας με τη γνώση, περιχαρακώνει τα όρια της εμπειρίας μας: μπορούμε να είμαστε βέβαιοι για την ύλη που μας περιβάλλει και για τον νου μας, δεδομένου ότι βιώνουμε τα αποτελέσματα της μεταξύ τους αλληλεπίδρασης. Η γνώση επομένως, ορίζεται και ορίζει την εμπειρία: την εμπειρία των αισθητικών μορφών, και την εμπειρία των εννοιών. Και η ειδική κατηγορία του νου που μας ωθεί να μεταβάλλουμε τις δυνάμεις του περιβάλλοντος σύμφωνα με τις επιδιώξεις μας είναι η βούληση, η οποία στη γενίκευσή της παράγει ηθική. Επομένως η βούληση καθοδηγεί την εμπειρία μας να κατακτά ό,τι είναι χρήσιμο για το συμφέρον του ατόμου και κατ’ επέκταση του είδους. Και πώς ο άνθρωπος οριοθετεί τα τις γνώσεις του; Οι νόμοι των φαινομένων, δεν είναι παρά τα αισθητικά αποτελέσματα των ενορατικών βεβαιοτήτων προς ορισμένες αρχές, οι οποίες μας φαίνονται αδιαπραγμάτευτες: η εναλλαγή ημέρας-νύχτας, η εναλλαγή των εποχών, η πορεία του χρόνου προς τα εμπρός, αποτελούν εμπειρικές επιβεβαιώσεις που αποδεχόμαστε, προκειμένου να προδιαγράψουμε τις ζωές, τα έργα μας και να περιχαρακώσουμε τα όρια των βουλήσεων και των πράξεών μας. Τι γίνεται όμως όταν η ίδια η νόηση ανατρέπει αυτούς τους κανόνες θέτοντας τη λογική υπεράνω της αισθητικής εποπτείας; Η σύγχρονη επιστήμη μπορεί να είναι βέβαιη για τη σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου μέσα στον οποίο υπάρχουμε και κινούμαστε. Ο χρόνος, παρόλο που είναι σχετικός, εντούτοις η κίνησή του γίνεται αντιληπτή από τις αισθήσεις μας ως σταθερή, με μονογραμμική πορεία προς τα εμπρός∙ λειτουργεί δηλαδή, η κίνηση στον χρόνο, ως κριτήριο εντοπισμού της θέσης μας στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο· απαντά, επομένως ο υπολογισμός του χρόνου, στο ερώτημα πότε, σε σχέση με το ερώτημα που∙ και αντίστροφα: ο υπολογισμός του χώρου απαντά στο ερώτημα που, σε σχέση με το πότε. Η σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου είναι -πέρα για πέρα- πραγματική, όσο πραγματική είναι η κίνηση της Γης γύρω από τον Ήλιο. Πρόκειται για μία αλήθεια η οποία, σε καμία περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να γίνει αντιληπτή από τις αισθήσεις, αλλά μόνον από τη λογική. Ας προσπαθήσουμε να φανταστούμε αισθητικά την σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου∙ ενός χρόνου που στρεβλώνεται, που δεν έχει αρχή, τέλος, που κινείται προς κάθε κατεύθυνση∙ και αντίστοιχα ενός χώρου αεικίνητου, ασταθή, και άμορφου. Πώς μπορεί να περιγραφεί μία τέτοια πραγματικότητα; Η απάντηση είναι ότι δεν μπορεί· και δεν μπορεί, γιατί, η αισθητική εποπτεία μας είναι κατασκευασμένη να αναγνωρίζει μόνο τρισδιάστατες μορφές. Η διαπίστωση ότι ο νους έχει την τάση να υπερβαίνει τα στενά δεσμά της αισθητικής εποπτείας, αν και φιλοσοφικά παραπέμπει στις πλατωνικές Ιδέες και το παράδειγμα του Σπηλαίου, εντούτοις ωθεί προς μία κατεύθυνση εντελώς διαφορετική από εκείνη της μεταφυσικής: στην κατεύθυνση μιας απαίτησης για διεύρυνση των ορίων της αισθητικής εποπτείας υπό την κατεύθυνση των λογικών συμπερασμάτων. Μπορεί, ωστόσο, ο άνθρωπος να υπερβεί τα εμπειρικά όρια των αισθητικών πληροφοριών και να κατανοήσει την βαθύτερη πραγματικότητα της εννοιολογικής γνώσης; Συνδυάζοντας αισθητικές μορφές, η φαντασία μπορεί να σχηματίζει ό, τι σύνθεση επιθυμεί: απλή, πολύπλοκη, αλλόκοτη, υπερβολική, ακόμη και νοσηρή ή αποτρόπαιη, αρκεί η πρώτη ύλη που χρησιμοποιεί να προέρχεται από το περιβάλλον της επιβεβαιωμένης αισθητικής εποπτείας. Πέρα από αυτά τα όρια, ο νους μας δεν μπορεί να αναγνωρίζει, να φαντάζεται, να συλλογίζεται. Πώς όμως η -επίσης ασύλληπτη για το νου μας- έννοια του απείρου γινόταν κατανοητή αιώνες πριν ανακαλυφθεί η θεωρία της σχετικότητας; Η κατανόηση της έννοιας του απείρου δεν αφορά στην εμπειρία της πραγματικότητας, αλλά στον τρόπο τακτοποίησης και υπολογισμού των όρων της με βάση τη οργάνωση συγκεκριμένων αισθητικών σημείων που αντιστοιχούν στη λογική γνώση: των αριθμών και των συμβόλων τους. Από τη μαθηματική σύνθεση εξαρτάται η λογική πορεία προς την απόδειξη. Όλοι οι αριθμοί εκφράζονται σύμφωνα με τα κριτήρια που εμείς επιλέγουμε. Μπορούμε ωστόσο να φανταστούμε άπειρους αριθμούς; Η απάντηση είναι όχι. Ο νους μας δεν είναι προγραμματισμένος να αποσαφηνίζει αισθητικά το άπειρο, επομένως δεν μπορεί ούτε να το φαντάζεται. Τότε, εφόσον δεν μπορούμε να φανταζόμαστε το άπειρο και -ως εκ τούτου- να το εκφράζουμε αισθητικά, πώς είναι δυνατό να συζητάμε για αυτό; Το γεγονός ότι δεν έχουμε αισθητική γνώση της του άπειρου, δεν σημαίνει ότι δεν μπορούμε να υποθέσουμε την ύπαρξή του. Επειδή η υπόθεση, ως διασκεπτική ενέργεια, αφορά καθαρά στην εννοιολογική γνώση, έπεται πως ό, τι υποθέτουμε, πρέπει να είμαστε σε θέση να το αποδεικνύουμε ή να το απορρίπτουμε, με βάση τη λογική. Πώς όμως ο θεωρητικός νους, μπορεί να λειτουργήσει κατευθείαν στο επίπεδο της λογικής, χωρίς προηγουμένως να έχει σχηματίσει το αισθητικό περίγραμμα, δηλαδή την μορφή του αποτελέσματος και της πορείας του προς αυτό; Η απάντηση είναι ότι το λογικό επίπεδο του νου μας μπορεί να υποθέσει χωρίς να μορφοποιήσει, εφόσον αντικαταστήσει τις αισθητικές μορφές με σύμβολα, με αισθητικο-λογικές παραστάσεις, που στην σύνθεσή τους μπορούν να περιχαρακώσουν λογικά τα όρια της ιδέας που υποθέτουμε. Οι παραστάσεις αυτές είναι οι αριθμοί και τα σύμβολά τους, ενώ η σύνθεσή τους είναι η μαθηματική πράξη. Είναι προφανές ότι η μαθηματική ανάλυση, εφόσον οδηγεί σε λογικά συμπεράσματα συνιστά γλώσσα, δηλαδή σύμβαση συνεννόησης, η οποία εξαρτάται από την ειδική γνώση των κανόνων της. Και πώς λειτουργεί η αισθητική γνώση στο επίπεδο αυτό; Η μαθηματική υπόθεση δεν περιέχει το προγνωστικό αισθητικό κριτήριο του αποτελέσματός της, επομένως, ουδόλως ενδιαφέρεται για την έκφραση. Η μαθηματική γλώσσα εικονοποιείται και αποτυπώνεται διαμέσου μορφών, η σύνθεση των οποίων γενικεύεται αναφορικά προς έναν συγκεκριμένο σκοπό: εκείνον της απόδειξης. Είναι επομένως, οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα αισθητικά μεταδοτές μορφές, προσανατολισμένες να ολοκληρώνουν την λογική απαίτηση. Και η βούληση δίνει την εντολή στον θεωρητικό νου να περιορίζει κάθε αυθορμητισμό, ώστε οι μαθηματικές μορφές να προσανατολίζονται μόνο προς τον λογικό σκοπό της απόδειξης. Παρόλο λοιπόν που οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα περιέχουν την αισθητική βεβαιότητα που παράγεται από την ενέργεια της απεικόνισής τους, σε καμία περίπτωση δεν αποτυπώνουν αισθητικά την γνώση του μαθηματικού αποτελέσματος. Η διασκεπτική ενέργεια, επομένως, όταν λειτουργεί μαθηματικά, δεν μπορεί να φανταστεί το αποτέλεσμά της, παρά μόνο να το διατυπώσει αριθμητικά. Αυτό συμβαίνει γιατί οι ίδιοι οι αριθμοί, παρόλο που αναφέρονται στην πραγματικότητα, εντούτοις δεν αποτελούν πρωτογενείς μορφές ζώσας εμπειρίας, αλλά δευτερογενείς μορφές συμβάσεων διευθέτησής της, δηλαδή αναπαραστάσεις εμπειριών. Επομένως: δεν μπορούμε να φανταστούμε ένα μαθηματικό αποτέλεσμα, παρά μόνο να οδηγηθούμε λογικά σε αυτό, δεδομένου ότι δεν μπορούμε να έχουμε αισθητική γνώση των μαθηματικών υπολογισμών, αλλά μόνον αισθητική γνώση της εικονικής αναπαράστασής τους και εμπειρία της εφαρμογής των αποτελεσμάτων τους. Για παράδειγμα: όταν σκέφτομαι την πράξη 2 x 2 = 4, κατανοώ τον υπολογισμό, συμπεραίνω λογικά ότι με τον ίδιο τρόπο 4 x 4 = 16 και, κατ’ επέκταση, φαντάζομαι την εφαρμογή της αρχής του πολλαπλασιασμού σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εμπειρίας μου· μπορώ μάλιστα λειτουργώντας αντίστροφα, να φανταστώ τη μαθηματική πράξη της διαίρεσης. Παρόλο όμως, που, σε αλληλεπίδραση με τη βούληση μπορώ να προσανατολίσω τη λογική μου στην αποκάλυψη και άλλων μαθηματικών αναλογιών, δεν μπορώ να διαισθανθώ το αποτέλεσμά τους, παρά μόνο να το υπολογίσω, να το συσχετίσω δηλαδή με αντίστοιχες αναλογίες και να το διατυπώσω-περιγράψω με βάση τη μαθηματική απεικόνιση. Το ερώτημα είναι εάν, στον μαθηματικό συλλογισμό περιορίζεται η χρησιμότητα της εκφραστικής δραστηριότητας σε ένα σημείο καθαρά απεικονιστικό, και είναι η βεβαιότητα του συμπεράσματος ό, τι ρυθμίζει τις βουλήσεις των υποκειμένων προς την κατεύθυνση της μεταβολής της πραγματικότητας. Ο νους υποθέτει ένα αποτέλεσμα και πηγαίνει προς αυτό, όχι βάσει μορφών ή εκφράσεων, αλλά βάσει αποδεικτικών κανόνων: οι μαθηματικοί κανόνες, σε αντίθεση με τους κανόνες της λογικής που προϋποθέτουν την αλήθεια του κριτηρίου της αισθητικής εποπτείας, μπορούν να προχωρήσουν σε λογικές συνθέσεις και ανασυνθέσεις, χωρίς να γνωρίζουν ενορατικά την πορεία προς το αποτέλεσμα. Το έλλειμμα της αισθητικής βεβαιότητας όπως είπαμε, αναλαμβάνουν οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα, τα οποία προσλαμβάνονται από το νου ως καθολικά αναγνωρισμένες ποιότητες, ως γλώσσα. Απομακρύνοντας την φιλοσοφία από τον παλιό θεωρητικό μανδύα των κατηγοριών μπορεί, ο καθαρός νους, να θέσει τα θεμέλια για μία νέα βάση, η οποία θα αντέχει στα συμπεράσματα της μαθηματικής σχετικότητας. Μία τέτοια κατεύθυνση θα απομάκρυνε την αισθητική αλλά και την ηθική φιλοσοφία από τον από τον εφιάλτη της αποπραγματοποίησης. Πράγματι λοιπόν, η επιστημονική γνώση μπορεί να οδηγήσει στην παραγωγή λογικών συμπερασμάτων ανεξάρτητα και όχι δίπλα στην αισθητική εποπτεία, όπως μέχρι σήμερα παραδέχεται η φιλοσοφία. Η αισθητική εποπτεία, παρόλο που αποτελεί ανεξάρτητη μορφή γνώσης, δεν μπορεί να δημιουργήσει μορφές πέρα από τα όρια των αισθήσεων, επομένως δεν μπορεί να ακολουθήσει τις επιστημονικές αρχές. Ωστόσο, το ότι η λογική υπερισχύει των αισθήσεων -βάζοντας έτσι ερωτηματικό στα όσα μέχρι σήμερα συζητάμε σε φιλοσοφικό επίπεδο γύρω από την αισθητική εποπτεία- δεν είναι ενδεικτικό του γεγονότος, ότι η φιλοσοφία έχει πάψει πλέον στην ολότητά της, να αποτελεί την θεωρητική μήτρα της επιστήμης. Αρκεί να αναλογιστούμε ότι η απάντηση στο λεγόμενο καρτεσιανό παράδοξο που έχουμε ήδη αναφερθεί, ως σημείο κορύφωσης της διαμάχης μεταξύ μονισμού και δυϊσμού, δόθηκε κυρίως από φιλοσόφους, Γάλλους εγκυκλοπαιδιστές και οι Γερμανούς υλιστές, οι θέσεις των οποίων οδήγησαν σταδιακά στην αποπνευματοποίηση της νόησης. Ήρθε λοιπόν η στιγμή που η φιλοσοφία πρέπει να αναλάβει πρωτοβουλία, επανεκκινώντας τις αρχές της επινοώντας νέες κατηγορίες ή νέους συσχετισμούς κατηγοριών, με βάση τα αδιαπραγμάτευτα πορίσματα της επιστήμης. Υποστηρίζουμε το σημείο αυτό ανατρέχοντας δειγματοληπτικά σε κάποιες εύστοχες παρατηρήσεις επιστημόνων, ο εννοιολογικός προσανατολισμός των οποίων εμπίπτει και στην μελέτη του φάσματος των φιλοσοφικών προοπτικών. Ξεκινάμε με την παραδοχή του βιολόγου-ζωολόγου Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907-1988), ότι η ηθολογία, ως μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς των ζώων και των ανθρώπων, δεν έχει ακόμη αποδείξει ότι η επίδραση του περιβάλλοντος μπορεί να επηρεάσει τις συμπεριφορές πέρα από τα όρια των φυσικών καταβολών μας. Αποφεύγοντας τη θετικιστική προοπτική και ανοίγοντας ένα μονοπάτι συνεργασίας μεταξύ θετικών και ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών, ο Ολλανδός ζωολόγος παραδέχεται ότι, ένα τέτοιο ενδεχόμενο -το οποίο πρέπει να εξεταστεί σε σχέση με την εξελικτική θεωρία- αφορά στους κλάδους της φυσιολογίας, της ψυχολογίας και εν γένει των ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών. Ωστόσο, συμπληρώνουμε εδώ, ότι παρόλες τις γενικές αρχές τους, βιολογία και θετικές επιστήμες δεν μπορούν να εισδύσουν στον πυρήνα της ατομικότητας καθενός. Σε όλα τα βιολογικά είδη, η μελέτη της ατομικής αντίδρασης στα ερεθίσματα του περιβάλλοντος είναι αρκετή ώστε να συναχθούν συμπεράσματα αντιπροσωπευτικά για το σύνολο του είδους. Κάτι τέτοιο όμως δεν ισχύει για τον άνθρωπο, δεδομένου ότι η ατομικότητά του αποτελεί ξεχωριστή, προσωποποιημένη παρουσία, συνειδητά ολοκληρωμένη ψυχική, σωματική και νοητική οντότητα. Έργο δε, της ανθρώπινης ατομικότητας είναι η παραγωγή γνώσεων, με βάση το προσωπικό αισθητήριο και η μετάδοσή της στο περιβάλλον της ομάδας. Το γεγονός ότι η ομάδα μπορεί να αναγνωρίζει την αλήθεια των ατομικών γνώσεων και να θεμελιώνει στην βάση της καθολικές εννοιλογικές αρχές, αποτελεί πάγια φιλοσοφική θέση γύρω από το γεγονός ότι οι συμπεριφορές, δεν προϋπάρχουν του νου, αλλά εξελίσσονται, η δε ομοιότητά τους δεν οφείλεται σε μία ακαθόριστη λογική οντότητα που υφίσταται ανεξάρτητα από την ατομική υπόσταση του προσώπου που σκέπτεται και βούλεται, αλλά εξελίσσεται επιλεκτικά μέσα από συνειδητές διεργασίες επιβιωμάτων και αναβιώσεων. Η θέση τουTinbergen και στην επικαιροποιείται και επαληθεύεται σαράντα περίπου έτη μετά από τον Ζωολόγο Richard Dawkins. Αναφερόμενος κυρίως στο επίπεδο της σχέσης μεταξύ Ηθολογίας και Ανθρωπιστικών Επιστημών ο Dawkins επισημαίνει ήδη από τις πρώτες γραμμές του έργου του Εγωιστικό Γονίδιο, την αναγκαιότητα συνεργασίας μεταξύ των δύο παραπάνω κλάδων, σημειώνοντας ότι οι Θετικές Σχολές των Πανεπιστημίων, δεν καταπιάνονται με τη φιλοσοφική αξία της Ζωολογίας· και αντίστροφα, ότι οι Σχολές των Ανθρωπιστικών Επιστημών δεν αναφέρονται στα συμπεράσματα της σύγχρονης επιστήμης. Ίσως λοιπόν, το γεγονός ότι η μελέτη λογικών συμπερασμάτων σύμφωνα με το εννοιολογικό κριτήριο της επιστήμης, στην εξέλιξή του δημιουργεί μία νέα ανάγκη εξισορρόπησης του προλογικού-αισθητικού και λογικού επιπέδου του νου μας, αρχικά όχι με βάση την κατανόηση των μορφών, αλλά της δημιουργίας ενός κοινωνικο-πολιτισμικού περιβάλλοντος, ικανού να υποδεχτεί απροκατάληπτα και χωρίς πολιτισμικό δέος, τις επιστημονικές αλήθειες. Μπορεί κάτι τέτοιο να καταστεί εφικτό; Εφόσον η ανθρώπινη διάνοια μπορεί να ξεπερνά την εμπειρία της υπολογίζοντας διαστάσεις πέρα από τα όριά της, σημαίνει ότι είναι προγραμματισμένη από τη φύση να λειτουργεί στο επίπεδο αυτό. Και ο νους μας, όντας αρχή που αυτοκαθορίζεται αλλά και εξελίσσεται, αποτελεί το αίτιο των προβλημάτων που θέτει στον εαυτό του. Άλλωστε οι φιλοσοφικές κατηγορίες όπως τις έχουμε κατατάξει σε αισθητική, λογική, ατομική-βουλητική και ηθική, είναι όροι προσαρμοσμένοι στις ανάγκες του φιλοσοφικού συστήματος και όχι το ίδιο το φιλοσοφικό σύστημα. Παρόλο λοιπόν που φαίνονται πεπερασμένες και οικουμενικές, οι λογικές λειτουργίες υπόκεινται στις αρχές της οργάνωσης και δημιουργούν απεριόριστους αριθμούς ειδικών ταξινομήσεων. Ολοκληρώνουμε λοιπόν αφήνοντας ανοικτή την παρακαταθήκη των Tinmbergen και Dawkins και την από κοινού επισήμανσή τους, όσον αφορά στην προσέγγιση της Επιστήμης από την Φιλοσοφία και αντίστροφα. Η επισήμανση-πρόταση αυτή αφορά στην εξέταση του ρόλου των συμπερασμάτων της επιστήμης ως κριτηρίου διαμόρφωσης συμπεριφορών, αλλά και διεύρυνσης των ορίων του νου, σε μία ολότελα διαφορετική βάση από αυτές που έχουν ακολουθηθεί μέχρι σήμερα: στη βάση της δημιουργίας νέων ευκαιριών για φυσική επιλογή. ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ 1) Γρηγόρης Γκιζέλης, Το πολιτισμικό σύστημα, ο σημειωτικός και επικοινωνιακός χαρακτήρας του, εκδόσεις Γρηγορόπουλος, Αθήνα, 1980. 2) Benedetto Croce, Estetica come scienza dell’ espressione e linguistica generale, Adelphi, Milano, 2005 (seconda edizione). 3) Dawkins Richard, Το εγωιστικό γονίδιο, μετάφραση-επιμέλεια-εισαγωγή στην ελληνική έκδοση, Μαργαρίτης Λουκάς, Τσουκαλαδάκης Αθανάσιος, φιλολογική επιμέλεια Μπουκάλας Παντελής, εκδόσεις Σύναλμα, Αθήνα, 1988. 4) Hume David, Κείμενα αυτοβιογραφικά, γνωσιολογικά, ηθικά, μετάφραση Μ. Γούναρη, Χ. Μησοπούλου, εισαγωγή-επιμέλεια Μαρία Πουρνάρη, εκδόσεις Εκκρεμές, Αθήνα, 2006. 5) Victor Kraft, Ο κύκλος της Βιέννης και η γέννηση του νεοθετικισμού, εκδόσεις Γνώση, Αθήνα, 1986. 6) Θεοδόσης Πελεγρίνης, Ηθική φιλοσοφία, εκδόσεις Ελληνικά Γράμματα, β΄ έκδοση, Αθήνα, 1997. 7) Θεοδόσης Πελεγρίνης, Οι πέντε εποχές της φιλοσοφίας, εκδόσεις Ελληνικά Γράμματα, β΄έκδοση, Αθήνα, 1997. 8) Nikolaas Tinbergen et al, Ηθολογία, «Επιστημονική Σκέψη 1900-1960», επιμέλεια R. Harré, μετάφραση Δημοσθένης Κούρτοβικ, εκδόσεις Μορφωτικού Ιδρύματος Εθνικής Τράπεζας, Αθήνα, 1982. 9) Windelband W., Heimsoeth H., Εγχειρίδιο της Ιστορίας της Φιλοσοφίας, Β΄ Τόμος. «Η Μεσαιωνική Φιλοσοφία - η φιλοσοφία της Αναγέννησης - η φιλοσοφία του Διαφωτισμού», μετάφραση Ν. Σκουτερόπουλος, Γ΄ ανατύπωση, εκδόσεις Μορφωτικού Ιδρύματος Εθνικής Τράπεζας, Αθήνα, 2003. 10) John Z. Young, Ο εγκέφαλος και οι φιλόσοφοι, Εκδόσεις Κάτοπτρο, Μετάφραση Μυρτώ Αντωνοπούλου, Αθήνα, 1991. (shrink)

Tarihte herhalde çok az soru Tanrı’nın varlığı sorusu kadar sık sorulmuş, çok yanıtlanmış ve verilen birbirinden farklı onca yanıta rağmen kesin bir sonuca ulaştırılamayıp tartışılmaya devam etmiştir. Yine de geçmişe dönüp baktığımızda bu soruya verilen farklı yanıtların farklı uygarlıkların inşa edilmesine, bazılarının yıkılmasına, acımasız çatışmalara ve her şeye rağmen kucaklaşmalara da vesile olduğunu görüyoruz. Tanrı var mı? Varsa onu nasıl bilebiliriz? Tanrı yoksa her şey mubah mı? İnsan aklı ilahi olanı kavrayabilir mi? Tanrı’nın varlığı ahlaklı olmanın şartı mı? Evren akıllı (...) bir tasarımcının imzasını taşıyor mu? Bu kitapta felsefeci William David Beck, bu sorulara tarihte verilen yanıtları ve bu konudaki tartışmaları ele alarak meselenin genel ve tarihsel bir tablosunu bize sunuyor. Platon, Aristoteles, Marcus Aurelius gibi Eski Yunan ve Roma düşünürlerinden Anselmus, Thomas Aquinas, Augustinus ve Yahudi-Hıristiyan geleneğine, Doğu’nun bilgelerine, İbni Rüşd, Fârâbî ve Gazzâlî gibi İslam düşünürlerinden Alvin Plantinga, Graham Oppy, Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins, Max Tegmark gibi Batılı modern ilahiyatçılara, bilim insanlarına ve Yeni Ateizm hareketine kadar uzanan bir çizgide “Tanrı var mı?” sorusuna verilen çeşitli yanıtları ve bu yanıtlara sunulan akılcı gerekçeleri ortaya koyarak soruya felsefece bir yanıt vermenin nasıl bir iş olduğunu da gösteriyor. (shrink)

Predication is a lingual relation. We have this relation when a term is said (λέγεται) of another term. This simple definition, however, is not Aristotle’s own definition. In fact, he does not define predication but attaches his almost in a new field used word κατηγορεῖσθαι to λέγεται. In a predication, something is said of another thing, or, more simply, we have ‘something of something’ (ἓν καθ᾿ ἑνὸς). (PsA. , A, 22, 83b17-18) Therefore, a relation in which two terms are posited (...) to each other in a way that one is said (predicated) of the other is a predication. The term of which the other term is said is called a subject (ὑποκειμένον) and the other, which is said about the subject, is called the predicate. Thus, in a predication the predicate is predicated of the subject; given that being predicated is almost as the same as being said. The relation between being said and being predicated is so close that ‘if something is said of a subject both its name and its definition are necessarily predicated of the subject.’ (Cat., 5, 2a19-26) This, however, is true only about the second genera and not the accidents. a) Nature of relation in predication What is Aristotle’s theory about the nature of the relation in a predication? How does he fundamentally understand this relation? Phil Corkum distinguishes between predication logic and traditional term logic and argues that the relation between subject and predicate in Aristotle is of the latter kind. While in predicate logic, subjects and predicates have distinct roles, they have the same role in traditional term logic. In predication logic, subjects refer, but predicates characterize. Thereupon, a sentence expresses a truth if the object to which the subject refers is correctly characterized by the predicate. In traditional term logic, both subjects and predicates refer and a sentences expresses a truth if both name one and the same thing. He concludes that Aristotle ‘problematically conflates prediction and identity claims’ because while he thinks both subjects and predicates refer, he would deny that a sentence is true just in case the subject and the predicate name one and the same thing. Based on this, Corkum believes that Aristotle’s core semantic is not identity but the weaker relation of constitution, which is a mereological interpretation: ‘All men are mortal’ is true just in case the mereological sum of humans is part of the mereological sum of mortals. b) Aristotle’s theory of predication: one or two theories? Frank Lewis finds an inconsistent gap between the theory of predication in the Categories and that in the later books of the Metaphysics VII, 6. So too Joan Kung, Terry Irwin, Daniel Graham. c) Distinction of ‘being said of’ and ‘being in’ Owen enumerates the texts in which Aristotle’s distinction between ‘being said of’ and ‘being in’ is asserted: OI. 11b38-12a17; To., 127b1-4; Cat. 1a20-b9; 2a11-14; 2a27-b6; 2b15-17; 3a7-32; 9b22-24 d) Predication in Aristotle and the standard ‘S is P’ Marie De Rijk Lambertus thinks that the ‘S is P’ pattern is misleading when it comes to express predication in Aristotle. In his view, ‘The Aristotelian procedure should be described in terms of appositively assigning an attribute (κατηγορούμενον) to a substrate (ὑποκείμενον), rather than ascribing a predicate to a subject by means of a copula…. The comment should be considered an attribute which is said to fall to a substrate, without understanding this procedure in terms of sentence predication.’ e) Aristotle’s predication: bipartite or tripartite? It is a difficulty to make Aristotle’s theories of name-verb predication and tripartite predication consistent. The reason is that tripartite is not consistant with his name-verb structure based on which he says that the predicate term is the ‘verb.’ (20a31; 20b1-2; 16a13-5) The problem is that in a tripartite form like ‘Socrates is white’ we cannot take ‘is white’ as the verb because, based on Aristotle himself, no part of a verb can be significant itself. (16b6-7) However, his assertions about the equivalences between the two structures (OI. 12, 21b9-10; PrA. 51b13-16; Met., 1017b22-30) must mean that they are not inconsistent in his own view. Thus, as Allen Bāck points, ‘Aristotle seems to think that he has a single, consistent theory.’ The sense of saying or speaking as the root sense of rhema makes the relation between predication (saying something of something) and verb more interesting. The use of rhema in the sense of a long expression approves this. In Plato’s work (399ac) where Socrates claims that the name anthropos derives from anthron ha opopen (‘he who examines what he has seen’) we have an onoma from, or in place of, a rhema. 1) Subject The subject (ὑποκειμένον) is that of which another term is said or predicated. Aristotle’s own definition is of a much more philosophical value: ‘By subject I mean that which is expressed by an affirmative term (λέγω δὲ ὑποκείμενον τὸ κάταφάσει δηλούμενον).’ (Met., K, 1067b18) Throughout Aristotle’s work, three kinds of subjects can be found: possible, prime and absolute subject. a) Possible subject Those things that can take the position of a subject in a predication we call possible subjects, no matter they can or cannot take the position of predicate in any predication. All terms except the ultimate predicates are possible subjects because they can take the position of subject. b) Prime subject Those that in any predication can only take the position of a subject and not the position of a predicate are prime subjects. (Cat., 5, 3a36-b2; Met., Z, 1028b36-1029a1) This is the truest sense of subject and belongs only to substances. (Met., Z, 1029a1-2) In fact, ‘that which is not predicated of a subject, but of which all else is predicated’ is a substance. (Met., Z, 1029a7-9) In Categories, besides primary substances (Cat., 2, 1b3-6), individual qualities are also said not to be able to be said of anything else. (Cat., 2, 1a23-29) Aristotle’s examples are a certain ‘knowledge-of-grammar’ (τὶς γράμματικὴ) and ‘an individual white’ (τὸ τὶ λευκὸν). Thus, although substances are indeed in the truest sense individuals and, thereby, in the truest sense primary subjects, other individuals can take the position of subject as well. c) Absolute subject While substances are prime subjects of all other things, there is still something of which substances can be predicated and this predication is not an accidental predication: matter. (Met., Z, 1029a21-24) This predication is, indeed, the predication of a ‘form or this’ on matter and material substance. (Met., Θ, 1049a34-36) The only thing that is absolutely a subject, therefore, and can be a predicate is prime matter (πρώτη ὓλη). (Met., Θ, 1049a24-27) d) Subject and substance The most important thing in being a substance is being a subject: ‘It is because the primary substances are subjects for all the other things and all the other things are predicated of them or are in them, that they are called substances most of all.’ (Cat., 5, 2b15-17) And what is nearer to this position is more a substance as a species is more a substance than a genus.’ (Cat., 5, 2b7-8) e) Primary versus accidental subject A subject is a primary subject in a predication when the predicate is predicated of it as itself. In such a case, the subject is the subject of the predicate qua itself and not qua something else. A subject, on the one hand, is an accidental subject when it is not the primary subject of the predicate that is predicated on it. It means that a subject is an accidental subject when the predicate is predicated of it not qua itself but qua something else. An accidental subject is, therefore, anything other than a substance. 2) Predicate as universal It is evident from our discussion of kinds of subjects that except matter, primary substances (if we ignore both accidental predication and cases of absolute subjects) and other individuals, everything else can take the position of a predicate. Since primary substances are individuals, it results that everything except matter and individuals are capable to take the position of predicate. The immediate consequence of this is that the predicate must be a universal. When individuals cannot take the position of predicate, this position cannot be taken by any particular. Therefore, only universals can be predicated of others. Moreover, albeit universals can be a simple subject (for another universal), they are not prime subjects. The closeness of universal and predicate is to the extent that Aristotle differentiates universal from subject. (Met., Θ, 1049a27-30) 3) Categories or classes of predicates Aristotle distinguishes ten highest classes into one of which each predicate must necessarily fall: substance (or what a thing is), quality, quantity, relation, place, time, position, state, activity and passivity. (Cat., 4, 1b25-27; To., I, 9, 103b20- ; PsA., A, 22, 83b13-23) The substance counted among predicates must refer to secondary and not primary substances not only because Aristotle insists that primary substances cannot be predicated but also from his own examples of the category of substance: man and animal. (To., I, 9, 103b25) However, if a predicate be asserted of itself or its genus be asserted of it, the predicate signifies substance or what is; but if ‘one kind of predicate is asserted of another kind,’ it signifies one of the other nines. (To., I, 9, 103b30) These categories are so comprehensive that no predicate can remain outside them so that even non-being has as many senses as categories. (Met., M, 1089a26-30) a) That whether Aristotle’s categories are merely linguistic or fundamentally ontological is a so much controversial dispute. Some like G. E. R. Lloyd believe that ‘categories are primarily intended as a classification of reality … rather than of the signifying terms themselves.’ b) Although Aristotle’s categories have been historically regarded as a classification of predications, there are some recent commentators like Jonathan Barnes that think it is classifying predicates and not predications. 4) Kinds of predicates In his introduction of Categories, as J. W. Thorp truly points out , Aristotle distinguishes between the category of substance and the other categories using μὲν ... δὲ construction. This construction illustrates that beside tenfold classification of categories, there is an even more crucial differentiation between two kinds of predicates: substance or what is on the one hand and the other nine ones on the other hand: the distinction between what is predicated of the subject as what it is and what is predicated of it as an accident. Therefore, we have three kinds of classification - a twofold, a fourfold and a tenfold-complicatedly classifying the same thing, viz. the predicate. Predicates can be divided also to four kinds: property, definition, genus and accident. (To., I, 4, 101b11-20) A property is that predicate that is convertible with its subject and does not signify its essence. A definition is that predicate that is convertible with its subject and signifies its essence. It is a genus if it is not predicated convertibly and is contained in the definition of its subject. And it is an accident if it is neither convertible nor contained in the definition of its subject. (To., I, 8, ^103b3) All of these four kinds are among categories. (To., I, 9, 103b20) It seems that there might be some kind of relation between the twofold and the fourfold distinction: whereas genus and definition are predicated as what it is, accidents are not so predicated. There seems to be some rules that determine to each of these four kinds each predicate belongs. At To., IV, 123b30ff. Aristotle asserts: ‘If B has a contrary and A does not, then B does not belong to A as its genus.’ There is a dispute around per se accidents (τὰ καθ’ αὑτὰ συμβεβηκότα) (Topics., 102a18) whether they must be regarded as either of the four kinds or as a fifth kind. Barnes (1970) argued that they ‘do not fit at all neatly into the fourfold classification.’ He argues that based on the definition of accidents at A, 5, 102b4-5, they must be accidents but based on another definition, A, 5, 102b6-7, they cannot be accidents. He also defends the view that they are not properties. Barnes concludes: ‘This shows that the two definitions are not equivalent, and hence that the ‘predicables’ are not well-defined.’ Demetris J. Hadgopoulos defends the view that the two definitions of accidents are equivalent and per se accidents are properties. 5) Five types of predications We have five kinds of predications based on our division of subjects and our discussion of predicates: simple, primary (itself divided to substantial and accident), accidental (itself divided to primary and secondary), aoincidental and absolute predication. a) Simple predication. This is a predication in which a universal is predicated of either a particular or a universal subject. This sense of predication includes all other senses except the first kind of accidental predication. b) Primary predication. This is a predication in which a universal is predicated of a primary subject, namely a substance. A primary predication is of two kinds: i) Substantial predication. A primary predication in which the predicate is part of, or is included in, the definition of the subject. The universal that is the predicate here is the definition or the genus or the species or the diferentia of the subject. It is this predication that Aristotle calls a unity: ‘A statement may be called a unity … because it exhibits a single predicate as inhering not accidentally in a single subject.’ (PsA., B, 10, 93b35-37) It is only substantial predicates that can be predicated of each other: ‘Predicates which are not substantial are not predicated of one another.’ (PsA., A, 22, 83b18-19) Aristotle defines a substantial predication also in another way. A predication in which a higher genus is predicated on a lower genus, species, a substance or an individual, (or a species is predicated on an individual) is a substantial predication. Therefore, a substantial predication is a predication in a series that has individuals on one of its ends and a general category on its other end. In fact, only substantial predicates can be predicated of one another. (PsA., A, 22, 83b17-19) This series cannot be an infinite series because otherwise not only substances would not be definable but also a genus would be equal to one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) -/- ii) Accident predication. A primary predication in which the predicate is not part of, or is not included in, the definition of its subject. The universal that is the predicate here is the property or the accident of the subject. c) Accidental predication. This is a predication in which the subject is not a primary subject and its predicate is a substance. This predication is of two kinds: i) Primary accidental predication. This is a predication in which an accident is predicated of substance. Such a predication can go ad infinitum, which is inferable from Aristotle’s assertion that the secondary accidental predication cannot go ad infinitum. ii) Secondary accidental predication. It is a predication in which an accident is predicated of another accident. Such a predication, Aristotle asserts, cannot go ad infinitum because even more than two accidents cannot be combined. Now what is the meaning of Aristotle’s assertion that we cannot continue this ad infinitum? Does it mean that we cannot continue the predication ‘The musician is white’ and say ‘The white is Athenian?’ But why not? Or maybe he means that by adding any predication, we are still in a condition of predicating two accidents of a substance on each other. -/- As primary subjects, substances can also take the position of predicate though not essentially but accidentally. In propositions like ‘the white is a log’ or ‘That big thing is a log’ we observe substance taking the position of predicate but this is only accidentally: ‘When I affirm ‘the white is a log,’ I mean that something which happens to be white is a log- not that white is the subject in which log inheres (οὐχ ὡς τὸ ὑποκείμενον τῷ ξύλῳ τὸ λευκόν ἐστι), for it was not qua white or qua a species of white that the white (thing) came to be a log (οὔτε λευκὸν ὄν οὔθ᾿ ὃπερ λευκόν τι ἐγἐνετο ξύλον), and the white (thing) is consequently not a log except incidentally.’ (PsA., 22, 83a3-9) Aristotle compares this accidental use of substance in the position of predicate with the substantial use of it in the place of a subject: ‘On the other hand, when I affirm ‘the log is white,’ I do not mean that something else, which happens to be a log, is white (οὐχ ὃτι ἓτερόν τί ἐστι λευκόν, ἐκείνῳ δὲ συμβέβηκε ξύλῳ εἶναι), (as I should if I said ‘the musician is white,’ which would mean ‘The man who happens also to be a musician is white’); on the contrary, log is here the subject- the subject which actually came to be white, and did so qua wood or qua a species of wood and qua nothing else.’ (PsA., 22, 83a8-14) Aristotle asks us not to call propositions like ‘The white is a log’ a predication at all or at least call them accidental predication instead of simple (ἁπλως) predication. (PsA., A, 22, 83a14-17) An accidental predication, in which we have a substance in the place of predicate, is different from an essential predication in that while the subject of an accidental predication is said to be the predicate not by itself but as something different with which it coincides, the subject of an essential predicate is said to be the predicate by itself and not because it is something else: ‘Since there are attributes which are predicated of a subject essentially and not accidentally- not, that is, in the sense in which we say ‘That white (thing) is a man,’ which is not the same mode of predication as when we say ‘The man is white’: the man is white not because he is something else but because he is man, but the white is man because ‘being white’ coincides with ‘humanity’ within one subject. Therefore, there are terms such as are essentially subjects of predicates. (PsA., A, 19, 81a24-29) This capability of ‘non-essentially and only accidentally’ being a subject does belong, in fact, to all sensible things. (PsA., A, 27a32-36) d) Coincidental predication. this is a predication in which none of the subject and predicate are a substance or an individual. In this predication, one of the accidents of a substance or individual is predicated of one of the other accidentals of the same substance or individual. For example, when it is said that ‘The white is musical,’ there is an individual, say Socrates, for which both of white and musical are accidents. e) Absolute predication. This is a predication in which a form or a substance is predicated of a matter or a material substance. Some commentators like Loux and Lewis regarded this predication as close to accident predication, both based on inherence. As R.M. Dancy points out, these predications make Aristotle’s theory of predication immanentist: not only accident predications are explained by the immanence of accidents in substances, some of the substantial predications, which were not explained in Categories, are also explained by the immanence of form in matter. It is interesting that in this kind of predication, it is the predicate and not the subject, which is in the strictest sense substance. As the central books of Metaphysics claim, the form is the substance. Thus, in this predication, substance gets away from the sense of ὑποκείμενον. Corkum mentiones 68a19 as the only instance where Aristotle explicitly claims that a term may be predicated of itself, a passage that is, in Corkum’s view, problematic. 6) Demonstrable predicates Those predicates are demonstrable that are so related to their subjects that there are other predicates prior to them predicable of their subjects (ἔτι δ᾿ ἄλλος, εἰ ὧν πρότερα ἄττα κατηγορεῖται). (PsA., A, 22, 83b32-34) 7) Series of predications Since it is possible for a predicate to be itself the subject of another predication, we can have a series of predications in which the predicate of a predication is the subject of the next predication. This series has the following features: a) It has a limit (in number) (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) on the side of subjects: there are subjects that cannot themselves be predicated (PsA., A, 27, 43a39-41), which are, as we noted, prime subjects: particulars, i.e. prime substances and other individuals. (PsA., A, 19-22) Aristotle calls them ultimate (ὓστατον). (PsA., 21, 82a36-b1) b) It has a limit (in number of kinds) (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) also on the side of predicates: there must be predicates that cannot be subjects. (PsA., A, 19-22; PsA., A, 27, 43a36-39) Aristotle calls them primary (πρῶτον). (PsA., A, 21, 82b1-4) These are the highest categories or the highest genera of categories. (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) c) The series has an escalating shape from mere subjects at its downside to mere predicates at its upside. It is Aristotle himself whos uses the words up and down in this sense. (e.g. PsA., A, 22, 83b2-3) d) The predications that lie between lowest and highest ones must be finite in number. (PsA., A, 19-22 especially: 20, 82a21-35) These have subjects and predicates, each capable of both of the roles of being subject and being predicated. A result of this fitness is that neither demonstration can go to infinity nor everything is demonstrable, the two points Aristotle always insist on. e) The upward side includes the more universal ones and the downward the more particular ones. (PsA., 20, 82a21-23) f) It follows from the above features that ‘neither the ascending nor the descending series of predications … are infinite.’ (PsA., A, 22, 83b24-25) g) Reciprocation and convertibility. Except in case of terms (i.e. subjects and predicates) that are at each of the ends of series of predications, namely ultimates and primaries, it is possible to reciprocate (ἀντιστρέφειν) terms and convert the predication. (PsA., A, 19, 82a15-20) h) Antipredication. Antipredication means that in a predication (S is P), the subject becomes the predicate of its predicate (P is S) in the same category its predicate was predicated on it. For example, if P is in the category of quality, antipredication means that S be predicated of P in the category of quality. In other words, P is a quality of S and S is a quality of P. Aristotle rejects this. (PsA., A, 22, 83a36-b3) i) Self-predication versus other-predication. Aristotle distinguishes between a predication in which a term is said of itself and a predication in which a term is said of another. (Phy., Δ, 2, 209a31-33) j) Predicablity (Cat., 5, 3a36-b2): 1) Primary substances and individuals are not predicable. 2) Secondary substances are of two kinds: genus and species i) Genus is predicable able both of the species and of the individuals. ii) Species is predicable of the individual. 3) Differentiae are predicable both of the species and of the individuals. 8) Predication as classification a) Richard Patterson believes that Aristotle’s so repeated construction using hoper (estin A hoper B) in Topics (120a23 sq., 122b19, 26sq., 123a, 124a18, 125a29, 126a21, 128a35. Also in Posterior Analytics (83a24-30) (Brunschwig’s list. ‘expresses the fact that A is a kind of B (esti A B tis), that A is a species of the genus B.’ 9) Universal predication Aristotle defines universal predication (κατὰ παντὸς κατηγορεῖσθαι) as such: ‘wherever no instance of the subject (τῶν τοῦ ὑποκειμέμνου) can be found of which the other term cannot be asserted.’ (PrA., A, 24b27-29) In this predication, the subject is included in another as in a whole (ἐν ὃλῳ εἶναι) and the predicate is predicated of all of the subject (κατὰ παντὸς κατηγορεῖσθαι). (PrA., A, 24b26-27) Attach another discussion we had about ἐν ὃλῳ here. 10) Quantity of predication A predication, truly stated, has a quantity, which is the number of objects under the name of the subject of which the predicate is predicated. The quantity of subject can be stated in four ways: a. Indefinite: when the predicate belongs or does not belong to the subject without any mark to show to haw many of the particulars under the name of the subject it does or does not belong. E.g. ‘Man is white’; ‘Man is not white.’ (PrA., A, 24a20; OI., I, 7, 17b8-12) b. Universal quantity: When the predicate belongs to all or none of the subject. E.g. ‘Every man is animal’; ‘No man is animal.’ (PrA., A, 24a18-19; OI., I, 7, 17b5-6) The contrary of a predication of a universal quality is a predication of a universal quality. E.g. the contrary of ‘Every man is white’ is ‘No man is white.’ (OI., I, 7, 17b20-23) c. Particular quantity: When the predicate belongs (or does not belong) to some of the subject. E.g. ‘Some men are white’; ‘Some men are not white.’ (PrA., A, 24a19-20) d. Single quantity: when the subject is a proper name of only one object. E.g. ‘Socrates is white’; ‘Socrates is not white.’ The contrary of this predication is of a single quantity: ‘Socrates is not white.’ (OI., I, 7, 17b38-18a4) 11) Convertibility of predication. Some predications are convertible, that is, it is possible to change the place of subject and predicate in a true proposition so that the converted proposition remains true. This is supposed to mean that given the truth of a predication, the truth of the converted predication is inferable. The convert form of a predication depends on its quantity. a. Indefinite quantity: This predication has no strictly true convert because its quantity is not stated. b. Universal quantity: It can be converted in two ways: i) A negative universal can be converted to a negative universal in which the terms are changed. E.g. ‘No pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘No good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a5-8 and a14-19) ii) An affirmative universal can be converted to an affirmative particular in which the terms are changed. E.g. ‘Every pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘Some good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a7-9) c. Particular quantity: If it is negative, it cannot be converted but if it is affirmative, it can be converted to an affirmative predication with particular quantity. E.g. ‘Some pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘Some good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a10-13 and a20-24) d. Single quantity: It cannot be converted. 12) Characteristics of relations between subject and predicate 1. A predicate is of a wider range than its subject. It is based on this fact that Aristotle: a) Prevents individuals to be predicate because there is nothing of which an individual be of a wider range. In other words, it is due to the fact that since an individual is only ‘one particular’ thing and, thus, cannot be of a wider extent than anything that Aristotle prevents them of being a predicate. Matthews, however, thinks we cannot use Socrates, a substance and an individual, in the place of predicate and say it of Socrates because ‘Socrates does not classify Socrates: it names him.’ b) Prevents differentia, species and things under species to be predicated of genus. (To., Z, 6, 144a27-) c) Prevents the species and the things under it to be predicated of the differentia. (To., Z, 6, 144b1-4) d) Also about the effect because it is wider than its subject. (PsA., B, 17, 99a) e) Each attribute is wider than every individual it is predicated on, though several attributes, collectively considered, might not be wider but exactly the substance of a thing. (PsA., B, 13, 96a32-b1) 2. The predicate of a predicate of a subject will be predicated of the subject too: ‘whenever one thing is predicated of another as of a subject, all things said of what is predicated will be said of the subject too.’ (Cat., 3, 1b10-15) In fact, it is due to its predication of the subject that it is predicated of its predicate. (Cat., 5, 2a36-b1) Moreover, what is not predicated of the predicate of a subject cannot be predicated of it as well. (PrA., A, 27, 43b22-27) Thus, what, for example, is not predicated of animal, cannot be predicated of man. 3. The predicate of a subject can be predicated of its predicates as well. (Cat., 5, 3a1-6) For example, you call the individual man grammatical and, thence, you call both a man and an animal grammatical. Nonetheless, the predicate of a subject belongs to it more properly than to its higher predicates. (PrA., A, 27, 43a27-32) 4. It is only the subject that can be distributed and not the predicate. (PrA., A, 27, 43b16-22; OI, I, 7, 17b12-16) Therefore, we can say e.g. ‘Every man is animal’ but we cannot say ‘Every man is every animal.’ 5. It is the reason of the relation between subjects and predicates, that is the reason of predication, which is the subject of inquiry. (Met., Z, 1041a20-24) In other words, since it is a meaningless inquiry to ask why a thing is itself (Met., Z, 1041a14-15), the only remaining meaningful inquiry is to ask why something is something else, i.e. to ask about the reason of predication. 6. A subject cannot categorize its predicate in the same category in which it is categorized by it. If e.g. A is a quality of B, B cannot be a quality of A. Therefore, there is no reciprocation in the same category. (PsA., A, 22, 83a36-39) 13) Characteristics of series of predications 1. A series of secondary accidental predication cannot go ad infinitum for not even more than two terms can be comnbined. For an accident is not an accident of an accident, unless it be because both are accidents of the same subject. (Met., Γ, 1007b1-4) 2. Infinite series cannot be traversed in thought. (PsA., A, 22, 83b6-7) 3. The predications of genera on each other must be ended and cannot go to infinity because otherwise not only substances would not be definable but also a genus would be equal to one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) Therefore, a series of predication of genera on each other must be limited on both sides. There must be an upward limit in general categories as well as a downward limit in individual because they cannot be predicated of others. Whatever lies between these limits can both be predicated of others and others be predicated of them. (PrA., A, 27, 43a36-43) 4. The order of predicates matters: it makes a difference whether the series be ABC or BAC. (PsA., B, 13, 96b25-32) . (shrink)

GAMETOGÊNESE -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco Departamento de Zootecnia – UFRPE Embrapa Semiárido -/- • _____OBJETIVO -/- Os estudantes bem informados, estão a buscando conhecimento a todo momento. O estudante de Veterinária e Zootecnia, sabe que a Reprodução é uma área de primordial importância para sua carreira. Logo, o conhecimento da mesma torna-se indispensável. No primeiro trabalho da série fisiologia reprodutiva dos animais domésticos, foi abordado de forma clara, didática e objetiva os mecanismos de diferenciação (...) sexual dos embriões em desenvolvimento, quais os genes envolvidos nesse processo e tudo mais. Nesse segundo trabalho, a abordagem será teórica, mas também clara, sobre a formação primordial dos gametas femininos e masculinos, através da ovogênese nas fêmeas e a espermatogênese nos machos. Esse trabalho visa levar a importância do processo de formação dos gametas e a produção hormonal das gônadas, bem como o entendimento sobre as interações com o eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário. -/- •____INTRODUÇÃO -/- A reprodução sexual é um processo mediante a qual dois organismos da mesma espécie unem seu material genético para dar lugar a um organismo fixo com combinação única de genes; para isso, cada organismo produz células que contém a metade do material genético característico da espécie. Essas células haploides (1n) são denominadas gametas; ao combinar-se um gameta masculino com um feminino produz-se uma célula diploide (2n) (zigoto ou ovo) a partir da qual se forma o embrião. A grande maioria das espécies com reprodução sexual são anisogâmicas, o que significa que produzem dois tipos de gametas diferentes: os gametas masculinos são microscópios, móveis e produzem-se em grande quantidade, enquanto que os femininos são grandes, imóveis e produzem-se em menor quantidade. O tipo de gameta que um indivíduo produz é o que define seu sexo; sobre os animais o macho é o indivíduo que produz grandes quantidades de espermatozoides e a fêmea produz uma menor quantidade de óvulos, enquanto que nas plantas as gônadas masculinas são as produtoras pólen e as femininas produzem oosferas. Os gametas são diferentes do resto das células do organismo, as quais se chamam células somáticas; essas últimas são diploides porque contém dois pares de cromossomos, um par herdado do pai do indivíduo e o outro da mãe. As células somáticas, ademais, se dividem por mitose, ao qual os cromossomos se duplicam antes de cada divisão celular e cada uma das células filhas recebe um complemento diploide idêntico dos cromossomos, logo todas as células somáticas de um indivíduo possuem o mesmo material genético, embora cada tipo celular expresse diferentes combinações de genes. Em contraponto, os gametas são células haploides porque possuem somente um par de cromossomos e a metade do material genético característico da espécie. Cada um dos cromossomos em um gameta é resultado da recombinação dos genes contidos nos cromossomos paterno e materno do indivíduo que originam o gameta, e cada um destes possuem uma combinação única de genes. Os gametas se formam a partir das células germinais, que são células que em sua origem são diploides e elas de “comprometem” a manter-se como uma linha celular especial que em determinado momento sofrerá o processo de meiose para dar origem aos gametas haploides, sejam óvulos ou espermatozoides segundo o sexo do animal. Como descrito no trabalho sobre a diferenciação sexual, as células germinativas primordiais originam-se no epiblasto do embrião, e migram desde o saco vitelino até colonizar as cristas gonodais, onde, por sua vez, proliferam-se e se organizam junto com as células somáticas da gônada primitiva para formar o testículo ou o ovário. As células germinais masculinas e femininas tem a mesma origem embrionária. As gônadas indiferenciadas em um embrião possuem três tipos celulares: as células que dão origem aos gametas (ovogonia ou espermatogonia), as precursoras de células que nutrem os gametas em desenvolvimento (células da granulosa no ovário; células de Sertoli no testículo) e as precursoras de células que secretam hormônios sexuais (células da teca no ovário; células de Leydig no testículo). As células germinais são as únicas estruturas do organismo que têm a capacidade de dividir-se por meiose sofrendo uma redução no número de seus cromossomos, sendo responsável pela transmissão da carga genética aos descendentes. Em contraste, as células somáticas somente se dividem por mitose. A formação dos gametas compreende fases sequenciais de mitose, meiose e pós-meiose. Esses processos são altamente organizados e necessitam de um preciso e bem coordenado programa de expressão genética. Uma das características importantes da gametogênese é a redução cromossômica, que através da meiose, reduz pela metade o número de cromossomos e produz células distintas entre si, devido a trocas de material genético entre os pares de cromossomos provenientes do pai e da mãe, o que ocorre no processo de “crossing over” durante a primeira fase da meiose. A gametogênese é o processo mediante o qual as células germinais de cada sexo se multiplicam, dividem e diferenciam até formar os gametas. No caso da formação dos gametas masculinos o processo recebe o nome específico de espermatogênese, e para os gametas femininos é denominado como ovogênese. Embora os dois processos alcancem o objetivo comum de produção das células haploides, por onde compartilham algumas características, existem diferenças marcadas entre eles devido a necessidade de produzir um número muito distinto de gametas, de tamanho diferente, e com características de motilidade também distintas. -/- •___ESPERMATOGÊNESE -/- A espermatogênese é o processo mediante o qual se produz os gametas masculinos denominados espermatozoides. Durante a vida fetal as células germinais e as células somáticas do testículo em formação organizam-se em túbulos seminíferos que se derivam dos cordões sexuais primários e conformam a maior parte da medula do testículo. Na etapa fetal cada tubo seminífero é delimitado por uma membrana basal, recoberta na parte interior pelas células precursoras das células de Sertoli (um tipo de células somáticas). No exterior do túbulo localizam-se as células precursoras das células de Leydig ou intersticiais (figura 1), que também são células somáticas. Entre a membrana basal e as células de Sertoli encontram-se algumas células germinais denominadas espermatogonias de reserva A0 (denominadas gonócitos) que serão o único tipo de células germinais presentes no testículo enquanto o animal não alcançar a puberdade. As células de Sertoli estabelecem na região basal uniões oclusoras entre si, formando parte da barreira hemato-testicular. As espermatogonias A0 localizam-se por dentro da membrana basal do túbulo seminífero, embora fora da barreira hemato-testicular. Figura 1: fase neonatal. Nota-se a grande infiltração de tecido intersticial em quase 50% da seção originando que os túbulos sejam pequenos e redondos em sua maioria. O citoplasma e núcleo das células pré-Leydig são notadas claramente por essa ser uma espécie suína onde o tecido intersticial está claramente diferenciado. Hematoxilina-eosina (X 220.5). Fonte: Embrapa. -/- O número de células de Sertoli no testículo depende da influência do hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH) presente durante a vida fetal e as primeiras etapas de vida pós-natal. A população de células de Sertoli ao chegar a puberdade se manterá fixa durante o resto da vida do animal; existe uma relação positiva entre o tamanho e a população de células de Sertoli e a capacidade de produção de espermatozoides do testículo. As células de Sertoli são as únicas células somáticas que estão no epitélio seminífero, e sua função é a nutrição, sustentação e controle endócrino das células germinais. As células de Sertoli participam ativamente no processo de liberação dos espermatozoides para a luz do túbulo. Nesse momento, as células de Sertoli realizam a fagocitose de parte do citoplasma do espermatozoide dos chamados corpos residuais. As células de Sertoli também fagocitam as células germinais que se degeneram no curso normal da espermatogênese. Essas células ainda sintetizam grande quantidade de proteínas, como por exemplo as proteínas ABP (androgen hinding protein), que transportam andrógenos para todo o aparelho reprodutivo, transferrinas, que transportam ferro para a respiração celular das células germinais e também às inibinas, que regulam a liberação de FSH pela hipófise, através de um sistema de retroalimentação (feedback) negativa (figura 2). Figura 2: epitélio seminífero, células de Sertoli (flecha) (400 X). Fonte: Embrapa. -/- Antes da puberdade dos túbulos seminíferos observam-se ao corte como estruturas de diâmetro pequeno, sem luz, e conformados unicamente pelas células de Sertoli e espermatogonias de reserva e rodeados por abundante tecido intersticial, ao que estão presentes as células precursoras das células de Leydig. Ainda antes da puberdade, a diferenciação celular manifesta-se primeiro pela presença de espermatócitos primários, os quais se degeneram em geral na fase de paquíteno, por falta de estimulação hormonal. A partir de que o animal chega a puberdade inicia-se o processo de espermatogênese, que se manterá durante toda a vida do animal, exceto em espécies de animais silvestres muito estacionais, ao qual pode se suspender durante a época não reprodutiva para voltar e ser retomada na época ou estação reprodutiva. Depois da puberdade, os túbulos seminíferos possuem um diâmetro muito maior; em seu interior observa-se um grande número de células germinais de todos os tipos, diferentes estádios de divisão, e em seu lúmen contém líquido e espermatozoides. Ainda sobre o alcancei da puberdade, as espermatogonias começam a dividir-se aceleradamente por mitose, enquanto que no espaço intersticial as células mesenquimais também começam a se diferenciar e a dar origem as células de Leydig (figura 3). A partir dessa etapa as células de Leydig (totalmente diferenciadas) são também evidentes no exterior do túbulo, junto com as células mioides ou peritubulares que o rodeiam o que ao contrair-se são responsáveis por controlar o avanço dos fluidos e as células presentes no lúmen do túbulo. As células mioides estão situadas ao redor do túbulo, e é creditado a elas a promoção da contração e da integridade estrutural do túbulo. Esse tipo celular apenas se diferencia na puberdade pela ação dos andrógenos (figura 4). As interações entre as células de Sertoli e as mioides parecem ter um papel importante na manutenção das funções do testículo. Durante o processo de espermatogênese, as espermatogonias de reserva dividem-se periodicamente e enquanto algumas células fixas permanecem como espermatogonias de reserva, outras proliferam e sofrem uma seção de divisões mitóticas durante as quais se vão diferenciando até formarem espermatócitos primários (espermatocitogênese ou fase de mitose), logo sofrem divisões especiais mediante as quais reduzem seu número de cromossomos (fase de meiose), e ao final trocam de forma para converter-se em espermatozoides (espermatocitogênese) (figura 5). Cada uma dessas etapas da espermato- gênese será descrito detalhadamente adiante, antes é necessário a explicação de algumas características das células de Sertoli e de Leydig que ajudarão a entender seu papel durante a espermatogênese. Figura 3: células de Leydig no espaço intersticial do testículo bovino adulto PAS (400 X). Fonte: Embrapa. -/- Figura 4: o estabelecimento da puberdade pela presença de espermatozoides no túbulo. Hematoxilina-eosina (400 X). Fonte: Embrapa. Figura 5: fases mitóticas das espermatogonias (A0 e B) para formação de um espermatócito primário e as duas fases de meiose que se sucedem antes da espermatogênese. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- Ao início da espermatocitogênese as uniões oclusoras entre as células de Sertoli se abrem por etapas (como as comportas de um submarino) para permitir a passagem das espermatogonias em direção ao centro do túbulo seminífero sem que se estabeleça uma continuidade entre o exterior e o interior da barreira hemato-testicular. Uma vez ultrapassada essa barreira, as sucessivas gerações de espermatogonias, espermatócitos, espermátides e espermatozoides irão se localizar em direção ao interior do túbulo seminífero, em estreita associação com as células de Sertoli. Em consequência, as células de Sertoli dividem o túbulo seminífero em dois compartimentos; o compartimento basal (debaixo das uniões oclusoras das células de Sertoli), ao qual residem as espermatogonias de reserva, e o compartimento adluminal (em direção ao centro do túbulo), cujos espaços entre as células de Sertoli desenvolvem o resto do processo de espermatogênese (meiose e espermatocitogênese). Esse feito é importante porque durante a vida fetal as únicas células germinais existentes eram as espermatogonias de reserva, pelo que os antígenos expressados por gerações mais avançadas (espermatogonias intermediárias, secundárias, espermátides e espermatozoides) não são reconhecidos como próprios do corpo pelo sistema imunológico. Logo, o anterior implica que deve existir uma barreira entre eles e o sangue para evitar um ataque imunológico. Em todas as etapas da espermatogênese, as células de Sertoli atuam como células de suporte para as células germinais, que sempre permanecem recoberta pela membrana das células de Sertoli. Também atuam como células nutricionais já que proporcionam o meio em que as células germinais se desenvolvem e maturam, assim como as substâncias que regulam e sincronizam as sucessivas divisões e transformações das células germinais. As células de Sertoli produzem hormônios, como estrógenos e inibina que atuam sobre a hipófise para regular a secreção das gonadotropinas que controlam a espermatogênese. As células de Leydig que residem no exterior do túbulo seminífero também são importantes para a espermatogênese: produzem a testosterona que estimula e mantém a espermatogênese, bem como serve como substrato sobre o qual atua como aromatizador das células de Sertoli para transformá-las em estrógenos. Como supracitado, para seu estudo podemos dividir a espermatogênese em três fase: espermatocitogênese, meiose e espermiogênese (figura 6). Agora, serão descritas cada uma dessas etapas. Em algumas espécies, incluindo no homem, os macrófagos representam o segundo tipo celular intersticial mais numeroso no testículo, depois das células de Leydig. Os macrófagos e vários subtipos de linfócitos são identificados nós testículos de ovinos e ratos. Eles estão intimamente associados com as células de Leydig e atuam juntamente na regulação da esteroidogênese. Figura 6: fluxograma da espermatogênese. -/- Espermatocitogênese -/- A espermatocitogênese, também chamada de etapa proliferativa ou de mitose, consiste numa série de divisões mitóticas sofridas pelas células descendentes de uma espermatogonia de reserva. Uma vez que a célula se divide, abandona o estado de reserva e começa um processo de diferenciação. As espermatogonias de reserva (denominadas espermatogonias A0 na rata ou As nos humanos) são células que existem desde a vida fetal e que permanecem mitoticamente inativas durante a infância. Uma vez que alcançam a puberdade começam a dividir-se em intervalos regulares, e as células filhas podem permanecer como espermatogonias de reserva ou abandonar a reserva e ingressar na dita espermatocitogênese. Uma vez abandonada a reserva, as células filhas que vão se formando em cada divisão permanecem unidas por pontes citoplasmáticas, constituindo um clone que se divide sincronicamente. As células que se formam depois de cada divisão continuam sendo espermatogonias, porém cada geração é ligeiramente diferente da anterior. Na rata, por exemplo, as espermatogonias tipo A0 ao dividir-se originam espermatogonias do tipo A1, que em sucessivas divisões formam espermatogonias dos tipos A2, A3 e A4, as quais, por sua vez, sofrem outra mitose para formar espermatogonias intermediárias e uma mais para formar espermatogonias do tipo B. Essas últimas se diferenciam (sem se dividir) em espermatócitos primários, processo em que termina a fase de espermatocitogênese, que literalmente significa processo de geração de espermatócitos. As espermatogonias tipo A0 são a fonte para a contínua produção de gametas. A metade delas se dividem e formam células iguais (as chamadas células tronco) e a outra metade forma as espermatogonias A1, que sofre novas divisões mitóticas e formam os tipos 2, 3 e 4. O tipo A4 sofre mitose para formar a intermediária (A In), que por mitose, forma a tipo B (figura 6). Esses tipos de espermatogonias podem ser identificadas em evoluções histológicas de acordo com sua organização topográfica na membrana basal dos túbulos seminíferos ou mediante seu conteúdo de heterocromatina. Outra maneira de diferenciação se baseia em marcadores moleculares específicos que distinguem as espermatogonias tronco (A0) das demais, com os fins de isolamento, desenvolvimento in vitro e transplante. As tipo B passam por mitose para formarem os espermatócitos primários; estes iniciam a primeira etapa da meiose formando os espermatócitos secundários; na segunda etapa da divisão meiótica, cada espermatócito secundário se divide e formam as chamadas espermátides. Quando o testículo alcança seu desenvolvimento total, a meiose completa-se e as espermátides originadas se convertem em espermatozoides. Um dos maiores sinais característicos desse fenômeno é o alargamento das espermátides e sua migração em direção ao lúmen do túbulo seminífero (figuras 4, 7 e 8). Figura 7: espermatogonias marcadas por imuno-histoquímica, anticorpo monoclonal TGFa (400 x). Figura 8: fases de divisões meióticas (M), espermatócitos em paquíteno (PA) e espermatócitos secundários (ES). -/- Figura 9: estádio posterior a liberação dos espermatozoides na luz do túbulo. Hematoxilina-eosina (400 x). Mediante as seis divisões mitóticas que ocorrem durante a espermatocitogênese se forma potencialmente um clone de 64 espermatócitos primários a partir de cada espermatogonia A que ingressa sobre o processo. Não obstante, algumas células sofrem apoptose em cada uma das etapas do processo, ao qual o número real formado é menor. Em outras espécies produzem-se um transcurso similar de divisões mitóticas sucessivas durante a espermatocitogênese, embora a nomenclatura utilizada possa ser distinta, por exemplo nos bovinos as duas últimas divisões mitóticas dão origem as espermatogonias de tipo B1 e B2. -/- Meiose -/- Uma vez que as espermatogonias B se diferenciam em espermatócitos primários, esses iniciam a etapa de meiose, com uma nova divisão; desta vez a divisão é do tipo meiótica. Ao completar-se a primeira divisão meiótica (meiose I) se obtém os espermató-citos secundários, que ao sofrer a segunda divisão meiótica (meiose II) dão origem as espermátides. Vale salientar que a meiose é o processo mediante o qual reduz-se a metade do número de cromossomos, pelo que as espermátides que se obtém são células haploides (1n). Os espermatócitos secundários que se formam depois da primeira divisão meiótica contém a metade do número normal de cromossomos, porém a mesma quantidade de DNA já que cada cromossomo é duplo. As espermátides formadas na conclusão da segunda divisão meiótica (figura 7), por sua vez, contém a metade dos cromossomos, e esse já não são duplos, já que se trata de células 1n. Também deve-se enfatizar que durante a meiose é relevante o entrecruzamento dos cromossomos homólogos, pelo que cada espermátide possui uma combinação única e diferente de genes paternos e maternos. Outro ponto que deve ser levado em consideração é que cada espermátide somente possui um cromossomo sexual; a metade das espermátides contém o cromossomo X herdado da mãe do macho que está levando a cabo a espermatogênese e a outra metade contém o cromossomo Y herdado de seu pai. Para cada espermatócito primário que entra no processo de meiose obtém-se cerca de quatro espermátides, pelo qual ao ser completada a meiose potencialmente se poderiam formar até 256 espermátides por cada espermatogonia que abandona a reserva e ingressa na espermatocitogênese. -/- Espermiogênese -/- Durante a espermiogênese, também chamada de fase de diferenciação, as esper-mátides sofrem, sem se dividir, uma metamorfose que as transforma em espermatozoides, os quais finalmente são liberados das células de Sertoli em direção ao lúmen do túbulo seminífero. A espermiogênese é um processo complicado e longo já que a espermátide deve sofrer complexas trocas nucleares, citoplasmáticas e morfológicas que resultam na forma-ção dos espermatozoides. Algumas dessas mudanças incluem a condensação do material nuclear para formação de um núcleo plano e denso, a eliminação do citoplasma para a constituição de uma célula pequena, a formação de uma estrutura especializada denomi-nada acrossomo ou tampa cefálica, e a formação do pescoço e da cauda (flagelo) do esper-matozoide, do que depende a sua motilidade. Durante a maior parte da espermiogênese, as espermátides se mantém com uma estreita associação com as células de Sertoli; logo, chega-se a observar, então, flagelos que se projetam em direção a luz do túbulo que pare-cem sair das células de Sertoli, sendo na realidade os flagelos dos espermatozoides que ainda não tinham sido liberados pelo lúmen. Ao liberar os espermatozoides em direção a luz do túbulo, as células de Sertoli realizam a fagocitose de parte do citoplasma dos espermatozoides (corpos residuais). Também fagocitam os restos de todas as células germinais que sofrem apoptose ou degeneram-se durante a espermatogênese. Credita-se que ao realizar essas funções as células de Sertoli podem fazer uma monitoração eficiente da espermatogênese, o que lhes permitiria emitir sinais para colaborar na regulação desse processo em nível gonodal e a nível sistêmico através da secreção de hormônios como a inibina e o estradiol. Além da inibina e activina, as células de Sertoli sintetizam outras proteínas, como a ABP (proteína ligadora de andrógenos) que serve como uma molécula de transporte de andrógenos dentro dos túbulos seminíferos, ductos deferentes e epidídimo, ou a transfer-rina, que transporta o ferro necessário para a respiração celular. -/- Resultados da espermatogênese -/- O resultado da espermatogênese não significa apenas uma simples multiplicação das células germinais (até 256 espermatozoides a partir de cada espermatogonia A1), senão que através dela são produzidos gametas haploides pequenos, móveis e com grande diversidade genética entre eles, ao mesmo tempo que se mantêm uma reversa de células mãe (espermatogonias A0) a partir das quais se poderiam originar novos ciclos de esper-matogênese durante o resto da vida do animal. -/- Controle hormonal da espermatogênese -/- Como mencionado, o FSH reproduz um importante papel para o estabelecimento das células de Sertoli durante a vida fetal e início da vida pós-natal. O começo da esper-matogênese também é estimulado pelo FSH, que atua sobre as células de Sertoli para estimular sua função e a ativação de sinais dessas células em direção as células germinais, incluindo-as a abandonar a reserva e ingressar na espermatogênese. O FSH, assim mesmo, estimula a mitose durante o resto da espermatogênese e aumenta a eficiência do processo, já que reduz a apoptose e a degeneração de espermatogonias intermediárias e do tipo B. O FSH também estimula as células de Sertoli para produzirem inibina e ABP. Uma vez iniciada a espermatogênese somente requerem níveis baixos de FSH para se mantê-la. As células de Sertoli também devem ser estimuladas pela testosterona para funcio-nar de maneira adequada; se requer também do LH hipofisário: hormônio que estimula as células de Leydig para produzir testosterona. Por sua vez, a secreção de LH e FSH é regulada pelo GnRH hipotalâmico: esse neurohormônio também faz parte do mecanismo de regulação da espermatogênese. A espermatogênese também é modulada em nível local mediante a produção de determinados fatores e interações entre as células. Dentro dos fatores locais podemos mencionar o fator de crescimento parecido com a insulina 1 (IGF-1), o fator de crescimen-to transformante beta (TGF- β), activina, ocitocina e diversas citocinas. Entre as intera-ções celulares existem tanto uniões de comunicação entre as células de Sertoli e as células germinais, como pontes citoplasmáticas entre todas as células germinais que formam o clone de células descendentes de uma espermatogonia A1. Uma vez que as células de Sertoli iniciam sua função na puberdade é possível manter experimentalmente a espermatogênese somente com testosterona, sem ser requeri-dos nenhum outro hormônio. A quantidade de espermatozoides produzidos, no entanto, é maior quando há presença do FSH. Abaixo do estímulo do FSH as células de Sertoli produzem estradiol e inibina, hormônios que geram uma retroalimentação sobre o eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário para a regulação da secreção de gonadotropinas. Em particular, a inibina reduz a secreção de FSH, pelo qual é factível que sirva como um sinal que evite uma excessiva estimulação as células de Sertoli. -/- Ciclo do epitélio seminífero -/- Em cada espécie as espermatogonias de reserva iniciam um novo processo de divi-sões celulares em intervalos fixos: a casa 14 dias no touro; 12 dias no garanhão e a cada 9 dias no cachaço (reprodutor suíno). A nova geração de células que começam a proliferar sobre a base do tubo deslocam-se em direção ao centro do túbulo a geração anterior, que por sua vez deslocam-se as gerações anteriores. Devido as mudanças que vão sofrendo cada geração celular se ajustam a tempos característicos de cada etapa, já que rodas as células em uma determinada seção do túbulo estão sincronizadas entre si pelas células de Sertoli; em cada espécie somente é possível encontrar um certo número de combinações celulares: 14 diferentes combinações no caso da rata, 8 no touro e 6 no ser humano. A sucessão de possíveis combinações até regressar a primeira combinação se conhece como o ciclo do epitélio seminífero. Na maioria das espécies os espermatozoides que são libera-dos em direção a luz do túbulo provém das células que entraram no processo de esperma-togênese quatro gerações antes que a geração que está ingressando nesse momento, pelo que a espermatogênese no touro dura ao redor de 60 dias e um pouco menos em outras espécies domésticas. Significa que os efeitos negativos das alterações na espermatogêne-se podem estar presentes até dois meses depois de que se produziram essas alterações. Como supracitado, geralmente se observa a mesma combinação celular em toda a área de uma determinada secção transversal do túbulo seminífero. No entanto, se fizermos uma série de secções, observa-se que ao longo do túbulo há uma sucessão ordenada de combinações (a primeira em uma determinada secção; a segunda combinação na seguinte secção, e assim sucessivamente em secções subsequentes até regressar a primeira combi-nação. Teremos, então, que ao início da divisão das espermatogonias A1 se produz de forma sincronizada em uma secção do túbulo, e vai-se transmitindo como uma onda peristáltica as secções adjacentes. Esse processo é denominado como onda do epitélio seminífero e graças à esse túbulo seminífero sempre tem secções em todas as etapas da espermatogênese, com o que se alcança uma produção constante de espermatozoides. -/- Alterações da espermatogênese -/- Nas espécies estacionais a espermatogênese, como já mencionado, pode reduzir-se ou inclusive suspender sua atividade fisiológica durante a época não reprodutiva dessas espécimes, porém esse processo fisiológico não pode ser considerado como uma altera-ção. No entanto, a espermatogênese só pode ser alterada pelas enfermidades ou por fatores externos. A principal causa de alterações na espermatogênese é o aumento da temperatura testicular. Por isso, os testículos são localizados na saco escrotal e são “caídos” para fora do corpo como pode-se observar nos bovinos, caprinos, ovinos, caninos e no próprio homem. A temperatura testicular deve estar cerca de 2 a 6 °C abaixo da temperatura corporal normal. As células germinais masculinas são sensíveis ao calor, pelo qual na maioria dos mamíferos os testículos se encontram fora da cavidade abdominal e existe um sofisticado sistema de termorregulação para mantê-los a uma temperatura menor que a corporal. Se a temperatura corporal for elevada ou se os testículos permanecerem na cavidade abdominal, ou ainda se os sistemas termorreguladores do testículo sejam afetados por fatores inflamatórios como edema ou falta de mobilidade testicular dentro do escroto, a temperatura do tecido testicular aumentará e a espermatogênese sofrerá alterações proporcionais ao excesso de temperatura e a duração da elevação. A espermatogênese também pode ser afetada pela exposição a hormônios ou a outras substâncias. É possível que a causa mais comum (sobretudo no homem) seja o uso de esteroides anabólicos, que elevam a concentração de andrógenos na circulação, provo-cando um feedback negativo sobre a secreção de gonadotropinas. Ao deixar de estimular-se o testículo pelas gonadotropinas, este deixará de produzir testosterona, e as concentra-ções de andrógeno exógeno nunca alcançará as altíssimas concentrações de testosterona que normalmente estão presentes a nível do tecido testicular por ser o local onde se produz o hormônio. Também se supõe que diversas substâncias com propriedades estrogênicas derivadas de processos industriais (indústria dos plásticos, hidrocarbonetos etc.) e presentes no ambiente (fatores xenobióticos) podem ser responsáveis pelas alterações na espermatogênese em diversas espécies, entre as quais se inclui o ser humano. -/- • OVOGÊNESE E FOLICULOGÊNESE -/- A ovogênese é o processo seguido pelas células germinais da fêmea para a forma-ção dos óvulos, que são células haploides. Durante a vida fetal as células germinais proliferam-se no ovário por mitose, formando um grande número de ovogonias, algumas das quais se diferenciam em ovócitos primários que iniciam sua primeira divisão meiótica para deter-se na prófase da divisão. Somente alguns desses ovócitos primários retornarão e concluirão a primeira divisão meiótica em algum momento da vida adulta do animal, dando origem a um ovócito secundário e a um corpo polar. O ovócito secundário inicia a sua segunda divisão meiótica, a qual volta a ficar suspensa até receber um estímulo apropriado, já que somente os ovócitos secundários que são ovulados e penetrados por um espermatozoide retornam e concluem a segunda divisão meiótica, dando origem a um óvulo (figura 10). O processo de ovogênese é realizado dentro dos folículos ovarianos, que também tem que sofrer um longo transcurso de desenvolvimento e diferenciação denominado foliculogênese pelo que a ovogênese como tal realiza-se dentro do marco desse último processo. Por essa razão, na seguinte seção descreverei tanto a ovogênese como a folicu-logênese, e a relação que existe entre ambos. Figura 10: representação da ovogênese. Na etapa de proliferação, as células germinais se diferen-ciam por mitose. A meiose I se caracteriza por uma prófase prolongada, ocorrendo a duplicação do DNA. Nas duas divisões, que ocorrem antes da ovulação e depois da fertilização, a quantidade de DNA é reduzida a 1n, com o fim de que a fusão dos pronúcles (singamia) pós-fertilização, seja gerado um zigoto com um número de cromossomos de 2n (diploide). -/- Geração de ovócitos primários e folículos primordiais Tanto a ovogênese como a foliculogênese iniciam-se durante a vida fetal, quando as células germinais primordiais provenientes do saco vitelino colonizam a gônada primitiva e, junto com as células somáticas z organizam-se para a formação dos cordões sexuais secundários, que se desenvolvem principalmente no córtex do ovário. Nesse período, as células germinais que colonizaram o ovário sofrem até 30 divisões mitóticas, proliferando-se até formar milhares ou milhões de ovogonias, que inicialmente formam “ninhos” constituídos cada um deles por um clone de várias ovogonias que descendem da mesma célula precursora e que se mantêm unidas por pontes citoplasmáticas, sincronizan-do suas divisões mitóticas. Nessa etapa alcança-se a máxima população de células germinais no ovário, que antes de nascer se reduzirá drasticamente por apoptose. No ovário do feto humano chegam a haver até sete milhões de células germinais que ao nascimento se reduzem a dois milhões. Os ovários fetais do bovino, de maneira análoga, chegam a ter até 2.100.000 células germinais, que ao nascimento reduzem para 130.000 aproximadamente. A redução no número de ovogonias produz-se ao mesmo tempo que essas células, que vêm dividindo-se por mitose e estão agrupadas em ninhos, iniciam sua primeira divisão meiótica para se transformarem em ovócitos primários: células germinais que se encontram em uma etapa de suspensão (diplóteno) da prófase da primeira divisão meiótica. Nesse período produz-se uma grande proporção de células germinais; as células somáticas dos cordões sexuais, por sua vez, emitem projeções citoplasmáticas que separam a isolam os ovócitos primários sobreviventes, ficando cada um deles rodeados por uma capa de células aplanadas da (pré) granulosa. Ao mesmo tempo em que se forma uma membrana basal entre as células da granulosa e o tecido intersticial do ovário. Ao ovócito primário rodeado de uma capa de células da (pré) granulosa aplanadas e delimita-das por uma membrana basal denomina-se de folículo primordial (figura 11). Nas vacas os folículos primordiais bem formados já estão presentes nos ovários a partir do dia 90 da gestação. A maioria dos folículos primordiais com os que nasce uma fêmea se manterão inativos durante um longo tempo; muitos deles durante toda a vida do animal. Nos folículos primordiais inativos tanto os ovócitos primários como as células da granulosa conservam sua forma original e mantém um metabolismo reduzido estritamente ao mínimo necessário para manter-se viáveis. Por essa razão, ao realizar um corte histológico de qualquer ovário as estruturas mais numerosas que se observam serão os folículos primordiais. No entanto, cada dia da vida de um animal, inclusive desde a vida fetal, um certo número de folículos primordiais reiniciam seu desenvolvimento, e a partir desse momento um folículo exclusivamente pode ter dois destinos: o primeiro, prosseguir seu desenvolvi-mento até chegar a ovular, e o segundo (que é muito mais frequente) encontrar em algum momento condições inadequadas que fazem fronteira com ele para parar seu desenvolvi-mento, levando-o a sofrer atresia e degenerar até desaparecer do ovário. Figura 11: sequência da foliculogênese apresentando as diferentes estruturas que podemos encontrar em cada fase. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. Culminação da ovogênese A ovogênese somente se completará quando um ovócito primário reinicia a meio-se; completa sua primeira divisão meiótica para formar um ovócito secundário e um primeiro corpo polar e, quando, finalmente sofrer uma segunda divisão meiótica para formar um óvulo e um segundo corpo polar. Os óvulos são as células 1n que constituem os gametas femininos, pouco numerosos, grandes e imóveis. A grande maioria dos ovóci-tos primários, como veremos mais adiante, nunca retomam a meiose e, em consequência, não chegam a formar ovócitos secundários, e muitos dos ovócitos secundários tampouco sofrem uma segunda divisão meiótica, pelo que não chegam a formar os óvulos. Ao longo da vida de uma fêmea, na maioria das espécies, menos de 0,1% dos ovócitos primários (um a cada mil) chega a terminar a ovogênese, dando origem a um óvulo. O supracitado deve-se a que a ovogênese somente pode retomar-se e ser completa-da em ovócitos primários que se encontram dentro dos folículos primordiais que (uma vez ativados) vão alcançando diversas etapas de seu desenvolvimento em momentos precisos aos que encontram as condições ideais de oxigenação, nutrição, vascularização e exposição a fatores parácrinos e a exposição a concentrações de hormônios que se requerem para que o folículo continue em cada etapa de seu desenvolvimento com o processo de foliculogênese até chegar a ovular. Qualquer folículo que não esteja nessas condições ao longo do desenvolvimento sofrerá degeneração e atresia, pelo que o ovócito primário em seu interior nunca chegará ao ponto em que pode retomar a primeira divisão meiótica. No que resta da presente seção revisaremos o processo de foliculogênese em cujo marco se desenvolve a ovogênese; havemos que tomar de conta que essa última se limita ao que ocorre nas células germinais (ovogonia, ovócito primário, secundário e óvulo), pelo qual depende intimamente do desenvolvimento do folículo de que essas células formam parte. Em um princípio a ativação do folículo primordial e o desenvolvimento folicular são independentes das gonadotropinas: não se conhecem os mecanismos precisos median-te os quais um folículo primordial se ativa e reinicia seu desenvolvimento, nem como se decide quais folículos, dentre as dezenas de milhares de ou centenas de milhares presentes em um ovário se reativarão em um dia em particular. A reativação trata-se de uma liberação de influência de fatores inibidores, já que os folículos primordiais se reativam espontaneamente quando cultivados in vitro, isolados do resto do tecido ovariano. Uma vez que um folículo primordial se ativa, inicia-se um longo processo de desenvolvimento que somente depois de vários meses (ao redor de cinco meses no caso dos bovinos) o levará a um estádio em que seu desenvolvimento posterior requer a presença das gonado-tropinas; daí que se diz que as primeiras etapas do desenvolvimento são independentes das gonadotropinas. Durante a fase independente de gonadotropinas, um folículo primordial que tenha sido ativado e tenha começado a crescer; passará primeiro para a etapa de folículo primá-rio, caracterizada por conter um ovócito primário que está rodeado, por sua vez, por uma capa de células da granulosa, que não são planas, e sim cúbicas. Depois, se o folículo continuar crescendo se transformará em um folículo secundário, ao qual as células da granulosa começam a proliferar (aumentando em número) e se organizam em duas ou mais capas que rodeiam o ovócito primário. Entre o ovócito e as células da granulosa que o rodeiam se forma nesta uma zona pelúcida; ainda assim o ovócito mantém contato direto com essas células, mediante o estabelecimento de pontes citoplasmáticas que atravessam a zona pelúcida. Através dessas pontes citoplasmáticas as células da granulosa podem passar nutrientes e informação ao ovócito primário. O volume e o diâmetro do ovócito primário aumentam ao mesmo tempo que as células da granulosa proliferam-se, para incrementar as capas ao redor do ovócito. De maneira gradual o citoplasma do ovócito primário aumenta até 50 vezes seu volume e a proliferação das células continua. Esses folículos que possuem cada vez mais células e portanto mais capas de células da granulosa se denominam folículos secundários. Para evitar confusões, há a necessidade de nomen-clatura ao qual o folículo vá mudando de nome de primordial a primário e logo, de secun-dário, a terciário, por sua vez, o ovócito que encontra-se em seu interior, a todo momento, segue sendo um ovócito primário. Durante a etapa dependente de gonadotropinas, os folículos secundários começam a formar um espaço cheio de líquido, o antro folicular, desse modo se convertem em folí-culos terciários. Com a utilização de outra nomenclatura, a formação do antro marca a transição entre folículos pré-antrais (sem antro) e folículos antrais (com antro). Em algum momento dessa transição entre folículo secundário e terciário, também aparece a depen-dência de folículos em direção as gonadotropinas, pelo qual somente podem seguir crescendo na presença do hormônio luteinizante (LH) e do hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH). Nos bovinos e em outras espécies (para seu estudo), os folículos antrais são dividi-dos em pequenos, médios e grandes. Embora todos eles possuam um antro folicular, dependendo do seu grau de desenvolvimento requerem diferentes concentrações de gona-dotropinas para continuar o crescimento. Os folículos antrais mais pequenos somente re-querem concentrações baixas de LH e FSH, pelo qual podem continuar crescendo em qualquer momento do ciclo estral inclusive em animais que não estão ciclando (fêmeas em anestro pré-puberal, gestacional, lactacional, estacional). Nas etapas posteriores os folículos antrais requerem primeiro concentrações elevadas de FSH, e nas etapas finais somente podem continuar crescendo na presença de pulsos frequentes de LH, pelo qual somente os folículos que encontram-se sob concentrações apropriadas desses hormônios podem seguir crescendo. Por essa razão, nos animais que se encontram em anestro de qualquer tipo somente é possível encontrar folículos antrais pequenos ou médios, segundo a espécie, e nos animais que se encontram ciclando (estro) o maior tamanho folicular encontrado em um determinado dia do ciclo dependerá das concentrações de FSH e LH presentes nesse momento e nos dias anteriores. Um folículo que chega ao estado máximo de desenvolvimento, conhecido como folículo pré-ovulatório, ao final, somente chegará a ovular se for exposto a um pico pré-ovulatório de LH. Como supracitado, cada dia na vida de uma fêmea inicia seu desenvolvimento um certo número de folículos; a grande maioria sofrem atresia, mas depois da puberdade em cada dia do ciclo estral um ou vários folículos vão encontrando ao longo do seu desenvol-vimento concentrações hormonais que lhes permite chegar na etapa de folículo pré-ovula-tório. Somente nestes folículos, e como consequência de um pico pré-ovulatório de LH, se reinicia e completa-se a primeira divisão meiótica do ovócito primário, produzindo duas células distintas. Uma delas é o ovócito secundário, que retém praticamente todo o citoplasma. Contém, assim mesmo, em seu núcleo um par de cromossomos duplos, a outra é o primeiro corpo polar, que é exclusivamente um núcleo com uma quantidade mínima de citoplasma. Na maioria das espécies ovula-se um ovócito secundário que se encontra, então, suspendido na segunda divisão meiótica. Esta segunda divisão meiótica somente reinicia-rá e completarar-se uma vez que o espermatozoide começa a penetrar sob o ovócito secundário. Ao concluir-se a divisão se forma o segundo corpo polar e completa-se a ovogênese com o qual se obtém o óvulo, célula 1n que constitui o gameta feminino. No entanto, o óvulo existe pouco tempo como tal, já que em poucos minutos/horas (depen-dendo da espécie) se produzirá a fusão do núcleo do mesmo (pró-núcleo feminino) com o do espermatozoide (pró-núcleo masculino), com o qual se completa a fertilização e se forma um novo indivíduo (o ovo ou zigoto). -/- Ondas foliculares -/- Como mencionado supra, todos os dias um determinado número de folículos pri-mordiais se ativam e começam a crescer, os quais crescem em um ritmo característico em cada espécie. Isso provoca que em qualquer momento existam nos ovários folículos pri-mordiais (que começam a crescer em alguns dias ou semanas), assim como folículos secundários em diversas etapas do desenvolvimento, os quais iniciaram seu desenvolvi-mento em semanas ou inclusive meses (segundo o grau de desenvolvimento atual). Também em qualquer momento poderá haver folículos antrais nas etapas iniciais de seu desenvolvimento (com antros que já se podem detectar em cortes histológicos mas não são visíveis macroscopicamente). Todos esses folículos chegaram até seu estado de de-senvolvimento atual (primário, secundário ou antral pequeno), independente da etapa do ciclo estral em que sejam observados ou encontrados. Nos bovinos, os folículos que chegam ao início da etapa antral iniciaram seu desenvolvimento cinco meses antes, e todavia requerem ao redor de 42 dias para chegar ao estado pré-ovulatório. Para continuar seu desenvolvimento, os folículos antrais pequenos devem encon-trar concentrações altas de FSH, que os estimulam para prosseguir o crescimento. Cada vez que se produz uma elevação nas concentrações de FSH, esse hormônio estimula o desenvolvimento de um grupo de folículos antrais pequenos, que começaram a crescer muito tempo antes e que o dia da elevação de FSH tenha alcançado o grau de desenvolvi-mento preciso para responder com eficiência a este hormônio, o qual atuará através de seus receptores nas células da granulosa para estimular a produção de estradiol, a secreção de inibina, a produção de líquido folicular e a proliferação das células da granulosa. Um grupo de folículos antrais pequenos é assim recrutado pelo FSH para acelerar seu cresci-mento e aumentar sua produção de estradiol e inibina (figura 12). Mediante um seguimento ultrassonográfico dos ovários é possível identificar pou-cos dias depois um certo número de folículos, que por haver sido recrutados começam um período de crescimento acelerado. Durante alguns dias vários folículos crescem juntos, porém depois um deles é selecionado para continuar crescendo, enquanto que o restante do grupo deixam de fazê-lo e terminam sofrendo atresia. Através da ultrassom é possível identificar o folículo selecionado, agora chamado folículo domi-nante, já que sua trajetória de crescimento sofre um desvio com respeito a seguida pelo restante do grupo. Os folículos que não foram selecionados deixam de crescer e sofrem atresia já que deixam de possuir o suporte gonadotrópico de FSH, uma vez que as concentrações desse hormônio são suprimidos pela inibina e o estradiol produzidos pelo conjunto de folículos que conformam a onda folicular (figura 12), porém o folículo mais desenvolvido do grupo se converterá em dominante. A inibina atua diretamente a nível hipofisário para reduzir a secreção de FSH. Figura 12: onda folicular e relação dos níveis de FSH, estradiol e LH. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- Figura 13: Recrutamento, seleção e dominação folicular na espécie ovina e influência do FSH e LH nas fases. Fonte: SILVA, E. I. C. da, 2019. -/- A razão pela qual o folículo dominante é capaz de continuar seu desenvolvimento apesar da baixa nas concentrações de FSH é que o folículo é o único que alcançou o grau de progresso necessário para que apareçam os receptores para LH em suas células da granulosa. Esse processo permite ao folículo dominante ser estimulado pela LH, e que requeira baixas concentrações de FSH para manter seu desenvolvimento. A secreção de LH em forma de pulsos de baixa frequência (um pulso a cada quatro a seis horas), característica da fase lútea do ciclo estral; é suficiente para permitir que um folículo dominante continue crescendo por mais dias depois da sua seleção e que mais tarde mantenha-se viável durante alguns dias embora não aumentem de tamanho. Contu-do, se durante o período viável desse folículo não seja finalizada a fase lútea e não diminuam as concentrações de progesterona, o folículo terminará sofrendo atresia devido a exigência de um padrão de secreção acelerada de LH (aproximadamente um pulso por hora) durante o desenvolvimento pré-ovulatório, que somente pode ser produzido com a ausência da progesterona. Uma vez que um folículo dominante sofre atresia deixa de produzir inibina, pelo qual as concentrações de FSH podem elevar-se novamente para iniciar o recrutamento de outro grupo de folículos a partir da qual se origina uma nova onda folicular. Durante o ciclo estral de uma vaca podem gerar-se dois ou três ondas foliculares; somente em raros casos quatro. A etapa de dominância folicular da primeira onda na grande maioria dos casos não coincide com a regressão do corpo lúteo, pelo qual o primei-ro folículo dominante quase invariavelmente termina em atresia. Em algumas vacas o fo-lículo dominante da segunda onda ainda está viável quando se produz a regressão do corpo lúteo e acelera-se a secreção de LH, pelo qual esse segundo folículo dominante se converte em folículo pré-ovulatório e, ao final ovula. Em outros animais o segundo folícu-lo dominante também perde a sua viabilidade antes da regressão do corpo lúteo, por onde nesses animais se inicia uma terceira onda folicular, da qual surge o folículo que finalmen-te ovulará depois de produzir-se a regressão do corpo lúteo. Sem importar a onda em que se origine, uma vez que um folículo dominante é ex-posto a alta frequência de secreção de LH que se produz depois da regressão do corpo lúteo, aumenta ainda mais sua secreção de estradiol até que as altas concentrações desse hormônio comecem a exercer um feedback positivo para a secreção do LH. Isso provoca-rá a aceleração da frequência de secreção do LH até que os pulsos são tão frequentes que começam a ficar por cima e produzir-se o pico pré-ovulatório de LH, que é responsável pela realização da ovulação e a maturação final do ovócito. -/- •___DIFERENÇAS ENTRE ESPERMATOGÊNESE E OVOGÊNESE -/- Enquanto que na fêmea a ovogênese inicia-se durante a vida fetal, no macho a es-permatogênese começa na puberdade. Na fêmea, a partir de um ovócito primário se origi-na um óvulo; no macho, de um espermatócito primário se produzem, teoricamente, quatro espermatozoides. Outra característica interessante é que enquanto a fêmea já conta desde o nasci-mento com todos os ovócitos que necessitará na vida adulta, o macho necessitará chegar a puberdade para iniciar o desenvolvimento das células sexuais, já que ao nascer somente possui gonócitos precursores das células germinais, células de Sertoli e intersticiais. Na vida adulta de uma fêmea, o número de células germinais desaparece paulati-namente. Uma vez iniciada a espermatogênese no macho, a cada ciclo do epitélio seminí-fero as células germinais são renovadas mantendo a provisão para toda a vida reprodutiva. Na fêmea, a meiose sofre duas interrupções em seu transcurso, e no macho é ininterrupta. Figura 14: representação em diagramação comparativa do desenvolvimento da gametogênese. -/- Principais pontos abordados sobre as diferenças entre a gametogênese masculina e feminina: ❙ Na ovogênese a meiose contêm-se em duas ocasiões esperando acontecimentos externos para prosseguir. Já na espermatogênese não existe a suspensão da meiose. ❙ A espermatogênese é um processo contínuo, enquanto que a ovogênese pode completar exclusivamente um óvulo em cada ciclo estral; já que só pode ser completada por mais de um nas espécies que ovulam vários ovócitos no caso das porcas, cadelas, gatas etc. ❙ Na espermatogênese existem células de reserva que permitem a continuação du-rante toda a vida, enquanto que na ovogênese o número de ovócitos primários é limitado. A fêmea somente conta com os que nasceu, e eles não se dividem. ❙ Na espermatogênese obtém-se até 256 espermatozoides para cada espermatogo-nia que inicia o processo, enquanto que na ovogênese somente se obtém um óvulo a partir de cada ovócito primário. ❙ Durante a espermatogênese se produz uma metamorfose que transforma as es-permátides em espermatozoides. Na ovogênese não ocorre um processo análogo. ❙ Na espermatogênese, durante a meiose produzem-se quatro espermátides a partir de cada espermatócito primário. Na ovogênese se produz somente um óvulo a partir de cada ovócito primário; produz, ademais, dois corpos polares. ❙ Todos os óvulos que se produzem durante a ovogênese contém um cromossomo X, enquanto que a metade dos espermatozoides possuem um cromossomo Y e a outra metade um cromossomo X. ❙ Na espermatogênese produzem-se centenas ou dezenas de milhões de esperma-tozoides por dia, enquanto que na ovogênese se produz um ou alguns óvulos a cada ciclo estral. ❙ A espermatogênese produz gametas macroscópicos e com motilidade própria, enquanto que a ovogênese produz gametas grandes e imóveis. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ABDEL-RAOUF, Mohammed et al. The postnatal development of the reproductive organs in bullswith special reference to puberty.(Including growth of the hypophysis and the adrenals). Acta endocrinologica, n. Suppl No. 49, 1960. ADONA, Paulo Roberto et al. Ovogênese e foliculogênese em mamíferos. Journal of Health Sciences, v. 15, n. 3, 2013. AERTS, J. M. J.; BOLS, P. E. 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Gametogénese. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. ZIRKIN, Barry R. et al. Endocrine and Paracrine Regulation of Mammalian Spermatogenesis. In: Hormones and Reproduction of Vertebrates. Academic Press, 2011. p. 45-57. -/- REALIZAÇÃO -/- . (shrink)

Any intermediate propositional logic can be extended to a calculus with epsilon- and tau-operators and critical formulas. For classical logic, this results in Hilbert’s $\varepsilon $ -calculus. The first and second $\varepsilon $ -theorems for classical logic establish conservativity of the $\varepsilon $ -calculus over its classical base logic. It is well known that the second $\varepsilon $ -theorem fails for the intuitionistic $\varepsilon $ -calculus, as prenexation is impossible. The paper investigates the effect of adding critical $\varepsilon $ - (...) and $\tau $ -formulas and using the translation of quantifiers into $\varepsilon $ - and $\tau $ -terms to intermediate logics. It is shown that conservativity over the propositional base logic also holds for such intermediate ${\varepsilon \tau }$ -calculi. The “extended” first $\varepsilon $ -theorem holds if the base logic is finite-valued Gödel–Dummett logic, and fails otherwise, but holds for certain provable formulas in infinite-valued Gödel logic. The second $\varepsilon $ -theorem also holds for finite-valued first-order Gödel logics. The methods used to prove the extended first $\varepsilon $ -theorem for infinite-valued Gödel logic suggest applications to theories of arithmetic. (shrink)

Takeuti and Titani have introduced and investigated a logic they called intuitionistic fuzzy logic. This logic is characterized as the first-order Gödel logic based on the truth value set [0,1]. The logic is known to be axiomatizable, but no deduction system amenable to proof-theoretic, and hence, computational treatment, has been known. Such a system is presented here, based on previous work on hypersequent calculi for propositional Gödel logics by Avron. It is shown that the system is sound and complete, and (...) allows cut-elimination. A question by Takano regarding the eliminability of the Takeuti-Titani density rule is answered affirmatively. (shrink)

In this chapter, we analyze the relationships between the Internet and its users in terms of situated cognition theory. We first argue that the Internet is a new kind of cognitive ecology, providing almost constant access to a vast amount of digital information that is increasingly more integrated into our cognitive routines. We then briefly introduce situated cognition theory and its species of embedded, embodied, extended, distributed and collective cognition. Having thus set the stage, we begin by taking an embedded (...) cognition view and analyze how the Internet aids certain cognitive tasks. After that, we conceptualize how the Internet enables new kinds of embodied interaction, extends certain aspects of our embodiment, and examine how wearable technologies that monitor physiological, behavioral and contextual states transform the embodied self. On the basis of the degree of cognitive integration between a user and Internet resource, we then look at how and when the Internet extends our cognitive processes. We end this chapter with a discussion of distributed and collective cognition as facilitated by the Internet. (shrink)

The period from 1900 to 1935 was particularly fruitful and important for the development of logic and logical metatheory. This survey is organized along eight "itineraries" concentrating on historically and conceptually linked strands in this development. Itinerary I deals with the evolution of conceptions of axiomatics. Itinerary II centers on the logical work of Bertrand Russell. Itinerary III presents the development of set theory from Zermelo onward. Itinerary IV discusses the contributions of the algebra of logic tradition, in particular, Löwenheim (...) and Skolem. Itinerary V surveys the work in logic connected to the Hilbert school, and itinerary V deals specifically with consistency proofs and metamathematics, including the incompleteness theorems. Itinerary VII traces the development of intuitionistic and many-valued logics. Itinerary VIII surveys the development of semantical notions from the early work on axiomatics up to Tarski's work on truth. (shrink)

According to the orthodox treatment of risk preferences in decision theory, they are to be explained in terms of the agent's desires about concrete outcomes. The orthodoxy has been criticised both for conflating two types of attitudes and for committing agents to attitudes that do not seem rationally required. To avoid these problems, it has been suggested that an agent's attitudes to risk should be captured by a risk function that is independent of her utility and probability functions. The main (...) problem with that approach is that it suggests that attitudes to risk are wholly distinct from people's (non-instrumental) desires. To overcome this problem, we develop a framework where an agent's utility function is defined over chance propositions (i.e., propositions describing objective probability distributions) as well as ordinary (non-chance) ones, and argue that one should explain different risk attitudes in terms of different forms of the utility function over such propositions. (shrink)

Emotional states of consciousness, or what are typically called emotional feelings, are traditionally viewed as being innately programed in subcortical areas of the brain, and are often treated as different from cognitive states of consciousness, such as those related to the perception of external stimuli. We argue that conscious experiences, regardless of their content, arise from one system in the brain. On this view, what differs in emotional and non-emotional states is the kind of inputs that are processed by a (...) general cortical network of cognition, a network essential for conscious experiences. Although subcortical circuits are not directly responsible for conscious feelings, they provide non-conscious inputs that coalesce with other kinds of neural signals in the cognitive assembly of conscious emotional experiences. In building the case for this proposal, we defend a modified version of what is known as the higher-order theory of consciousness. (shrink)

David Rosenthal explains conscious mentality in terms of two independent, though complementary, theories—the higher-order thought (“HOT”) theory of consciousness and quality-space theory (“QST”) about mental qualities. It is natural to understand this combination of views as constituting a kind of representationalism about experience—that is, a version of the view that an experience’s conscious character is identical with certain of its representational properties. At times, however, Rosenthal seems to resist this characterization of his view. We explore here whether and to what (...) extent it makes sense to construe Rosenthal’s views as representationalist. Our goal is not merely terminological—discerning how best to use the expression ‘representationalism’. Rather, we argue that understanding Rosenthal’s account as a kind of representationalism permits us not only to make sense of broader debates within the philosophy of mind, but also to extend and clarify aspects of the view itself. (shrink)

Hannah Arendt's rich and varied political thought is more influential today than ever before, due in part to the collapse of communism and the need for ideas that move beyond the old ideologies of the Cold War. As Dana Villa shows, however, Arendt's thought is often poorly understood, both because of its complexity and because her fame has made it easy for critics to write about what she is reputed to have said rather than what she actually wrote. Villa sets (...) out to change that here, explaining clearly, carefully, and forcefully Arendt's major contributions to our understanding of politics, modernity, and the nature of political evil in our century.Villa begins by focusing on some of the most controversial aspects of Arendt's political thought. He shows that Arendt's famous idea of the banality of evil--inspired by the trial of Adolf Eichmann--does not, as some have maintained, lessen the guilt of war criminals by suggesting that they are mere cogs in a bureaucratic machine. He examines what she meant when she wrote that terror was the essence of totalitarianism, explaining that she believed Nazi and Soviet terror served above all to reinforce the totalitarian idea that humans are expendable units, subordinate to the all-determining laws of Nature or History. Villa clarifies the personal and philosophical relationship between Arendt and Heidegger, showing how her work drew on his thought while providing a firm repudiation of Heidegger's political idiocy under the Nazis. Less controversially, but as importantly, Villa also engages with Arendt's ideas about the relationship between political thought and political action. He explores her views about the roles of theatricality, philosophical reflection, and public-spiritedness in political life. And he explores what relationship, if any, Arendt saw between totalitarianism and the "great tradition" of Western political thought. Throughout, Villa shows how Arendt's ideas illuminate contemporary debates about the nature of modernity and democracy and how they deepen our understanding of philosophers ranging from Socrates and Plato to Habermas and Leo Strauss.Direct, lucid, and powerfully argued, this is a much-needed analysis of the central ideas of one of the most influential political theorists of the twentieth century. (shrink)

THE MIND-BODY PROBLEM: A GUIDE TO THE CURRENT DEBATE (EDITED BY RICHARD WARNER AND TA D E U S Z SZUBKA) contains recent essays by the key players in the the field of the Mind-Body problem: Searle, Fodor, Problem Honderich, Nagel, McGinn, Stich, Rorty and others. But there are a few interesting exceptions, for example Edelman, Popper, Putnam and Dennett. Nevertheless, these thinkers do get a mention here and there, and nearly all the exciting topical issues are dealt with, (...) including externalism, functionalism, intentionality, Turing computational models, and the relationship between these philosophical problems and psychology. I am particularly struck by the tendency to engage in an evasive stratagem when it comes to stating the physicalist thesis. Instead of a clear definitive position about what kind of physical science would achieve the hoped-for reduction, what I found was variations on Lewis's claim that the reduction would be effected by a "unified body of scientific theories of the sort we now accept". Materialism used to be a clear doctrine: a clockwork Universe of impenetrable particles. But materialism transcended itself. First through Hobbes' and Leibniz's criticisms of Descartes, then Newton's demolition of the Cartesian idea that matter was essentially extension by introducing gravity (action at a distance) and then through the field theories of Faraday and Maxwell, and more recently through Einstein's work, which undermined the "substance" view of matter, something that remained permanent while other changes occurred. I contrast the perspectives of the Churchlands with those of Donald T. Campbell, Karl Popper and other evolutionary and emergentist views. -/- . (shrink)

The writings of Joseph Henry Woodger (1894–1981) are often taken to exemplify everything that was wrongheaded, misguided, and just plain wrong with early twentieth-century philosophy of biology. Over the years, commentators have said of Woodger: (a) that he was a fervent logical empiricist who tried to impose the explanatory gold standards of physics onto biology, (b) that his philosophical work was completely disconnected from biological science, (c) that he possessed no scientific or philosophical credentials, and (d) that his work was (...) disparaged – if not altogether ignored – by the biologists and philosophers of his era. In this paper, we provide the first systematic examination of Woodger’s oeuvre, and use it to demonstrate that the four preceding claims are false. We argue that Woodger’s ideas have exerted an important influence on biology and philosophy, and submit that the current consensus on his legacy stems from a highly selective reading of his works. By rehabilitating Woodger, we hope to show that there is no good reason to continue to disregard the numerous contributions to the philosophy of biology produced in the decades prior to the professionalization of the discipline. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to assess the relationship between anti-physicalist arguments in the philosophy of mind and anti-naturalist arguments in metaethics, and to show how the literature on the mind-body problem can inform metaethics. Among the questions we will consider are: (1) whether a moral parallel of the knowledge argument can be constructed to create trouble for naturalists, (2) the relationship between such a "Moral Knowledge Argument" and the familiar Open Question Argument, and (3) how naturalists can respond (...) to the Moral Twin Earth argument. We will give particular attention to recent arguments in the philosophy of mind that aim to show that anti-physicalist arguments can be defused by acknowledging a distinctive kind of conceptual dualism between the phenomenal and the physical. This tactic for evading anti-physicalist arguments has come to be known as the Phenomenal Concept Strategy. We will propose a metaethical version of this strategy, which we shall call the `Moral Concept Strategy'. We suggest that the Moral Concept Strategy offers the most promising way out of these anti-naturalist arguments, though significant challenges remain. (shrink)

Researchers have converged on the idea that a pragmatic understanding of communication can shed important light on the evolution of language. Accordingly, animal communication scientists have been keen to adopt insights from pragmatics research. Some authors couple their appeal to pragmatic aspects of communication with the claim that there are fundamental asymmetries between signalers and receivers in non-human animals. For example, in the case of primate vocal calls, signalers are said to produce signals unintentionally and mindlessly, whereas receivers are thought (...) to engage in contextual interpretation to derive the significance of signals. We argue that claims about signaler-receiver asymmetries are often confused. This is partly because their authors conflate two conceptions of pragmatics, which generate different accounts of the explanatory target for accounts of the evolution of language. Here we distinguish these conceptions, in order to help specify more precisely the proper explanatory target for language evolution research. (shrink)

After a number of decades of research into the dynamics of rational belief, the belief revision theory community remains split on the appropriate handling of sequences of changes in view, the issue of so-called iterated revision. It has long been suggested that the matter is at least partly settled by facts pertaining to the results of various single revisions of one’s initial state of belief. Recent work has pushed this thesis further, offering various strong principles that ultimately result in a (...) wholesale reduction of iterated to one-shot revision. The present paper offers grounds to hold that these principles should be significantly weakened and that the reductionist thesis should ultimately be rejected. Furthermore, the considerations provided suggest a close connection between the logic of iterated belief change and the logic of evidential relevance. (shrink)

It is proposed that our memory is made up of individual, unconnected Records, to each of which is attached a Heading. Retrieval of a Record can only be accomplished by addressing the attached Heading, the contents of which cannot itself be retrieved. Each Heading is made up of a mixture of content in more or less literal form and context, the latter including specification of environment and of internal states (e.g. drug states and mood). This view of memory allows an (...) easy account of a number of natural memory phenomena as well as a variety of laboratory findings such as the differences between recall and recognition. The theory further proposes that Headed Records can neither be deleted nor modified. Data apparently against such a hypothesis can be accounted for in terms of the retrieval process. (shrink)

Hilbert's ε-calculus is based on an extension of the language of predicate logic by a term-forming operator εx. Two fundamental results about the ε-calculus, the first and second epsilon theorem, play a rôle similar to that which the cut-elimination theorem plays in sequent calculus. In particular, Herbrand's Theorem is a consequence of the epsilon theorems. The paper investigates the epsilon theorems and the complexity of the elimination procedure underlying their proof, as well as the length of Herbrand disjunctions of existential (...) theorems obtained by this elimination procedure. (shrink)

Endurantists have recently faced a mereological puzzle in various forms. Here I argue that, instead of presenting a genuine worry, the puzzle actually reveals a common misunderstanding about the endurantist ontology. Furthermore, through this discussion of the alleged problem and the misunderstanding which motivates it, I reveal metaphysical commitments the endurantist has that may not be widely recognized. For instance, she is committed to interesting and perhaps controversial views about shape and location. I highlight these commitments and what they mean (...) for the endurantist. (shrink)

In this paper, we contend that the psychology of addiction is similar to the psychology of ordinary, non-addictive temptation in important respects, and explore the ways in which these parallels can illuminate both addiction and ordinary action. The incentive salience account of addiction proposed by Robinson and Berridge (1993; 2001; 2008) entails that addictive desires are not in their nature different from many of the desires had by non-addicts; what is different is rather the way that addictive desires are acquired, (...) which in turn affects their strength. We examine these “incentive salience” desires, both in addicts and non-addicts, contrasting them with more cognitive desires. On this account, the self-control challenge faced by addicted agents is not different in kind from that faced by non-addicted agents – though the two may, of course, differ greatly in degree of difficulty. We explore a general model of self-control for both the addict and the non-addict, stressing that self-control may be employed at three different stages, and examining the ways in which it might be strengthened. This helps elucidate a general model of intentional action. (shrink)

Recent discussions among lawyers, philosophers, policy researchers and athletes have focused on the potential threat to privacy posed by the World Anti-Doping Agency’s (WADA) whereabouts requirements. These requirements demand, among other things, that all elite athletes file their whereabouts information for the subsequent quarter on a quarterly basis and comprise data for one hour of each day when the athlete will be available and accessible for no advance notice testing at a specified location of their choosing. Failure to file one’s (...) whereabouts, or the non-availability for testing at said location on three occasions within any 18-month period constitutes an anti-doping rule violation that is equivalent to testing positive to a banned substance, and may lead to a suspension of the athlete for a time period of between one and two years. We critically explore the extent to which WADA’s whereabouts requirements are in tension with existing legislation on privacy, with respect to UK athletes, who are simultaneously protected by UK domestic and EU law. Both UK domestic and EU law are subject to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) Article 8, which establishes a right to “respect for private and family life, home and correspondence”. We critically discuss the centrality of the whereabouts requirements in relation to WADA’s aims, and the adoption and implementation of its whereabouts rules. We conclude that as WADA’s whereabouts requirements appear to be in breach of an elite athlete’s rights under European workers’ rights, health & safety and data protection law they are also, therefore, in conflict with Article 8 of the ECHR and the UK Human Rights Act 1998. We call for specific amendments that cater for the exceptional case of elite sports labour if the WADA requirements are to be considered legitimate. (shrink)

Entailment in propositional Gödel logics can be defined in a natural way. While all infinite sets of truth values yield the same sets of tautologies, the entailment relations differ. It is shown that there is a rich structure of infinite-valued Gödel logics, only one of which is compact. It is also shown that the compact infinite-valued Gödel logic is the only one which interpolates, and the only one with an r.e. entailment relation.

Mereological challenges have recently been raised against the endurantist. For instance, Barker and Dowe (2003) have argued that eternalist endurantism entails (1) persisting objects are both 3D and 4D, and that (2) the lives of persisting objects last longer than they actually do. They also argue that presentist endurantism also entails, albeit in a tensed way, that (3) the lives of persisting objects last longer than they actually do. While they’ve further argued (2005) that the objections raised by McDaniel (2003) (...) and Beebee and Rush (2003) fail, here I show that such objections are tenable without requiring further significant metaphysical commitments; I argue that such endurantist defences are tenable, contra to prior analyses. (shrink)

In the domain of ontology design as well as in Knowledge Representation, modeling universals is a challenging problem.Most approaches that have addressed this problem rely on Description Logics (DLs) but many difficulties remain, due to under-constrained representation which reduces the inferences that can be drawn and further causes problems in expressiveness. In mathematical logic and program checking, type theories have proved to be appealing but, so far they have not been applied in the formalization of ontologies. To bridge this gap, (...) we present in this paper a theory for representing ontologies in a dependently typed framework which relies on strong formal foundations including both a constructive logic and a functional type system. The language of this theory defines in a precise way what ontological primitives such as classes, relations, properties, etc., and thereof roles, are. The first part of the paper details how these primitives are defined and used within the theory. In a second part, we focus on the formalization of the role primitive. A review of significant role properties leads to the specification of a role profile and most of the remaining work details through numerous examples, how the proposed theory is able to fully satisfy this profile. It is demonstrated that dependent types can model several non-trivial aspects of roles including a formal solution for generalization hierarchies, identity criteria for roles and other contributions. A discussion is given on how the theory is able to cope with many of the constraints inherent in a good role representation. (shrink)

Aims: The Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandi¬bular Disorders (RDC/TMD) Axis I diagnostic algorithms were demonstrated to be reliable but below target sensitivity and specificity. Empirical data supported Axis I algorithm revisions that were valid. Axis II instruments were shown to be both reliable and valid. An international consensus workshop was convened to obtain recommendations and finalization of new Axis I diagnostic algorithms and new Axis II instruments. Methods: A comprehensive search of published TMD diagnostic literature was followed by review and (...) consensus via a formal structured process by a panel of experts for revision of the RDC/TMD. Results: The recommended Diagnostic Criteria for TMD (DC/TMD) Axis I protocol includes both a valid screener for pain diagnoses and valid criteria for the most common pain-related TMDs and for one intra-articular disorder. The Axis II protocol retains selected RDC/TMD screening instruments augmented with new instruments to better assess the interactions between pain and psychosocial functioning. A comprehensive classification system is also presented. Conclusion: The recommended evidence-based DC/TMD protocol is appropriate for use in both the clinical and research settings. Simple Axis I and II screening tests augmented by validated Axis I and Axis II instruments allow for identification of simple to complex TMD patients. (shrink)

Ethical issues of information and communication technologies (ICTs) are important because they can have significant effects on human liberty, happiness, their ability to lead a good life. They are also of functional interest because they can determine whether technologies are used and whether their positive potential can unfold. For these reasons policy makers are interested in finding out what these issues are and how they can be addressed. The best way of creating ICT policy that is sensitive to ethical issues (...) would be to be proactive and address such issues at early stages of the technology life cycle. The present paper uses this position as a starting point and discusses how knowledge of ethical aspects of emerging ICTs can be gained. It develops a methodology that goes beyond established futures methodologies to cater for the difficult nature of ethical issues. The paper goes on to outline some of the preliminary findings of a European research project that has applied this method. (shrink)

"Richard Burthogge's Conceptualism and Its Origins in the Medieval Perspectivist Optics" The paper aims to analyse the historical determinants of the conceptualist argument for epistemological idealism made by the seventeenth-century English philosopher Richard Burthogge. The crux of this argument, unprecedented in earlier philosophy, is an attempt to prove the inherent inadequacy of human cognition from the divergence between the general concepts and the extra-mental singulars. At the same time, Burthogge considers the relationship between the universal and the particular (...) to be analogous to the relation between the visual image and the thing. I argue that, as suggested by certain significant aspects of Burthogge’s theory, it was medieval perspectivist optics that had decisively influenced the conception of visual cognition, which provided the basis for this analogy and, consequently, for the conceptualist argument itself. (shrink)

Péter Pázmány taught philosophy at the Jesuit university of Graz, end of 16th century. This analyzes his interpretation of Aristotelian psychology.

L'America e il mondo sono in procinto di collassare a causa dell'eccessiva crescita demografica, la maggior parte per il secolo scorso, e ora tutto questo, a causa della gente del terzo mondo. Il consumo di risorse e l'aggiunta di altri 4 miliardi di ca. 2100 crolleranno la civiltà industriale e porterà alla fame, alle malattie, alla violenza e alla guerra su scala impressionante. La terra perde almeno l'1% del suo suolo superiore ogni anno, così come si avvicina a 2100, la (...) maggior parte della sua capacità di coltivazione alimentare sarà andato. Miliardi moriranno e la guerra nucleare è tutt'altro che certa. In America, questo è stato enormemente accelerato dalla massiccia immigrazione e dalla riproduzione degli immigrati, unite agli abusi resi possibili dalla democrazia. La natura umana depravata trasforma inesorabilmente il sogno della democrazia e della diversità in un incubo di criminalità e povertà. La Cina continuerà a travolgere l'America e il mondo, finché manterrà la dittatura che limita l'egoismo. La causa principale del collasso è l'incapacità della nostra psicologia innata di adattarsi al mondo moderno, che porta le persone a trattare le persone non correlate come se avessero interessi comuni. L'idea dei diritti umani è una fantasia malvagia promossa dalla sinistra per distogliere l'attenzione dalla spietata distruzione della terra da parte della sfrenata maternità del terzo mondo. Questo, oltre all'ignoranza della biologia e della psicologia di base, porta alle illusioni di ingegneria sociale dei parzialmente istruiti che controllano le società democratiche. Pochi capiscono che se aiuti una persona che fai del male a qualcun altro, non c'è pranzo gratuito e ogni singolo oggetto che qualcuno consuma distrugge la terra in modo irreparabile. Di conseguenza, le politiche sociali ovunque sono insostenibili e una dopo l'altra tutte le società senza rigorosi controlli sull'egoismo crolleranno nell'anarchia o nella dittatura. I fatti più basilari, quasi mai menzionati, sono che non ci sono abbastanza risorse in America o nel mondo per sollevare una percentuale significativa dei poveri dalla povertà e tenerli lì. Il tentativo di farlo sta mandando in bancarotta l'America e distruggendo il mondo. La capacità della terra di produrre cibo diminuisce ogni giorno, così come la nostra qualità genetica. E ora, come sempre, di gran lunga il più grande nemico dei poveri sono gli altri poveri e non i ricchi. Senza cambiamenti drammatici e immediati, non c'è speranza di prevenire il crollo dell'America, o di qualsiasi paese che segua un sistema democratico. (shrink)